Causes of Changes in Word Meaning
2018年10月高等教育自学考试《英语词汇学》试题
2018年10月高等教育自学考试《英语词汇学》试题2018年10月高等教育自学考试《英语词汇学》试题课程代码：00832I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that best completes the statement and blacken the corresponding letter A, B, C or D on the ANSWER SHEET. One point is given to each correct choice. (1% X 30 = 30% )1. Which of the following can NOT be defined as a word?A. manB. forC. mentD. blackmail2. The differences between sound and form are NOT due toA. innovations made by linguistsB. stabilization of spelling by printingC. influence of the work of scribesD. the fact of more phonemes than letters in English3. Words may fall into native words and borrowed words byA. notionB. originC. functionD. use frequency4. means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.A. BorrowingB. CreationC. Semantic changeD. Loaning5. The language used between 1150 and 1500 is calledEnglish.A. OldB. MiddleC. ContemporaryD. Modern6. In Middle English vocabulary, we can find words relating to every aspect of human society, e.g. government, law, food, fashion and so on. Which of the following words does NOT belong to them?A. wechatB. baconC. judgeD. power7. Structurally, many words can be separated into even smaller meaningful units. For example, denaturalization can be broken down intoA. de-, natura-, lize-, ationB. dena-, ture, al-, lize, ationC. de-, nature, al, ize, ationD. de-, natu, real, ize, ation8. The morpheme of plurality/-s/is pronounced as/s/in cats,/z/in bags, and/iz/in matches. This example showsA. morphemes are abstract unitsB. allomorphs are phonetically conditioned and thus predictableC. morphs are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaningD. monomorphemic words coincide with words and function freely in a sentence9. Which of the following words is the example of free morphemes?A. menB. teethC. workerD. anger10. The following words have prefixes of time or order EXCEPTA. bilingualB. ex-studentC. foretellD. post-election11..4 green hand is an "inexperienced person", not a hand that is green in color. This exampleshows that compounds are different from free phrases in feature.A. phoneticB. semanticC. grammaticalD. lexical12. Omnibus has given way to its shortened form bus. This is the example of in word formation.A. acronymyB. clippingC. compoundingD. conversion13. , which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.A. ReferenceB. MotivationC. SenseD. Concept14. The following words are onomatopoetically motivated EXCEPTA. blowB. quackC. miaowD. hiss15. The meanings of many words often relate directly to their origins. In this sense, words havemotivation.A. onomatopoeicB. morphologicalC. semanticD. etymological16. From a synchronic point of view, the basic meaning of a word is theA. primary meaningB. derived meaningC. central meaningD. secondary meaning17. Which of the following is NOT the derived meaning of the word face?A. The front of the head.B. Outward aspect.C. A surface of a thing.D. The expression of the countenance.18. Which of the following pairs are absolute synonyms?A. large/tremendousB. stagger/reelC. alter/varyD. scarlet-fever/scarlatina19. The process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized is of word-meaning.A. transferB. elevationC. narrowingD. extension20. reason is reflected in the meaning change of the word computer, from "a person who computes" to "electronic machine".A. ClassB. HistoricalC. ScientificD. Psychological21. Which of the following is the internal factor within the language system that causes changes in word-meaning?A. AnalogyB. ContrastC. Historical reasonD. Psychological need22. As most words have more than one meaning, it is often impossible to tell the meaning of a word before it is used inA. contextB. textsC. conversationD. writing23. That the word do means differently in "do a city", "do a sum" and "do the flowers" shows that context affects the meaning of words.A. extra-linguisticB. grammaticalC. lexicalD. semantic24. Which of the following is NOT the role of context?A. Elimination of ambiguity.B. Indication of referents.C. Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning.D. Simplification of meaning.25. Which of the following is a true idiom?A. make friends withB. break silenceC. in the rawD. turn over a new leaf26. Among the following idioms," "is an idiom adverbial in nature.A. flesh and bloodB. up in the airC. as poor as a church mouseD. tooth and nail27. All of the following are stylistic features EXCEPTA. colloquialismsB. slangC. literary expressionsD. rhymes28. In the headword or entries are defined and illustrated in the same language.A. monolingual dictionariesB. bilingual dictionariesC. linguistic dictionariesD. encyclopedia dictionaries29. Usage notes and language notes in a dictionary explain the following EXCEPTA. important British and American differencesB. difficult points of grammar and styleC. information concerning the origins of wordsD. the slight differences between words of similar meanings30. The following are some unique features of Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary EXCEPTA. definitionB. extra columnC. usage examplesD. clear grammarII. