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托福TPO40阅读Passage1原文文本+题目+答案解析

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Ancient Athens One of the most important changes in Greece during the period from 800 B.C.to500 B.C.was the rise of the polis,or city-state,and each polis developed a systemof government that was appropriate to its circumstances.The problems that were faced and solved in Athens were the sharing of political power between the establishedaristocracy and the emerging other classes,and the adjustment of aristocratic waysof life to the ways of life of the new polis.It was the harmonious blending of allof these elements that was to produce the classical culture of Athens. Entering the polis age,Athens had the traditional institutions of other Greekproto democratic states:an assembly of adult males,an aristocratic council,and annually elected officials.Within this traditional framework the Athenians,between 600 B.C.and 450 B.C.,evolved what Greeks regarded as a fully fledged democraticconstitution,though the right to vote was given to fewer groups of people than isseen in modem times. The first steps toward change were taken by Solon in 594 B.C.，when he broke the aristocracy's stranglehold on elected offices by establishing wealth rather thanbirth as the basis of office holding,abolishing the economic obligations of ordinary Athenians to the aristocracy,and allowing the assembly(of which all citizens wereequal members)to overrule the decisions of local courts in certain cases.The strengthof the Athenian aristocracy was further weakened during the rest of the century bythe rise of a type of government known as a tyranny,which is a form of interim ruleby a popular strongman(not rule by a ruthless dictator as the modern use of the term suggests to us).The Peisistratids,as the succession of tyrants were called(after the founder of the dynasty,Peisistratos),strengthened Athenian central administrationat the expense of the aristocracy by appointing judges throughout the region,producing Athens’first national coinage,and adding and embellishing festivals that tended to focus attention on Athens rather than on local villages ofthe surrounding region.By the end of the century,the time was ripe for more change:the tyrants were driven out,and in 508 B C a new reformer,Cleisthenes,gave final formto the developments reducing aristocratic control already under way. Cleisthenes'principal contribution to the creation of democracy at Athens wasto complete the long process of weakening family and clan structures,especially among the aristocrats,and to set in their place locality-based corporations called demes,which became the point of entry for all civic and most religious life inAthens.Out of the demes were created 10 artificial tribes of roughly equal population.From the demes,by either election or selection,came 500 members of a new council,6,000 jurors for the courts,10 generals,and hundreds of commissioners.Theassembly was sovereign in all matters but in practice delegated its power to subordinate bodies such as the council,which prepared the agenda for the meetingsof the assembly,and the courts,which took care of most judicial matters.Variouscommittees acted as an executive branch,implementing policies of the assembly andsupervising,for instance,the food and water supplies and public buildings.This wide-scale participation by the citizenry in the government distinguished the democratic form of the Athenian polis from other,less liberal forms. The effect of Cleisthenes’reforms was to establish the superiority of theAthenian community as a whole over local institutions without destroying them.National politics rather than local or deme politics became the focal point.At the same time,entry into national politics began at the deme level and gave localloyalty a new focus:Athens itself.Over the next two centuries the implications ofCleisthenes’reforms were fully exploited. During the fifth century B.C.the council of 500 was extremely influential inshaping policy.In the next century,however,it was the mature assembly that took ondecision-making responsibility.By any measure other than that of the aristocrats,who had been upstaged by the supposedly inferior"people,"the Athenian democracy was astunning success.Never before,or since,have so many people been involved in theserious business of self-governance.It was precisely this opportunity to participatein public life that provided a stimulus for the brilliant unfolding of classical Greek culture. paragraph 1 One of the most important changes in Greece during the period from 800 B.C.to500 B.C.was the rise of the polis,or city-state,and each polis developed a systemof government that was appropriate to its circumstances.The problems that were faced and solved in Athens were the sharing of political power between the establishedaristocracy and the emerging other classes,and the adjustment of aristocratic waysof life to the ways of life of the new polis.It was the harmonious blending of allof these elements that was to produce the classical culture of Athens. 1.Paragraph 1 supports which of the following statements about the Greek city-states? A.Most city-states followed the model provided by Athens. B.Most city-states were based on aristocratic rule. C.Different types of government and organization were used by different city-states.。

