2012国关大三下考试资料

一1、SaussureSwiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure——“father of modern linguistics”and”a master of a discipline which he made modern” (现代语言学之父和是语言学科走上现代的大师) Saussure believed that language is a system of signs. This sign is the union of a form and a idea, which Saussure called the signifier(能指) and the signified (所指).His ideas on the arbitrary nature of sign, on the relational nature of linguistic units, on the distinction of langue(语言)and parole(言语) and synchronic(共时) and diachronic (历时)linguistics，etc, pushed linguistics into a brand new stage.(索绪尔认为，语言是一套符号系统。

这里所谓的符号，就是形式和意义的结合，索绪尔称之为能指和所指。

他的关于符号任意性理论，关于语言学单位之间的关系的论述以及关于语言和言语的区分、共时和历时的区分等，都推动语言学进入一个崭新的时期)Cours de linguistique generale (普通语言学教程)二、London SchoolFirth was influenced by the anthropologist B.Malinowski(马林诺夫斯基). In turn, he influenced his student. The well-known linguist M.A.K.Halliday.The three all stressed the importance of context of situation and the system of language. Thus, London School is also known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics. （伦敦学派也被称为系统语言学和功能语言学，他们三人都强调“语言环境”和语言“系统”的重要性。

）3、Malinowsky（马林诺夫斯基）Malinowski said that language “is to be regarded as a mode of action, rather than as a counterpart of thought”. According to him, the meaning of an utterance does not come from the ideas of the words comprising it but from its relation to the situational context in which the utterance occurs. Malinowski believed that utterances and situation are bound up inextricably with each other and context of situation is indispensable for the understanding of the words.Malinowski distinguished three types of context of situation:1) Situations in which speech interrelates with bodily activity2) Narrative situations3) Situations in which speech is used to fill a speech vacuum----PHATIC COMMUNICATIONIn his Coral Gardens and Their Magic (1953), Malinowski developed his theories on meaning and put forward 2 points.1), he prescribed the data for linguistic studies, holding that isolated words are only imagined linguistic facts, and they are products of advanced analytical procedure odds linguistics. According to him, the real linguistic data are the complete utterances in actual use of language. 2)The second point is that when a certain sound is used in two different situations, it cannot be called one word, but two words having the same sound, or homonyms. He said that in order to assign meaning to a sound, one has to study the situations in which it is used.4、Forth’s theory1、Firth held that meaning is use, thus defining meaning as the relationship between an element atany level and its context on that level. According to his theorizing, the meaning of any sentence consists of five parts:1) The relationship of each phoneme(音位) to its phonological （音韵学的）context.2) The relationship of each lexical item to the others in the sentence3)The morphological（形态学的）relations of each word4)The sentence type of which the given sentence is an example5)The relationship of the sentence to its context of the situationAccordingly, there are fives levels of analysis1）Phonological2）Lexical and semantic3）Morphological4）Syntactic5）Context of situation2、He useed the notion of “Typical context of situation. ” He put forward that in analyzing s typical context of situation, one has to take into consideration both situational context and the linguistic context of a text3、He also listed a model in his Paper in Linguistics that covers both the situational context and the linguistic context of a text.5、Halliday’s theorySystemic-Functional GrammarThe meaning of spoken utterances could always be determined by the context of situation. Halliday（韩礼德）System —Functional Grammar(系统功能语法) systematical grammar and functional grammar The grammar takes actual uses o language as the object of study, in opposition to Chomsky’s TG Grammar that takes the ideal speaker’s linguistic competence as the object of study.(系统功能语法把实际使用的语言现象作为研究对象，而不是像齐姆斯基的转化生语法那样把理想化的语言使用者的语言能力作为研究对象)三American Structuralism6、Boas博厄斯He proved that the structure and form of a language has nothing to do with the evolution of a race and the development of a culture.Handbook of American Indian Language, in this book he discussed the framework of descriptive linguistics.7、SpairSpair—Whorf Hypothesis萨丕尔——沃尔夫假说This Hypothesis suggests that our language will mould our view of the world. The hypothesis has two important points:1) linguistic determination (语言决定论)——language may determine our thinking patterns, 2)linguistic relativity (语言相对论)——similarity between language is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is ,the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.(结构差异越大，人们认识世界的方式越多样)His work is best summed up in Language; An introduction to the study of speech8、Bloomfield（布龙菲尔德）——Language《语言论》American Structuralism 美国结构主义Bloomfield’s Language once held as the model of scientific methodology and the greatest work in linguistics on both sides of the Atlantic in the twentieth century.For Bloomfield, linguistics is a branch of psychology, and specifically of the positivistic brand of psychology known as BEHA VIOURISM.From that, Bloomfield put forward the well known formula:S→r --------------------- s→RHere S stands for practical stimulus, r stands for the substitute reaction of speech, s stands for the substitute stimulus, and R stands for external practical reaction.S—外部刺激r—言语的代替反应s—言语的代替性刺激R—外部的实际反应date-oriented discovery procedure9、ChomskyTransitional——Generative Grammar1、The publication of his Syntactic Structures (1957) marked the beginning of the Chomskyan Revolution. From its birth to the present day, TG Grammar has seen five stages of development: The Classical Theory aims to make linguistics a science, The Standard Theory deals with how semantics should be studied in a linguistics theory, The Extended Standard Theory focuses on language universals and universal grammar, The Revised Extended Standard Theory (or GB) focused on government and binding, the Minimalist Program2、The Innateness HypothesisChomsky believes that language is somewhat innate, and that children are born with what he calls Language Acquisition Device (LAD) 语言习得机制。