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book. (1.5% × 10 = 15%)31. It is generally agreed that the written form of a natural language is the written record of theform.32. After the Romans, the Germanic tribes called Angles, Saxons, and Jutes came and dominated the British Isles. Now people generally refer to Anglo-Saxon as English.33. Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are morphemes.34. Comic means "of comedy", while comical means "funny". This example shows that both-ic and -ical can be affixed to the same stem, but differ in35. The sense of an expression is its place in a system of relationship with other expressions in the language.36. Words like bear which means both "a large heavy animal" and "to put up with" are called37. The process by which the word wife used to mean"woman" but now means "a married woman" is of word-meaning.38. Linguistic context includes context, where the meanings of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs.39. Unlike free phrases, the structure of an idiom is to a large extent , as is shown in the idiom "in a brown study", which cannot be changed into "in a brown hall".40. For beginners, and elementary and lower-intermediate learners, a dictionary is essential as they do not know enough of the target language to understand fully a monolingual dictionary.III. Define the following terms with one or two sentences. (3% × 5 = 15%)41. borrowed words42. stem43. associative meaning44. degradation45. dismembering (of idioms)IV. Answer the following questions. Your answers should be clear and short. (5% × 4 = 20%)46. What are the three main sources of new words in Present-day English?47. In what way are the underlined words formed in the following sentences?1) He wolfed down his lunch.2) There is no milk in the fridge.3) The headmaster is an easy-going man.4) You have to show your ID before checking in the hotel.5) I promised to babysit for my neighbor this weekend.48. What are the types of antonyms? Explain the types of antonyms with the following example words: sell/buy, same/different, old/young.49. How are context clues used in the sentence "The village had most of the usual amenities: a pub, a library, a post office, a village hall, a medical centre, and a school."?V. Analyze and comment on the following. (10% × 2 = 20%)50. 1) nickname n.→to nickname2) bottle-feeding n.→to bottle-feedUse the above examples to discuss in what way compound verbs are generally formed?51. Illustrate the differences between synonyms by analyzing the following groups of synonyms.1) rich and wealthy2) ask, beg and request3) allow and let。
Factors in the Change of English Word Meaning
Factors in the Change of English Word Meaning作者：王晓素来源：《新农村》2011年第13期Abstract： In the learning of English Lexicology, we find that there are some changes in the meaning of English words. Word meaning is significant in English learning, and this paper is going to explore the factors in the change of English word meaning.Key Words：changefactormeaningWhen a word loses its old meaning and comes to refer to something different, the result is a change in word meaning. For instance, the word villain is originally neutral referring to a farmer working on the farm or in the suburbs. However, villain in current English means a scoundrel. Change of meaning refers to the alternation of the meaning of existing words, as well as the addition of new meaning to a particular word. The change is formed in the way of extension, narrowing, elevation and degradation of meaning.There are several factors that can cause possible changes of meaning. Mostly, they are extra-linguistic factors and linguistic factors.Ⅰ.Extra-linguistic factorsExtra-linguistic factors make up of historical reason, social reason psychological reason, and cultural blending.i.Historical reasonIn the old English the word pen was written as penn from the Latin word penna, which means the writing tool made by feather. However, with the development of technology, pen now means golden pen, iridium fountain pen and fountain pen, which have nothing to do with feather.ii.Social reason or class reasonLanguage records the speech and attitude of different social classes, so different social varieties of language have come into being. The attitude of classes has penetrated into lexical meaning, particularly in the case of elevation and degradation. Quite a number of words that denote different sorts of working people or their occupations have taken on a pejorative sense. Churl and hussy which were originally neutral have been down-graded as “ill-manned or bad people”.iii.Psychological reasonThe associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words is often due to psychological factors. People change word meaning owing to various psychological motives: love, respect, courtesy, suspicion, pessimism, sarcasm, irony, contempt, hatred, avoidance of embarrassment, etc. Let's see the expression of death. It is too straightforward to say directly that someone has died. Instead, we can use some euphemisms such as to go west, to be deceased in the formal English and to be no more in the spoken English. The euphemism "culturally deprived environment" is often used in place of "slum".iiii.Cultural blendingWith the development of economy and policy, the earth is becoming smaller and smaller and here comes the cultural blending. Education has been applying itself to teach us to respect the differences between cultures and expand the similarities we share. Different cultures are blending in the process of communication. The words like Kong fu, mahjong, tofu and typhoon from Chinese have been an important part of English. Besides, Latin, Scandinavian language, French and Greek also have influences on English.