托福 Listening

TPO40Conversation1QUESTIONS1.Why does the student go to see the professor?a.To find out all the requirements for a projectb.To discuss a service gap at a restaurantc.To get help understanding concepts relevant to his projectd.To get help with designing a business plan2.Why does the professor mention a student in another class?a.To describe an interesting topic for a projectb.To explain the cause of her initial confusionc.To point out that she has not received e-mails from all her students yetd.To indicate that she has several students doing projects about restaurants3.Why does the professor talk about the cafeteria on campus?a.To give an example of an effective service designb.To illustrate how service standards can inform service designc.To help the man understand a service problemd.To illustrate the concept of a service gap4.What do the speakers imply about the bakery the student went to recently?Click on2answers.a.The apple pie he bought there was not as good as it usually is.b.The bakery's service design was inefficient.c.The bakery needs additional employees to fix a service gap.d.The bakery did not meet a service standard.5.What does the professor say the student should do for his project?pare an on-campus service model with an off-campus oneb.Interview the service manager and employees at the cafeteriac.Recommend service improvements at the cafeteria and the bookstored.Analyze the service design of a nearby restaurantLecture1(Art History)QUESTIONS1.What point does the professor make about the writing of a formal analysis in art history?a.Its objective is to identify common features of several works of art.b.Its most important part is the explanation of an artwork's significance.c.Several styles of writing a formal analysis are used by art historians.d.A particular approach is required to present Information about an artwork.2.According to the professor,what will students need to do before writing the art history paper?a.Look at examples of formal analysis in textbooksb.Take notes on the artwork they will write aboutc.Go to different museums before selecting a topic for the paperd.Study the historical context of the artwork they will write about3.Why does the professor mention an English class?a.To explain the difference between visual language and written languageb.To explain that students need good writing skills for their assignmentc.To point out similarities between a poetry paper and the students'assignmentd.To point out that many art historians become writers4.What does the professor recommend as a way to understand the relationship between different parts of an artwork?a.Looking for lines that connect different parts of the workb.Examining the artwork from several different anglesc.Looking for similar colors the artist used throughout the workd.Determining how the viewer's eyes move around the work5.Why does the professor talk about his own experience analyzing the painting of a little boy?a.To point out a common misconception about formal analysisb.To stress the importance of looking at an artwork thoroughlyc.To show why a formal analysis should not emphasize small detailsd.To provide an example of an artwork that is easy to analyze6.The professor describes three sections the art history paper should contain.Place them in the order in which they should appear in the paper.Click on a phrase.Then drag it to the space where it belongs.1.2.3.Answer Choicesa.Analysis of the design elements the artist usesb.Discussion of the meaning of the artworkc.Summary of the appearance of the artworkLecture2(Environmental Conservation)QUESTIONS1.What is the discussion mainly about?a.Results of privatization in the cod-fishing industryws that regulate the cod-fishing industryc.A recent study on cod-fishing techniquesd.Problems related to the overfishing of cod2.Why does the professor compare Cape Cod to Newfoundland?a.To explain how some of Cape Cod’s waters first became privatizedb.To illustrate the enormous size of Cape Cod’s seventeenth-century cod populationc.To explain why large-scale cod fishing began later in Cape Cod than elsewhered.To highlight the results of two different evolutionary pressures on cod3.What change did scientists notice around Cape Cod after the1940s?a.The amount of pollutants dumped into the ocean increased dramatically.b.Trawling ships violated fishing regulations more often.c.The cod population's diet became less diverse.d.Cod began to mature at a younger age.4.What point does the professor make about reproduction among small cod fish as compared to larger cod fish?a.Eggs produced by smaller cod are less likely to survive.b.Smaller cod produce fewer eggs.c.The offspring of smaller cod do not live as longd.Smaller cod produce eggs fewer times per year5.What is the professor's opinion of privatization for the management of an environmental resource?a.Privatization is an imperfect tool.b.Privatization should be tried more often.c.Privatization usually results in political conflicts.d.Privatization usually results in the best outcome.6.According to the professor,what was the result of the200-mile exclusive economic zone declared by the United States and Canada?a.The cod population moved further out to sea.b.The cod population began to recover.c.More trawlers began fishing around Cape Cod.d.Penalties for overfishing were toughened.Conversation2QUESTIONS1.Why does the woman go to see the man?a.To ask for his help in getting a job off campusb.To apply for job in the library archivesc.To find out if the man has received her letter of referenced.To get help on a project she is doing with a professor2.During the conversation,what surprises the man?Click on2answersa.That he does not remember the womanb.That the woman knows the library has a job openingc.That the woman came to him for helpd.That the woman is still interested in photography3.What does the man imply about Professor Ryan?a.Professor Ryan will decide who gets the library assistant job.b.Professor Ryan was in charge of the library’s photography exhibit.c.Professor Ryan was impressed with work the woman did on the photography exhibit.d.Professor Ryan recommended the woman for the library assistant job.4.What will be the main responsibility of the new library assistant?a.Cataloging photographs taken during the university’s hundreth yearb.Planning and setting up photography exhibits at the libraryc.Writing research reports about photographs in the library’s collectiond.Finding photographs requested by library users5.What does the woman imply about the library assistant job?Click on2answers.a.She feels she is not qualified for it.b.She is reluctant to apply for it because it does not involve taking photographs.c.She thinks it would fit in well with her class schedule.d.She thinks it would require too much of her time.Lecture3(Environmental Science)QUESTIONS1.What is the main purpose of the lecture?a.To argue that carbon emissions today are not the only factor responsible for global warmingb.To provide evidence that rates of global carbon emissions fluctuate over timec.To show the importance of distinguishing between different types of carbon emissionsd.To describe different ways carbon is removed from the atmosphere2.What aspects of outer space does the professor emphasize?Click on2answers.a.Its vastnessb.Its cold temperaturesc.The absence of life thered.Its role as the ultimate source of energy on Earth3.According to the professor,how do the oceans remove carbon from the atmosphere? Click on2answers.a.By dissolving itb.Through a process of condensation and precipitationc.By storing the remains of marine animalsd.Through the regulation of air temperatures4.Why does the professor mention mining?a.To explain why the price of fossil fuels is continually risingb.To explain how certain fuel sources can be recovered from the ocean floorc.To explain why coal and oil are more difficult to obtain than natural gasd.To explain why fossil fuels contribute to an excess of carbon in the atmosphere5.What does the professor mean when he refers to biomass carbon as"current carbon"?a.It is the fuel source most widely approved by environmentalists today.b.It is part of a balanced system of carbon emission and absorption.c.It is circulated throughout the oceans by the movement of ocean water.d.It readily combines with other carbon molecules to produce long chains.6.Why does the professor say thisa.To let students know that the term“greenhouse effect”will be testedb.To indicate that the definition of“greenhouse effect”will be discussedc.To suggest that his previous definition of“greenhouse effect”was imprecised.To acknowledge that there is controversy surrounding the use of the term“greenhouse effect”Lecture4(United States Government)QUESTIONS1.What issue does the professor mainly discuss?ernment purchases of private property to expand transportation routesb.The rising cost of public transportation in the United Statesc.The transfer of certain public assets to for-profit companiesd.Whether voters can be persuaded to approve toll increases2.Why does the professor mention highway construction that took place during the1950s and1960s?a.To point out changes in voter attitudes toward toll and tax increasesb.To suggest that mistakes were made when the highway system was builtc.To explain why traffic congestion is not as bad as it used to bed.To make a point about the current need for infrastructure repairs3.According to the professor,why do governments consider selling or leasing pieces of infrastructure?Click on2answers.ernments often have difficulty balancing their general budgets.b.The money that governments receive from user fees has gone down in recent yearsc.Political considerations limit governments’ability to raise money for maintenance.d.Private companies are better able to estimate the cost of infrastructure repairs.4.What does the professor imply about some people s concerns over privatizing parts of an infrastructure?a.Their concerns are likely to diminish in the future.b.Their concerns are completely justified.c.Their concerns suggest that voters need better information.d.Their concerns have mostly been disregarded by governments.5.What does the professor imply about secondary roads?a.Their availability tends to limit toll increases on major highways.b.They can be more expensive to repair than major highways are.c.Increasing numbers of them are becoming toll roads.muters are attracted to them for their scenic qualities.6.According to the professor,what is likely to happen when a bridge provides steady revenue for a private company?a.The bridge will be well maintained in the long term.b.The company will not raise tolls.c.Other companies will be interested in buying the bridge.d.Voters will pressure the government to buy back the bridge.。

