语言学汇总

Unit7Malinowski language and culture It is a mode of action and not an instrument of reflection’.Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis①Proposed:Benjamin Lee Whorf & Edward Sapir②内容Our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express speaker’s unique ways of understanding the world.观点1) language may determine our thinking patterns; 2) similarity between language is relative.Linguistic Determinism and Linguistic Relativity③The strong version refers to the original hypothesis makes, emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our way of thinking patterns.The weak version suggests that there is a correlation between language, culture and thought, but the cross-cultural differences thus produced in our ways of thinking are relative, rather than categorical. 语言和社会关系：One does not need to be very observant to find that certain linguistic phenomena cannot be accounted for unless they are placed in the general context of society.From the view of language function Influence of society on language Languages reflect societySociolinguistics is the study of the relationships between language use and socialstructure. It investigates the correlation between linguistic variables and social variables影响因素：class,gender,age,ethnic identity, education background, occupation, religious beliefSpeech community is a concept in sociolinguistics that describes a more or less discrete group of people who use language in a unique and mutually accepted way among themselves.Dialect is a form of language spoken in a particular geographical area or by members of a particular social class or occupational group, distinguished by its vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation.register is a variety of language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting.Halliday identifies three variables that determine register: 1field2tenor 3modeThe three variables are the features of the context of situation which determine the features of language appropriate to the situation. And they determine the register collectively, not piecemeal.Chapter 9Style: variation in the language use. L i t e r a r y s t y l e:w a y s o f w r i t i n g e m p l o y e d i n l i t e r a t u r e a n d b y i n d i v i d u a l w r i t e r s;t h e w a y t h e m i n d o f t h e a u t h o r e x p r e s s e s i t s e l f i n w o r d s.Stylistics is a branch of linguistics which studies the features of situationally distinctive uses of language, and tries to establish principles capable of accounting for the particular choices made by individual and social groups in their use of language. 广义, it studies the use of language in all kinds of contexts and how language use varies in accordance with changing circumstances. 狭义stylistics only focuses on texts of artistic value.Stylistics in this narrow sense is called literary stylistics, the goal of which is to explain the relation between language and artistic function. 文学语言的特点：（foregrounding/figurative language）Foregrounding has the function of giving unusual prominence to one element or property of a text, relative to other less noticeable aspects.Device:deviation and parallelism(偏离Lexical Syntactic Deviant phrase structure. )figurative language:simile,metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche视角Narrators /Schema-oriented language .Given vs New information .DeixisSpeech presentation: DS FIS IS NRAS NRS .Thought presentation DT FIT IT NRTA NRTNRSA:A summer of a longer piece of discourse.NRS:namely a sentence which merely tells us that speech occurred, and which does not even specify the speech act involoved.如何分析小说语言1.Lexis/vocabulary2.Grammatical organization3.Textual organization4..Figures of speech（前景化，比喻性语言）5Style variation 6Discoursal patterning 7Viewpoint manipulation(语言思想)Unit8Pragmatics: The study of language in use. It is usually concerned with the meanings that sentences have in particular contexts in which they are used. Pragmatics is different from traditional semantics in that it studies meaning not inisolation but in context.1. Speech Act Theory Austin (1) Two types of sentencesPerformatives施为句: The utterance of a sentence is, or is part of, the doing of an action.言有所为。

Constatives表述句：It is a description of what the speaker is doing at the time of speaking.Distinctions between Performatives and ConstativesI. Performatives cannot be true or false, but felicitous or not. Constatives can be true or false. II. typical performatives use first person singular subject, simple present tense, indicative mood, active voice and performative verbs.A theory of the illocutionary act （2）three sensesLOCUTIONARY ACT When we speak we move our vocal organs and produce a number of sounds, organized in a certain way and with a certain meaning.ILLOCUTIONARY ACT When we speak, we not only produce some units of language with certain meanings, but also make clear our purpose in producing them, the way we intend them to be understood, or they also have certain forces. LLOCUTIONARY FORCE(行事语力) is equivalent to speaker’s meaning, contextual meaning, or extra meaning(言外之意). PERLOCUTIONARY ACT The third sense in which to say something can mean to do something concerns the consequential effects of a locution upon the hearer. By telling somebody something the speaker may change the opinion of the hearer on something, or mislead him, or surprise him, or induce him to do something, etc. It is part of the act that the speaker has performed. This act which is performed through a locutionary act is called a PERLOCUTIONARY ACT(取效行为,成事行为)Eg: Use your knowledge of Speech Act Theory to analyze the following dialogue between a customer and a waiter.Customer: (angrily) What is this fly doing in my soup?Waiter: (calmly) Ah, Sir, I think that is the backstroke.1.The sentence uttered by the customer is a question on a surface level, asking for some information (what the fly is doing in his soup),2.actually it is used to perform a speech act of complaint (accusation, etc.).3.The waiter, of course, can perfectly understand the true intention of the customer and the speech act intended to be performed, while he chooses to ignore the true intention of the customer, and answers the more literal aspect of his words instead.4. In this way he shrugs off his (and the restaurant’s as a whole) responsibility and temporarily avoids embarrassment.Eg: 2. If you ask somebody “Can you open the door?”he answers “Yes”but does not actually do it, what would be your reaction? Why? Try to see it in the light of speech act theory. 1.理论2.intension 3.意义作用对比2. Conversational implicature 会话暗含理论Grice.1. Cooperative Principle（CP）Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. the participants must first of all be willingto cooperate; otherwise, it would not bepossible for them to carry on the talk.four maxims under the general principle.QUANTITY 数量准则恰当的信息量1. Make your contribution as informative as is required.2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.QUALITY 质量准则说真话Try to make your contribution one that is true.1. Do not say what you believe to be false.2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.RELATION 关联准则Be relevant. MANNER 方式准则切题简单明了Be perspicuous.1. Avoid obscurity of expression.2. Avoid ambiguity.3. Be brief.4. Be orderly.1) Violation of the Maxim of QuantityCharacteristics of implicature 1) Calculability 可推导性2）Cancellability 可取消性3)Non-detachability 不可分离性4) Non-conventionality非规约性Conclusion Conversational implicature is a type of implied meaning, which is deduced on the basis of the conventional meaning of words together with the context,background knowledge,under the guidance of the CP and its maxims.关联理论The relevance theory is defined as: Every act of ostensive communication communicates thepresumption of its own optimal relevance. 每一个明示交际行动都传递一种假定：该行动本身具备最佳关联性。