Ⅱ.Linguistic factorsThe change of meaning may be caused by the internal factors within the language system, i.e. linguistic factors.i.EllipsisThe meaning of a word may change when a phrase is shortened to one word which retains the meaning of the whole. This is called ellipsis. The meaning of the word “gold” has changed from material to refer to the whole phrase “gold medal”. "A general" comes from "a general officer". This kind of change often occurs in habitual collocations.ii.AnalogyIf an adjective develops a new meaning, the derived noun from the adjective will have a corresponding new meaning by analogy. The process can be applied to a word of any word class. The word diplomatic originally means relating to or involving the work of diplomats and its noun diplomacy means the job or activity of managing the relationships between countries. At present, diplomatic has its new meaning "dealing with people politely and skillfully without upsetting them" while diplomacy means "skill in dealing with people without upsetting them".iii.Figurative use of wordsChange in word meaning may result from the figurative use of the language. Metaphor and metonymy are two important figures of speech. "The foot of the mountain" metaphorically means the bottom of the mountain. "White House" metonymically refers to the U.S. Government.In conclusion, change of word meaning is related to the environment in many ways. It is developing with the pace of times. To learn the factors of the change of English word meaning is animportant part to learn English. In the process, we learn to analyze the root causes of change. After the learning of regularity of word meaning change, we can memorize English words more easily. Above all, we can learn gradually to use words appropriately and speak in a tasteful manner avoiding embarrassment.Reference：[1] 张维友,华先发. 论英语词义的演变[J]. 华中师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 1988,(06).[2] 肖志兰. 英语中的词义变化及其理解[J]. 同济大学学报(社会科学版), 2001,(06).。
《英语词汇学》串讲笔记3
Chapter 7Changes in Word Meaning一、【考情分析】本章主要考核的知识点为：词义变化的种类，词义变化的原因。
通过对本章的学习考生应该了解词义变化的必然性，词义变化的主要方式和原因。
在历年考试中：常常以选择题，填空题，搭配题和名词解释题的形式对本章知识点进行考核。
二、【知识串讲】重点知识锦集：1. Extension(词义扩大) of meaning is also known as generalization.2. Narrowing of meaning is also called specialization.3. Of the modes of word-meaning change, extension and narrowing are by far the most common.4. Degradation（降格）or pejoration of meaning is the opposite of semantic elevation.5. The degraded meaning “sexual desire ”of the word “lust ”comes from its old meaning “ pleasure”.6. The name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo is extension.7. There are generally two major factors that cause changes in meaning: Extra-linguistic Factors and Linguistic Factors.（非语言因素和语言因素）8. The attitudes of classes have made inroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or degradation.9. The changes of meaning may be caused by internal factors within the Language system.10. The meanings of “lip”and “tongue”in “the lip of a wound”and “the tongue of a bell”have experienced associated transfer.（联想转移）11. The so-called “King’s English”serves as a class reason（阶级原因）in word-meaning change.12. The change of word-meaning is brought about by following internal factors: the influx of borrowing, shortening, analogy.13. Generalization is a process by which a word that originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.14. The four major modes of semantic change are: extension（扩大）, narrowing（缩小）, elevation （升华）and degradation（降格）.名词解释：1.extension（词义的扩大）: It is a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized. In other words,the term has extended to cover a broader and often less definite concept.2.narrowing（词义的缩小）: it is the opposite of widening meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. In other words, a word which used to have a more general meaning becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-day English.3.elevation（升华）: Elevation or amelioration refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance.4. degradation（降格）: Degradation or pejoration of meaning is the opposite of semantic elevation. It’s a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense.5. transfer（转移）: Words which were used to designate one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.论述问答题：1.What are the linguistic factors(语言因素) that have caused the changing of meaning? Try to explain it.答：Linguistic Factors that have caused the changing of meaning cover four:1) One type of such change occurs when a phrase is shortened to one word which retains the meaning of the whole。
Changes in word meaningPPT课件
undertaker: from ‘an influential person in
the 17th century England who undertook to
procure particular legislation, especially to
obtain supplies from House of Commons if
the king would grant some concession” to
‘one whose businessangements for funerals’
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Semantic Changes from the Literal Use of Words to Their Figurative Use
Archaisms are also called obsolete words, which are not used now except for special purposes.