TPO-40 阅读文本和对应题目文本第二篇

Latitude and BiodiversityWhen we look at the way in which biodiversity (biological diversity) is distributed over the land surface of the planet, we find that it is far from even. The tropics contain many more species overall than an equivalent area at the higher latitudes. This seems to be true for many different groups of animals and plants.Why is it that higher latitudes have lower diversities than the tropics? Perhaps it is simply a matter of land area. The tropics contain a larger surface area of land than higher latitudes—a fact that is not always evident when we examine commonly used projections of Earth’s curved surface, since this tends to exaggerate the areas of land in the higher latitudes—and some biogeographers regard the differences in diversity as a reflection of this effect. But an analysis of the data by biologist Klaus Rohde does not support this explanation. Although area may contribute to biodiversity, it is certainly not the whole story; otherwise, large landmasses would always be richer in species.Productivity seems to be involved instead, though perhaps its influence is indirect. Where conditions are most suitable for plant growth—that is, where temperatures are relatively high and uniform and where there is an ample supply of water—one usually finds large masses of vegetation. This leads to a complex structure in the layers of plant material In a tropical rain forest, for example, a very large quantity of plant material builds up above the surface of the ground .There is also a large mass of material, developed below ground as root tissues, but this is less apparent. Careful analysis of the above ground material reveals that it is arranged in a series of layers, the precise number of layers varying with age and the nature of the forest. The arrangement of the biological mass ("biomass") of the vegetation into layered forms is termed its “structure” (as opposed to its “composition,” which refers to the species of organisms forming the community) Structure is essentially the architecture of vegetation, and as in the case of tropical forests, it can be extremely complicated. In a mature floodplain tropical forest in the Amazon River basin, the canopy (the uppermost layers of a forest, formed by the crowns of trees) takes ona stratified structure. There are three clear peaks in leaf cover at heights of approximately 3, 6, and30 meters above the ground; and the very highest layer, at 50 meters, corresponds to the very tall trees that stand free of the main canopy and form an open layer of their own. So, such a forest contains essentially four layers of canopy. Forests in temperate lands often have just two canopy layers, so they have much less complex architecture.Structure has a strong influence on the animal life inhabiting a site. It forms the spatial environment within which an animal feeds, moves around shelters, lives, and breeds. It even affects the climate on a very local level (the "microclimate") by influencing light intensity, humidity, and both the range and extremes of temperature. An area of grassland vegetation with very simple structure, for example, has a very different microclimate at the ground level from that experienced in the upper canopy. Wind speeds are lower, temperatures are lower during the day (but warmer at night), and the relative humidity is much greater near the ground. The complexity of the microclimate is closely related to the complexity of structure in vegetation, and generally speaking, the more complex the structure of vegetation, the more species of animal are able to make a living there. The high plant biomass of the tropics leads to a greater spatial complexity in the environment, and this leads to a higher potential for diversity in the living things that can occupy a region. The climates of the higher latitudes are generally less favorable for the accumulation of large quantities of biomass; hence, the structure of vegetation is simpler and theanimal diversity is consequently lower.paragraph 1When we look at the way in which biodiversity (biological diversity) is distributed over the land surface of the planet, we find that it is far from even. The tropics contain many more species overall than an equivalent area at the higher latitudes. This seems to be true for many different groups of animals and plants.1. The word “distributed ” in the passage is closest in meaning toA. representedB. collectedC. spreadD. managed2. The word “overall ” in the passage is closest in meaning toA. considered as a wholeB. to some degreeC. possiblyD. evidentlyparagraph 2Why is it that higher latitudes have lower diversities than the tropics? Perhaps it is simply a matter of land area. The tropics contain a larger surface area of land than higher latitudes —a fact that is not always evident when we examine commonly used projections of Earth ’s curved surface, since this tends to exaggerate the areas of land in the higher latitudes —and some biogeographers regard the differences in diversity as a reflection of this effect. But an analysis of the data by biologist Klaus Rohde does not support this explanation. Although area may contribute to biodiversity, it is certainly not the whole story; otherwise, large landmasses would always be richer in species.3. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A. Some biogeographers believe that the tropics have larger surface areas than they actually do because of the distortions produced by projections of Earth ’s curved surfaceB. High levels of diversity in the tropics are sometimes attributed to the fact that the tropics have more surface area of land than the higher latitudes do, though distortions in commonly used projections may seem to suggest otherwise.C. Because biogeographers disagree on whether or not the tropics are correctly represented in projections of Earth s surface, it is difficult to determine the relationship their surface area has to their diversityD. Most biogeographers agree that the tropics contain a larger surface area of land than higher latitudes do ，but they disagree on whether or not the tropics ’ level of diversity is a reflection of that larger surface area. ⽂文本⽂文本4. Why does the author mention “Klaus Rohde” in the passage?A. To support the argument that large landmasses are usually richer in species than smaller ones areB. To introduce the argument that there are other factors contributing to species diversity besides land areaC. To cast doubt on whether the tropics actually contain higher species diversity than land at higher latitudes doesD. To emphasize that biogeographers and biologists differ in their approaches to biodiversityparagraph 3Productivity seems to be involved instead, though perhaps its influence is indirect Where conditions are most suitable for plant growth—that is, where temperatures are relatively high and uniform and where there is an ample supply of water—one usually finds large masses of vegetation. This leads to a complex structure in the layers of plant material. In a tropical rain forest, for example, a very large quantity of plant material builds up above the surface of the ground.There is also a large mass of material, developed below ground as root tissues, but this is less apparent Careful analysis of the above ground material reveals that it is arranged in a series of layers, the precise number of layers varying with age and the nature of the forest. The arrangement of the biological mass ("biomass") of the vegetation into layered forms is termed its "structure" (as opposed to its “composition,” which refers to the species of organisms forming the community) Structure is essentially the architecture of vegetation, and as in the case of tropical forests, it can be extremely complicated. In a mature floodplain tropical forest in the Amazon River basin, the canopy (the uppermost layers of a forest, formed by the crowns of trees) takes on a stratified structure. There are three clear peaks in leaf cover at heights of approximately 3, 6, and 30 meters above the ground; and the very highest layer, at 50 meters, corresponds to the very tall trees that stand free of the main canopy and form an open layer of their own. So, such a forest contains essentially four layers of canopy. Forests in temperate lands often have just two canopy layers, so they have much less complex architecture.5. Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 3 as a condition that benefits plant growth?A. High temperaturesB. Steady temperaturesC. High latitudeD. Plentiful water6. The word “precise” in the passage is closest in meaning toA. exactB. predictedC. approximateD. required7. Paragraph 3 mentions which of the following as creating the structural complexity of a forest?A. The height of the very tallest trees in the forestB. The number of layers of canopyC. The frequency of floods along the plainD. The age of the root tissues below the ground8. According to paragraph 3, which of the following statements best describes the difference between structure and composition?A. “Structure”refers to the arrangement of plant material above the ground surface; “composition” refers to the arrangement of root tissues below the surface of the ground.B. “Structure” refers to the age of the forest; “composition” refers to the forest's nature.C. “Structure” refers to the arrangement of plant species in an area, “composition” refers to which plant species are present in the area.D. “Structure”refers to the shape of the forest canopy; “composition”refers to the number of crowns forming the canopy.9. Why does the author mention “ mature floodplain tropical forest in the Amazon River basin” in the passage?A. To dispute the idea that tropical forests are arranged in layersB. To give an example of the complex architecture vegetation displays in a dense areaC. To suggest that the layers of canopy in some tropical forests can exceed the usual three or fourD. To emphasize that the layers of canopy in a tropical forest give evidence of the number of layers of root tissues below the groundparagraph 4Structure has a strong influence on the animal life inhabiting a site. It forms the spatial environment within which an animal feeds, moves around shelters, lives, and breeds. It even affects the climate on a very local level (the "microclimate") by influencing light intensity, humidity, and both the range and extremes of temperature. An area of grassland vegetation with very simple structure, for example, has a very different microclimate at the ground level from that experienced in the upper canopy. Wind speeds are lower, temperatures are lower during the day (but warmer at night), and the relative humidity is much greater near the ground. The complexity of the microclimate is closely related to the complexity of structure in vegetation, and generally speaking, the more complex the structure of vegetation, the more species of animal are able to make a living there. The high plant biomass of the tropics leads to a greater spatial complexity in the environment, and this leads to a higher potential for diversity in the living things that can occupy a region. The climates of the higher latitudes are generally less favorable for the accumulation of large quantities of biomass; hence, the structure of vegetation is simpler and the animal diversity is consequently lower.10. Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 4 as an aspect of microclimate?A. Temperature rangeB. Relative humidityC. Light intensityD. Seasonal variations11. What can be inferred from paragraph 4 about a region with a high level of diversity of animal species?A. It also has a high level of plant species diversity.B. It has relatively few microclimatesC. It develops a less complex structure than does a region with a high plant species diversity.D. It develops a biomass similar to that of higher latitudes12.The word “consequently” in the passage is closest in meaning toA. usuallyB. obviouslyC. howeverD. therefore13. Look a t the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.One example of such tropical abundance is found in Panama, which has 667 species of breeding birds一three times the number found in Alaska.Where would the s entence best fit? Click on square [■] to add the sentence to the passage.When we look at the way in which biodiversity (biological diversity) is distributed over the land surface of the planet, we find that it is far from even. The tropics contain many more species overall than an equivalent area at the higher latitudes. This seems to be true for many different groups of animals and plants. [■]Why is it that higher latitudes have lower diversities than the tropics? [■] Perhaps it is simply a mat ter of land area. [■] The tropics contain a larger surface area of land than higher latitudes—a fact that is not always evident when we examine commonly used projections of Earth’s curved surface, since this tends to exaggerate the areas of land in the higher latitudes—and some biogeographers regard the differences in diversity as a reflection of this effect. [■] But an analysis of the data by biologist Klaus Rohde does not support this explanation. Although area may contribute to biodiversity, it is certainly not the whole story; otherwise, large landmasses would always be richer in species.14. Directions:An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selected THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage.Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.This question is worth 2 points.Drag your choices to the spaces where they belong. To review the passage, click on View TextA number of factors may help account for the difference in biodiversity between low and high latitudes.Answer ChoicesA. Though land area may be related to a region's biodiversity, it is not a primary determining factorB. A structure of varying heights is found in both tropical and temperate forests.C. The more complex the structure of the vegetation of a region, the more species it is able to support.D. Regions possessing conditions that are favorable for plant growth tend to have abundant and diverse vegetation that supports a large number of species.E. The difference in microclimate between a ground-level canopy and an upper-level canopy is responsible for the number of species that inhabit each canopy.F. The temperature range of a region determines the number of animals that feed, move around, shelter themselves, live, and breed in that region.。