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The reasons for the disappearance of words could be: *the thing that the word denotes has disappeared *the existence of synonyms * the collision of two homonyms
A word falls into disrepute because of
social prejudice against certain classes
and occupations
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A word becomes less respectable because of euphemism:
词汇学问题
英语词汇学问题库（一）C1 A General Survey to English V ocabulary1。
What is lexicology？2。
What is the nature and scope of English Lexicology？3。
What subjects is English Lexicology correlated with？And to what extent?4。
Why should a student of English study English Lexicology？5. What is a word?6. What are the reasons of more and more inconsistances between sound and form..7. What is vocabulary？8。
What are the three stages of development of the English vocabulary?9. Illustrate the relationship between sound and meaning with examples。
10。
What are the three main criteria for the classification of English words？11。
What is a common word（通用词, literary word(文学词）colloquial word（口语词）,slang word（俚语词）jargon（行话）, argot（黑话）, neologism（新词语)? Give examples。
12。
What is hybrid（混种词）？13. How do you account for the role of native words in English in relation to loan—words?14。
Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning
Types of Changes (词义变化的种类)
Causes of Semantic Change(词义变化的原因)
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（1） Types of Changes (词义变化的种类)
1.Extension /generalization(词义的扩大): is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.(e.g: manuscript, fabulous, picture, mill, journal, bonfire, butcher, companion) 2.Narrowing/ specialization(词义的缩小)：is the opposite of widening meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. In other words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-day English.(e.g: deer, corn, garage, liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife, accident, girl). [ when a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly. ]
8英语词汇学第八章 语义变化.
• 1. types of semantic change
A. generalization (extension) 词义扩展
B. specialization(narrowing/restriction shrinking）词义缩小 C. elevation（amelioration)词义升格
D. pejoration(degeneration)
• D. pejoration/
degeneration degradation /deterioration
--a process by which words once had respectable or neutral meaning shifted to less respectable, or even derogatory meaning. sly/ craft / art/cunning/（有学问的） villain/ boor/churl 种田人 mistress • terrific vast 勾当 小姐
• 1.The little boy was a terror to his neighbor. • 2.The travelers can not speak the tongue of the country. • 3.The child who can play the piano at the age of two is a phenomenon.
• ( 词义的转移 semantic shift)
• a. He was allowed to leapfrog the
long line. • c. She has a sea of trouble. • e. U.S influence nosedived in Africa.
词汇学 重点
Questions( 简答+例子)1.The fundamental features of the basic word stock of the English vocabulary (1). National character(全民通用性)：Words of the basic word stock belong to the people as a whole, not to a limited group.(2). Stability（稳定性）:As words in the basic word stock denote the commonest things necessary to life, they are likely to remain unchanged. However, a certain number of Old English words have dropped out of the basic word stock, while new words have joined the rank of basic words, following social and technological changes.(3). Word-forming ability(构词)：Basic words are very active in forming new words.(4). Ability to form collocations（搭配能力）：Basic words combine readily with other words to form habitual expressions and phrases.Since the great majority of the basic word stock are native words, they are naturally the ones used most frequently in everyday speech and writing.2.WHY Native words are the core of the English vocabularyFirst, because the native words are form the great majority of the basic word stock of the English language. And the basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over a number of epochs.Second, they make up the most familiar, most useful part of the English vocabulary. So we say that native words are the core of the English vocabulary for its importance.3.Causes for changes in the meanings of words①historical cause. One meaning has changed because the object it denoted has changed. For example, “pencil” is from Latin word meaning “a little tail” or a fine brush”, like our Chinese “pen”(毛笔）. Later ,when it was made of wood and graphite, it was still called a “pencil”.②Social cause. Change in word meaning resulting from a constant verbal traffic between common words and various technical words is referred to as social cause of semantic change. For example, the word “allergic” means “being unusually sensitive to the action of particular foods, pollens, insect-bites, etc.” But when used as a popular word, it means “having a dislike; unable to get on well with”, as in “I am allergic to hypocrites”.