TPO-40 Reading 1 翻译

参考译文古雅典在公元前800年到公元前500年之间，希腊的一个的最重要的变化就是城邦（也叫做city-state）的兴起，每个城邦会发展出一个适合自己情况的政府系统。

雅典所遇到并被解决的问题包括：已经存在的贵族和逐渐出现的其他阶级之间对于政治权利的分享，将贵族的生活方式到新兴的城邦生活方式的调整。

就是所有这些元素的和谐融合产生了雅典的古典文明。

进入到了城邦时代，雅典有着其他希腊原始民主城邦的传统机构：甶男性组成的议会机构，一个贵族委员会，还有年度选举的官员。

从这个传统的架构中，在公元前600年到公元前450年间，雅典人逐渐发展出了希腊人认为完全成熟的民主宪法，尽管从现在的角度来看，拥有投票权的人还是相对较少。

第一批改革发生在公元前594年，由Solon打破了由贵族阶层推举官员这个规则的束缚，决定通过建立财富而不是靠出身作为任职的基础，废除了雅典人民对贵族的经济义务（释：底层民众有义务给贵族钱，比如上供、税收等方式），并且使得议会（议会中的所有公民都是平等的）在某些情况下能够驳回地方法庭的判决。

因为一种叫僭主政体政府的兴起，雅典贵族的力量在本世纪之后的时间里被进一步削弱。

这是一种甶受欢迎的铁腕统治者临时统治的管理形式（而非现在这个词儿所暗示出来的残暴的独裁者的统治）。

这些专治统治者们被称作庇西特拉图家族（根据王朝的建立者庇西特拉图命名），他们牺牲了贵族，在全国各区域任命法官，创造出雅典的第一个国家货币制度，同时增加并改良了一些节日，这些节日是全国性质的，而不是只针对某个地区的习俗。

这些做法加强了雅典的中央管理。

在这个世纪的最后，时机已经成熟，更多变化应运而生：僭主被驱逐，并且在公元前508年，一个新的改革家，克利斯提尼，提出了最终的发展形式，降低了本来已经被削弱的贵族的控制力。

克利斯提尼对于雅典民主制度出现的主要贡献就是完全地推翻了长期以来一直薄弱的家族和氏族结构，特别是贵族家族和氏族。

取而代之的是，设立了以地区为基础的群体，称作市区；市区这种形式成为了雅典公民生活和大部分宗教生活的起点。

托福TPO4阅读真题Part1参考答案

托福TPO4阅读真题Part1参考答案托福TPO作为托福的模考工具，它的题目对于我们备考托福很有参考价值，为了帮助大家备考，下面小编给大家整理了托福TPO2阅读真题及答案Part1，望喜欢！托福TPO4阅读真题文本：Part1Deer Populations of the Puget SoundTwo species of deer have been prevalent in the Puget Sound area of Washington State in the Pacific Northwest of the United States. The black-tailed deer, a lowland, west-side cousin of the mule deer of eastern Washington, is now the most common. The other species, the Columbian white-tailed deer, in earlier times was common in the open prairie country; it is now restricted to the low, marshy islands and flood plains along the lower Columbia River.Nearly any kind of plant of the forest understory can be part of a deer's diet. Where the forest inhibits the growth of grass and other meadow plants, the black-tailed deer browses on huckleberry, salal, dogwood, and almost any other shrub or herb. But this is fair-weather feeding. What keeps the black-tailed deer alive in the harsher seasons of plant decay and dormancy? One compensation for not hibernating is the built-in urge to migrate. Deer may move from high-elevation browse areas in summer down to the lowland areas in late fall. Even with snow on the ground, the high bushy understory is exposed; also snow and wind bring down leafy branches of cedar, hemlock, red alder, and other arboreal fodder.The numbers of deer have fluctuated markedly since the entry of Europeans into Puget Sound country. The early explorers and settlers told of abundant deer in the early 1800s and yetalmost in the same breath bemoaned the lack of this succulent game animal. Famous explorers of the north American frontier, Lewis and Clark arrived at the mouth of the Columbia River on November 14, 1805, in nearly starved circumstances. They had experienced great difficulty finding game west of the Rockies and not until the second of December did they kill their first elk. T o keep 40 people alive that winter, they consumed approximately 150 elk and 20 deer. And when game moved out of the lowlands in early spring, the expedition decided to return east rather than face possible starvation. Later on in the early years of the nineteenth century, when Fort Vancouver became the headquarters of the Hudson's Bay Company, deer populations continued to fluctuate. David Douglas, Scottish botanical explorer of the 1830s, found a disturbing change in the animal life around the fort during the period between his first visit in 1825 and his final contact with the fort in 1832. A recent Douglas biographer states:" The deer which once picturesquely dotted the meadows around the fort were gone [in 1832], hunted to extermination in order to protect the crops."Reduction in numbers of game should have boded ill for their survival in later times. A worsening of the plight of deer was to be expected as settlers encroached on the land, logging, burning, and clearing, eventually replacing a wilderness landscape with roads, cities, towns, and factories. No doubt the numbers of deer declined still further. Recall the fate of the Columbian white-tailed deer, now in a protected status. But for the black-tailed deer, human pressure has had just the opposite effect. Wildlife zoologist Helmut Buechner(1953), in reviewing the nature of biotic changes in Washington through recorded time, says that "since the early 1940s, the state has had more deerthan at any other time in its history, the winter population fluctuating around approximately 320,000 deer (mule and black-tailed deer), which will yield about 65,000 of either sex and any age annually for an indefinite period."The causes of this population rebound are consequences of other human actions. First, the major predators of deer-wolves, cougar, and lynx-have been greatly reduced in numbers. Second, conservation has been insured by limiting times for and types of hunting. But the most profound reason for the restoration of high population numbers has been the fate of the forests. Great tracts of lowland country deforested by logging, fire, or both have become ideal feeding grounds of deer. In addition to finding an increase of suitable browse, like huckleberry and vine maple, Arthur Einarsen, longtime game biologist in the Pacific Northwest, found quality of browse in the open areas to be substantially more nutritive. The protein content of shade-grown vegetation, for example, was much lower than that for plants grown in clearings.Paragraph 1: Two species of deer have been prevalent in the Puget Sound area of Washington State in the Pacific Northwest of the United States. The black-tailed deer, a lowland, west-side cousin of the mule deer of eastern Washington, is now the most common. The other species, the Columbian white-tailed deer, in earlier times was common in the open prairie country; it is now restricted to the low, marshy islands and flood plains along the lower Columbia River.托福TPO4阅读真题题目：Part11. According to paragraph 1, which of the following is true of the white-tailed deer of Puget Sound?○It is native to lowlands and marshes.○It is more close ly related to the mule deer of eastern Washington than to other types of deer.○It has replaced the black-tailed deer in the open prairie.○It no longer lives in a particular type of habitat that it once occupied.Paragraph 2: Nearly any kind of plant of the forest understory can be part of a deer's diet. Where the forest inhibits the growth of grass and other meadow plants, the black-tailed deer browses on huckleberry, salal, dogwood, and almost any other shrub or herb. But this is fair-weather feeding. What keeps the black-tailed deer alive in the harsher seasons of plant decay and dormancy? One compensation for not hibernating is the built-in urge to migrate. Deer may move from high-elevation browse areas in summer down to the lowland areas in late fall. Even with snow on the ground, the high bushy understory is exposed; also snow and wind bring down leafy branches of cedar, hemlock, red alder, and other arboreal fodder.2. It can be inferred from the discussion in paragraph 2 that winter conditions○ cause some deer to hibernate○ make food unavailable in the highlands for deer○ make it easier for deer to locate understory plants○ prevent deer from migrating during the winter3. The word "inhibits" in the passage is closest in meaning to○ consists o f○ combines○ restricts○ establishesParagraph 3: The numbers of deer have fluctuated markedly since the entry of Europeans into Puget Sound country. The earlyexplorers and settlers told of abundant deer in the early 1800s and yet almost in the same breath bemoaned the lack of this succulent game animal. Famous explorers of the north American frontier, Lewis and Clark arrived at the mouth of the Columbia River on November 14, 1805, in nearly starved circumstances. They had experienced great difficulty finding game west of the Rockies and not until the second of December did they kill their first elk. To keep 40 people alive that winter, they consumed approximately 150 elk and 20 deer. And when game moved out of the lowlands in early spring, the expedition decided to return east rather than face possible starvation. Later on in the early years of the nineteenth century, when Fort Vancouver became the headquarters of the Hudson's Bay Company, deer populations continued to fluctuate. David Douglas, Scottish botanical explorer of the 1830s, found a disturbing change in the animal life around the fort during the period between his first visit in 1825 and his final contact with the fort in 1832. A recent Douglas biographer states:" The deer which once picturesquely dotted the meadows around the fort were gone [in 1832], hunted to extermination in order to protect the crops."4. The phrase "in the same breath" in the passage is closest in meaning to○ impatiently○ humorously○ continuously○ immediately5. The author tells the story of the explorers Lewis and Clark in paragraph 3 in order to illustrate which of the following points?○The number of deer within the Puget Sound region has varied over time.