③Foreign influences. The influence of foreign words has caused change of words’meanings. Sometimes a Saxon word which had a general sense has been replaced by a French word or a Latin derivative, but the original word has survived with a restricted meaning. Thus the Saxon word “doer”(=deer) meant a wild animal of any sort from a lion to a mouse.④Linguistic cause. It includes two tendencies, towards ellipsis and towards analogy. Ellipsis often occurs in habitual collocations, such as adj+n, in which the first element is left. For example, private come to be used as a noun denoting “a soldier of the lowest rank”. Because at first it is “private soldier”; The analogical tendencypoints out that new meanings developed in one part of speech are passed on to other parts of speech from the same lexical base. For instance, diplomatic means firstly “skillful in managing international relations,”had by 1862 developed the sense of “tactful in the management of relations of any kind.” Then this new meaning had been passed on the noun diplomacy.⑤Psychological cause. 1. euphemism.委婉Use mild words to describe an unpleasant fact. “pass away””to breathe one’s last”-”death”; “to go to the toilet”-”urinate” 2. grandiloquence. 美化Use long, important-sounding words for effect. “custodian”-”janitor”“landscape architect” 3. cynicism讽刺desire to sneer and to be sarcastic. Pious may mean “hypocritically virtuous”in addition to its primary meaning “having, showing deep devotion to religion”. Fanatic, “unreasonable enthusiastic, almost approaching to madness”.4.The major differences between American English and British English①pronunciation. The chief difference lie in the vowel sounds, which are shown in the attached table. Ate/et/ in British English, but /eit/ in American English. So as stress. ‘Address in British English, ad’dress in American English.②spelling. The American variant if simpler than its English counterpart. Colour-color, centre-center, aesthetic-esthetic③grammar. British English commonly adds should to the subordinate clause while the American English not. And there are differences in prepositions, aim to, aim at....④vocabulary. Words without counterparts. Same words, different meanings. Bill in America means bank note, but means a demand for payment of a debt in Britain. Common ideas, different words. Alumnus in America means graduate in Britain.5.The role of context in determination of word meaning①Eliminating ambiguities which result from polysemy and hyponymy. He tipped the chess-board, dumping the men( a playing piece used in chess) to the floor.②Conveying emotional overtones. The sentence “You’ve got us into a nice(bad) mess.”, is ironic and acquires an unfavorable sense.③Indicating referents and the range of the meaning of a word. Betty told Mary that Alice was angry. She said it secretly. But she didn’t believe her. But she wasn’t angry. Without the context, we don’t know who she is. Another example, Man is mortal. We know the man infers the whole of mankind.6.The major sources of English idiomsTen sources:(1) From everyday life: to make ends meet(2) Agricultural life: to go to seed(3) Nautical and military life: in the same boat(4) business life: come under the hammer(5) student life: read between the line(6) food and drinking: keep the pot boiling(7) sports and card-playing: keep the ball rolling(8) Bible: thorn in the flesh(9) Shakespeare’s play: give the Devil his due公开对待(10) fables, myths, and legends: sour grapes7.The causes for the rapid growth of neologisms after world war II① marked progress of science and technology. Example: to blast off(炸掉，炸毁) ,to countdown ,capsule,launching pad②socio-economic（社会经济）, political and cultural changes. Example: roller-hockey , surfriding, skydiving（跳伞运动）, disignated hitter③the influence from other cultures and languages. Example: cosmonaut , discotheque（小舞厅，迪斯科舞厅）, ombudsman（调查官员舞弊情况的政府官员）, apartheid（种族隔离）.Differences between A and B1. A. inflectional affixes B. derivational affixesInflectional affixes have only their particular grammatical meaning, as with the plural morpheme -s and the past tense morpheme -ed. But derivational affixes are added to another morpheme and “derive” a new word. Re+write, mini+car...2. A. restriction of meaning (specialization)B.extension of meaning (generalization)The former means a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower, specialized sense which is applicable to only one of the objects it had previously denoted. Meat: food, especially solid food, as distinguished form drink.