○Most of the explorers who came to the Puget Sound area were primarily interested in hunting game.○There was more game for hunting in the East of the United States than in the West.○Individual explorers were not as successful at locating games as were the trading companies.6. According to paragraph 3, how had Fort Vancouver changed by the time David Douglas returned in 1832?○The fort had become the headquarters for the Hudson's Bay Company.○Deer had begun populating the meadows around the fort.○Deer populations near the fort had been destroyed.○Crop yields in t he area around the fort had decreased.Paragraph 4: Reduction in numbers of game should have boded ill for their survival in later times. A worsening of the plight of deer was to be expected as settlers encroached on the land, logging, burning, and clearing, eventually replacing a wilderness landscape with roads, cities, towns, and factories. No doubt the numbers of deer declined still further. Recall the fate of the Columbian white-tailed deer, now in a protected status. But for the black-tailed deer, human pressure has had just the opposite effect. Wildlife zoologist Helmut Buechner(1953), in reviewing the nature of biotic changes in Washington through recorded time, says that "since the early 1940s, the state has had more deer than at any other time in its history, the winter population fluctuating around approximately 320,000 deer (mule and black-tailed deer), which will yield about 65,000 of either sex and any age annually for an indefinite period."7. Why does the author ask readers to recall "the fate of the Columbian white-tailed deer" in the discussion of changes in thewilderness landscape?○To provide support for the idea that habitat destruction would lead to population decline○To compare how two species of deer caused biotic changes in the wilderness environment○To provide an example of a species of deer that has successfully adapted to human settlement○To argue that some deer species must be given a protected status8. The phrase "indefinite period" in the passage is closest in meaning to period○ whose end has not been determined○ that does not begin when expected○ that lasts only briefly○ whose importance remains unknown9. Which of the following statements about deer populations is supported by the information in paragraph 4?○Deer populations reached their highest point during the 1940s and then began to decline.○The activities of settlers contributed in unexpected ways to the growth of some deer populations in later times.○The cleaning of wilderness la nd for construction caused biotic changes from which the black-tailed deer population has never recovered.○Since the 1940s the winter populations of deer have fluctuated more than the summer populations have.Paragraph 5: The causes of this population rebound are consequences of other human actions. First, the major predators of deer-wolves, cougar, and lynx-have been greatly reduced in numbers. Second, conservation has been insured by limitingtimes for and types of hunting. But the most profound reason for the restoration of high population numbers has been the fate of the forests. Great tracts of lowland country deforested by logging, fire, or both have become ideal feeding grounds of deer. In addition to finding an increase of suitable browse, like huckleberry and vine maple, Arthur Einarsen, longtime game biologist in the Pacific Northwest, found quality of browse in the open areas to be substantially more nutritive. The protein content of shade-grown vegetation, for example, was much lower than that for plants grown in clearings.10.The word "rebound" in the passage is closest in meaning to○ decline○ recovery○ exchange○ movement11.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.○Arthur Einarsen's longtime family with the Pacific Northwest helped him discover areas where deer had an increase in suitable browse.○Arthur Einarsen found that defores ted feeding grounds provided deer with more and better food.○Biologist like Einarsen believe it is important to find additional open areas with suitable browse for deer to inhabit.○According to Einarsen, huckleberry and vine maple are examples of vegetation that may someday improve the nutrition of deer in the open areas of the Pacific Northwest.12.Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 5 as a factor that has increased deer populations?○A reduction in the number of predators○Restrictions on hunting○The effects of logging and fire○Laws that protected feeding grounds of deerParagraph 2: Nearly any kind of plant of the forest understory can be part of a deer's diet. Where the forest inhibits the growth of grass and other meadow plants, the black-tailed deer browses on huckleberry, salal, dogwood, and almost any other shrub or herb. But this is fair-weather feeding. What keeps the black-tailed deer alive in the harsher seasons of plant decay and dormancy? One compensation for not hibernating is the built-in urge to migrate. █Deer may move from high-elevation browse areas in summer down to the lowland areas in late fall. █Even with snow on the ground, the high bushy understory is exposed; also snow and wind bring down leafy branches of cedar, hemlock, red alder, and other arboreal fodder.Paragraph 3: █The numbers of deer have fluctuated markedly since the entry of Europeans into Puget Sound country. █The early explorers and settlers told of abundant deer in the early 1800s and yet almost in the same breath bemoaned the lack of this succulent game animal. Famous explorers of the north American frontier, Lewis and Clark arrived at the mouth of the Columbia River on November 14, 1805, in nearly starved circumstances. They had experienced great difficulty finding game west of the Rockies and not until the second of December did they kill their first elk. To keep 40 people alive that winter, they consumed approximately 150 elk and 20 deer. And when game moved out of the lowlands in early spring, the expeditiondecided to return east rather than face possible starvation. Later on in the early years of the nineteenth century, when Fort Vancouver became the headquarters of the Hudson's Bay Company, deer populations continued to fluctuate. David Douglas, Scottish botanical explorer of the 1830s, found a disturbing change in the animal life around the fort during the period between his first visit in 1825 and his final contact with the fort in 1832. A recent Douglas biographer states:" The deer which once picturesquely dotted the meadows around the fort were gone [in 1832], hunted to extermination in order to protect the crops."13.Look at the four squares [█] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.There food is available and accessible throughout the winter.Where would the sentence best fit?14.Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.Deer in the Puget Sound area eat a wide variety of foods and migrate seasonally to find food.●●●Answer Choices○ The balance of deer species in the Puget Sound region has changed over time, with the Columbian white-tailed deer nowoutnumbering other types of deer.○ Deer populations naturally fluctuate, but early settl ers in the Puget Sound environment caused an overall decline in the deer populations of the areas at that time.○ In the long term, black-tailed deer in the Puget Sound area have benefitted from human activities through the elimination of their natural predators, and more and better food in deforested areas.○ Because Puget Sound deer migrate, it was and still remains difficult to determine accurately how many deer are living at any one time in the western United States.○ Although it was believed that huma n settlement of the American West would cause the total number of deer to decrease permanently, the opposite has occurred for certain types of deer.○ Wildlife biologists have long been concerned that the loss of forests may create nutritional deficiencies for deer.托福TPO4阅读答案：Part1参考答案：1. ○42. ○ 23. ○ 34. ○45. ○16. ○37. ○18. ○ 19. ○210. ○ 211. ○212. ○413. ○214. Deer populations naturally…In the long term…Although it was believed…托福TPO4阅读翻译：Part1参考翻译：普吉特海湾的鹿群在太平洋西北区的美国华盛顿州，有两种鹿在普吉特海湾非常普遍。

2019年托福写作：TPO40综合写作阅读题目

2019年托福写作：TPO40综合写作阅读题目TPO40综合写作题目文本Many scientists believe it would be possible to maintain a permanent human presence on Mars or the Moon. On the other hand, conditions on Venus are so extreme and inhospitablethat maintaining a human presence there would be impossibleFirst, atmospher ic pressure at Venus’ surface is atleast 90 times greater than the pressure at Earth’s surface This means that a force of 100 kilograms is pressing down on every square centimeter of surface All spacecraft that have landed on Venus have been crushed by this extreme pressure within an hour of landing. Almost anything humans might land on Venus would be crushed as well.Second, as far as we know, there are no reservoirs of water on Venus' surface, and the planet s atmosphere, made up mostly of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and sulfuric acid, contains hardly any oxygen or water vapor Water and oxygen would therefore probably have to be supplied to Venus from Earth. The idea of ensuring a regular supply of water and oxygen from Earth is impractical in the extreme and would probably defeat the purpose of establishing a permanent station on Venus.Third, very little sunlight reaches the planet s surface. About 60 percent of the sunlight that hits Venus is reflected back into space by the thick clouds that fill the atmosphere, which means that only 40 percent of the sunlight can get through the clouds Below these clouds is a dense layer of carbon dioxide, which blocks even more light, so very littlelight reaches the surface. The lack of light would prevent the use of solar power cells, so humans could not get electricity to power their machines and equipment.TPO40综合写作DirectionsYou have 20 minutes to plan and write your response. Your response will be judged on the basis of the quality of your writing and on how well your response presents the points in the lecture and their relationship to the reading passage. Typically, an effective response will be 150 to 225 words.Essay TopicSummarize the points made in the lecture, being sure to explain how the proposal discu。