-the flesh of animals used as food, excluding fish and birds. The latter means the widening of a word’s sense until it covers much more than what it originally conveyed. Bird from old English means a young bird, but now it means general term for feathered creatures with two legs and two wings, usu. able to fly.3. A. clipping B. blendingClipping involves the deletion of one or more syllables from a word. Ad= advertisement, auto= automobile, champ= champion. Blending involves a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms. Smog= smoke+ fog. Medicare= medical+ care.4. A. free morphemes B. bound morphemesFree morphemes: These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. E.g., man, earth, wind, car, anger.Bound morphemes: These morphemes cannot occur as separate words and theyare bound to other morphemes to form words. -s, -ed, re-5. A. initialisms B. acronymsInitialisms is a type of shortening, using the first letter of words to form a proper name, or a phrase, which is pronounced letter by letter, BBC, CNN. But acronyms are words formed from the initial letter of name of an organization or a scientific term. They are pronounced as words rather than as sequences of letter. TOEFL...7. A. polysemy B. homonymyMore than one meaning is attached to a word is polysemy, .run.. two or more words may have the same form but be different in meaning is homonymy. (i)8. A. common words B. literary words(1) Common or popular words are words connected with the ordinary things or activities necessary to everyday life. The great majority of English words are common words . The core of the common words is the basic word stock. They are stylistically (在文体上) neutral , and hence they are appropriate in both formal and informal writing and speech.(2) Literary words are chiefly used in writing, especially in books written in a more elevated（升高的，提高的，崇高的）style, in official documents, or in formal speeches. They are comparatively seldom used in ordinary conversation.9. A. archaic words B. poetic wordsArchaic words are words no longer in common use, which are employed in poetry, business letters, legal documents, religious speeches, and prose. Abed, in bed, behold, see....But poetic words are traditional words, used only in poems. The deep, the sea, betwixt, between. Some words are both archaic words and poetic words.10. A. root B. stemRoot is a form which is not further analyzable , either in terms of derivational or inflectional morphology. Desire.. a Stem is of concern only when dealing with inflectional morphology. It is part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed. Undesirables desire- undesirableTerms1. hyponymy: relationship which obtains between specific and general lexical items, such that the former is “included” in the latter.2. morpheme: is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms.3. function words: are often short words such as determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliaries, and so forth. They do not have much lexical meaning and some of them have no lexical meaning of their own. They serve grammatically more than anything else.4. allomorph: is any of the variants forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.5. compounding: a word-formation process consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a compound word.6. derivation:a word-formation process by which new words are created by adding a prefix, or suffix, or both, to the base.7. back-formation: a term used to refer to a type of word-formation by which a shorter words is coined by the deletion of a supposed affix from a longer form already present in the language.8. root: is a basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word.9. homograph: words identical in spelling but different in sound and meaning.10. homophone: words identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning.自行整理，如有错误，请指出！。
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Saxon word
doer=(deer) Original a wild animal of any sort from a ldle Ages(约公元476年~公元1453年), the French word beste (=beast野兽) became the general word. In 16th century(Shakespeare's time.1564-1616), the Latin word animal was also adopted into the English vocabulary. Today deer can only refer to a particular kind of animal（此处特指 鹿）.
2014-3-23
盎格鲁-撒克逊人指的不是一个民族，通常 是指公元五世纪初到1066年诺曼征服之间 生活在大不列颠岛东部和南部地区的文化 习俗上相近的一些民族。他们使用非常相 近的日耳曼方言。
2014-3-23
Borrowing
– The influx (流入) of borrowings has caused some words to change in meaning.
2014-3-23 5
The native word stool originally meant any kind of seat for one person, and could be used for a king’s seat. It got it's present humble(粗陋) meaning because the French word chair was adopted to denote(表示) a more comfortable piece of furniture.
2014-3-23
第二段顺数第三排，看着书
2014-3-23
• Bitch is a word with solidly Germanic origins that would have carried it into the earliest forms of Old English that arrived more than 1500 years ago in Britain with the AngloSaxon invaders（入侵者）.
Foreign influences
A particularly important cause of change of meaning in words has been the influence of foreign words.
2014-3-23
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Anglo-Saxon(400-1066) The Old English period(450-1150) The Norman Conquest(450-800) The Middle Ages(476-1453) The Old Norse古斯堪的那维亚语(800-900) Shakespeare's time(1564-1616)