2021年托福阅读模拟试题及答案(卷十一)

2021年托福阅读模拟试题及答案（卷十一）The house style that dominated American housing during the 1880s and 1890s was known as Queen Anne, a curious name for an American style. The name was, in fact, a historical accident, originating with fashionable architects in Victorian England who coined it with apparently no reason other than its pleasing sound. The Queen Anne style was loosely based on medieval structures built long before 1702, the beginning year of Queen Anne’s reign.A distinctive characteristic found in most Queen Anne houses is the unusual roof shape --- a steeply pitched, hipped central portion with protruding lower front and side extensions that end in gables. It is often possible to spot these distinctive roof forms from several blocks away. Another feature of this style is the detailing, shown in the wood shingle siding cut into fanciful decorative patterns of scallops, curves, diamonds, or triangles. Queen Anne houses are almost always asymmetrical. If you draw an imaginary line down the middle of one, you will see how drastically different the right and left sides are, all the way from ground level to roof peak. A final characteristic is the inviting wraparound porch that includes the front door area and then extends around to either the right or left side of the house.Queen Anne houses faded from fashion early in the twentieth century as the public’s taste shifted toward the more modern Prairieand Craftsman style houses. Today, however, Queen Anne houses are favorite symbols of the past, painstakingly and lovingly restored by old-house buffs and reproduced by builders who give faithful attention to the distinctive shapes and detailing that were first popularized more than one hundred years ago.1. Why does the author use the word curious in describing the name of an American style?A.The style was invented before Queen Anne’s reign.B.The name was accidentally misspelled.C.The style was more popular in Victorian England.D.The name did not originate in American.2. The word it in paragraph 1 refers toA. styleB. nameC. accidentD. England3. Which of the following is NOT mentioned as a characteristic feature of Queen Anne houses?A. decorative windowsB. wood shingle exterior wallsC. large porchD. steeply pitched roof4. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 2 about the Queen Anne style?A. the Queen Anne style combined several other styles.B. the Queen Anne style had to be built in the city.C. the Queen Anne style was elaborate and ornate.D. the Queen Anne style was not very popular.5. The word buffs in paragraph 3 is closest in meaning toA. expertsB. sellersC. criticsD. painters答案：1.D2.B3.A4.C5.AThe Long-Term Stability of EcosystemsPlant communities assemble themselves flexibly, and their particular structure depends on the specific history of the area. Ecologists use the term “succession”to refer to the changes that happen in plant communities and ecosystems over time. The first community in a succession is called a pioneer community, while the long-lived community at the end of succession is called a climax community. Pioneer and successional plant communities are said to change over periods from 1 to 500 years. These changes—in plantnumbers and the mix of species—are cumulative. Climax communities themselves change but over periods of time greater than about 500 years.An ecologist who studies a pond today may well find it relatively unchanged in a year’s time. Individual fish may be replaced, but the number of fish will tend to be the same from one year to the next. We can say that the properties of an ecosystem are more stable than the individual organisms that compose the ecosystem.At one time, ecologists believed that species diversity made ecosystems stable. They believed that the greater the diversity the more stable the ecosystem. Support for this idea came from the observation that long-lasting climax communities usually have more complex food webs and more species diversity than pioneer communities. Ecologists concluded that the apparent stability of climax ecosystems depended on their complexity. To take an extreme example, farmlands dominated by a single crop are so unstable that one year of bad weather or the invasion of a single pest can destroy the entire crop. In contrast, a complex climax community, such as a temperate forest, will tolerate considerable damage from weather to pests.The question of ecosystem stability is complicated, however. The first problem is that ecologists do not all agree what “stability”means. Stability can be defined as simply lack of change. In that case, the climaxcommunity would be considered the most stable, since, by definition, it changes the least over time. Alternatively, stability can be defined as the speed with which an ecosystem returns to a particular form following a major disturbance, such as a fire. This kind of stability is also called resilience. In that case, climax communities would be the most fragile and the least stable, since they can require hundreds of years to return to the climax state.Even the kind of stability defined as simple lack of change is not always associated with maximum diversity. At least in temperate zones, maximum diversity is often found in mid-successional stages, not in the climax community. Once a redwood forest matures, for example, the kinds of species and the number of individuals growing on the forest floor are reduced. In general, diversity, by itself, does not ensure stability. Mathematical models of ecosystems likewise suggest that diversity does not guarantee ecosystem stability—just the opposite, in fact. A more complicated system is, in general, more likely than a simple system to break down. A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child’s tricycle.Ecologists are especially interested to know what factors contribute to the resilience of communities because climax communities all over the world are being severely damaged or destroyed by human activities. The destruction caused by the volcanic explosion of Mount St. Helens, inthe northwestern United States, for example, pales in comparison to the destruction caused by humans. We need to know what aspects of a community are most important to the community’s resistance to destruction, as well as its recovery.Many ecologists now think that the relative long-term stability of climax communities comes not from diversity but from the “patchiness”of the environment, an environment that varies from place to place supports more kinds of organisms than an environment that is uniform.A local population that goes extinct is quickly replaced by immigrants from an adjacent community. Even if the new population is of a different species, it can approximately fill the niche vacated by the extinct population and keep the food web intact.Paragraph 1: Plant communities assemble themselves flexibly, and their particular structure depends on the specific history of the area. Ecologists use the term “succession”to refer to the changes that happen in plant communities and ecosystems over time. The first community in a succession is called a pioneer community, while the long-lived community at the end of succession is called a climax community. Pioneer and successional plant communities are said to change over periods from 1 to 500 years. These changes—in plant numbers and the mix of species—are cumulative. Climax communities themselves change but over periods of time greater than about 500years.1. The word “particular”in the passage is closest in meaning to○Natural○Final○Specific○Complex2. According to paragraph 1, which of the following is NOT true of climax communities?○They occur at the end of a succession.○They last longer than any other type of community.○The numbers of plants in them and the mix of species do not change.○They remain stable for at least 500 years at a time.Paragraph 2: An ecologist who studies a pond today may well find it relatively unchanged in a year’s time. Individual fish may be replaced, but the number of fish will tend to be the same from one year to the next. We can say that the properties of an ecosystem are more stable than the individual organisms that compose the ecosystem.3. According to paragraph 2, which of the following principles of ecosystems can be learned by studying a pond?○Ecosystem properties change more slowly than individuals in the system.○The stability of an ecosystem tends to change as individuals are replaced.○Individual organisms are stable from one year to the next.○A change in the members of an organism does not affect an ecosystem’s propertiesParagraph 3: At one time, ecologists believed that species diversity made ecosystems stable. They believed that the greater the diversity the more stable the ecosystem. Support for this idea came from the observation that long-lasting climax communities usually have more complex food webs and more species diversity than pioneer communities. Ecologists concluded that the apparent stability of climax ecosystems depended on their complexity. To take an extreme example, farmlands dominated by a single crop are so unstable that one year of bad weather or the invasion of a single pest can destroy the entire crop. In contrast, a complex climax community, such as a temperate forest, will tolerate considerable damage from weather of pests.4. According to paragraph 3, ecologists once believed that which of the following illustrated the most stable ecosystems?○Pioneer communities○Climax communities○Single-crop farmlands○Successional plant communitiesParagraph 4: The question of ecosystem stability is complicated, however. The first problem is that ecologists do not all agree what “stability”means. Stability can be defined as simply lack of change. In that case, the climax community would be considered the most stable, since, by definition, it changes the least over time. Alternatively, stability can be defined as the speed with which an ecosystem returns to a particular form following a major disturbance, such as a fire. This kind of stability is also called resilience. In that case, climax communities would be the most fragile and the least stable, since they can require hundreds of years to return to the climax state.5. According to paragraph 4, why is the question of ecosystem stability complicated?○The reasons for ecosystem change are not always clear.○Ecologists often confuse the word “stability”with the word “resilience.”○The exact meaning of the word “stability”is debated by ecologists.○There are many different answers to ecological questions.6. According to paragraph 4, which of the following is true of climax communities?○They are more resilient than pioneer communities.○They can be considered both the most and the least stablecommunities.○They are stable because they recover quickly after major disturbances.○They are the most resilient communities because they change the least over time.Paragraph 5: Even the kind of stability defined as simple lack of change is not always associated with maximum diversity. At least in temperate zones, maximum diversity is often found in mid-successional stages, not in the climax community. Once a redwood forest matures, for example, the kinds of species and the number of individuals growing on the forest floor are reduced. In general, diversity, by itself, does not ensure stability. Mathematical models of ecosystems likewise suggest that diversity does not guarantee ecosystem stability—just the opposite, in fact. A more complicated system is, in general, more likely than a simple system to break down. (A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child’s tricycle.)7. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 5 about redwood forests?○They become less stable as they mature.○They support many species when they reach climax.○They are found in temperate zones.○They have reduced diversity during mid-successional stages.8. The word “guarantee”in the passage is closest in meaning to○Increase○Ensure○Favor○Complicate9. In paragraph 5, why does the author provide the information that “(A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child’s tricycle)”?○To illustrate a general principle about the stability of systems by using an everyday example○To demonstrate that an understanding of stability in ecosystems can be applied to help understand stability in other situations ○To make a comparison that supports the claim that, in general, stability increases with diversity○To provide an example that contradicts mathematical models of ecosystemsParagraph 6: Ecologists are especially interested to know what factors contribute to the resilience of communities because climax communities all over the world are being severely damaged or destroyed by human activities. The destruction caused by the volcanic explosion of Mount St. Helens, in the northwestern United States, for example, pales in comparison to the destruction caused by humans. We need to knowwhat aspects of a community are most important to the community’s resistance to destruction, as well as its recovery.10. The word “pales”in the passage is closest in meaning to○Increases proportionally○Differs○Loses significance○Is commonParagraph 7：Many ecologists now think that the relative long-term stability of climax communities comes not from diversity but from the “patchiness”of the environment, an environment that varies from place to place supports more kinds of organisms than an environment that is uniform. A local population that goes extinct is quickly replaced by immigrants from an adjacent community. Even if the new population is of a different species, it can approximately fill the niche vacated by the extinct population and keep the food web intact.11.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incurred choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.○Ecologists now think that the stability of an environment is a result of diversity rather than patchiness.○Patchy environments that vary from place to place do not oftenhave high species diversity.○Uniform environments cannot be climax communities because they do not support as many types of organisms as patchy environments.○A patchy environment is thought to increase stability because it is able to support a wide variety of organisms.12.The word “adjacent”in the passage is closest in meaning to○Foreign○Stable○Fluid○NeighboringParagraph 6: Ecologists are especially interested to know what factors contribute to the resilience of communities because climax communities all over the world are being severely damaged or destroyed by human activities. The destruction caused by the volcanic explosion of Mount St. Helens, in the northwestern United States, for example, pales in comparison to the destruction caused by humans. We need to know what aspects of a community are most important to the community’s resistance to destruction, as well as its recovery.13.Look at the four squares [ ] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.In fact, damage to the environment by humans is often much more severe than damage by natural events and processes.Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square to add the sentence to the passage.14.Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.The process of succession and the stability of a climax community can change over time.Answer choices○The changes that occur in an ecosystem from the pioneer to the climax community can be seen in one human generation.○A high degree of species diversity does not always result in a stable ecosystem.○The level of resilience in a plant community contributes to its long-term stability.○Ecologists agree that climax communities are the most stable types of ecosystems.○Disagreements over the meaning of the term “stability”make it difficult to identify the most stable ecosystems.○The resilience of climax communities makes them resistant todestruction caused by humans.参考答案：1. ○32. ○33. ○14. ○25. ○36. ○27. ○38. ○29. ○110. ○311. ○412. ○4 13. ○214. ○2 3 5托福阅读译文：生态系统的长期稳定植物群体可以自由地聚集，他们特殊的结构取决于聚集区域的具体历史。

TPO-40 Reading 1 解析

Q1正确答案：C解析：第一段说明，当时希腊的city-states在800 B.C. 到500 B.C.这个时间段内兴起，并且每一个city-state都依据自己的情况建立了适合自己的政体系统(One of the most important changes …the polis, or city-state, and each polis developed a system of government that was appropriate to its circumstances.) 这就是说不同的city-states具有不同的政体和组织方式，这句话完全符合第三项的释义。

第一项错误，并没有说各个城市都采取了雅典的方式。

第二项不选，既然提到了贵族统治（aristocratic rule），文中只是说在这期间，遇到和解决的一些问题：在贵族和新兴阶层之间sharing political power，贵族生活方式的调整，并没有说city-state 是基于贵族统治的；第四项也不选，那时候的city-states是属于处在兴起的繁荣期，文章第1句话已经说明了。

Q2正确答案：C解析：除了第三个选项之外，剩余三项分别对应第一句列举的“an aristocratic council” “an assembly of adult males”以及“annually elected officials”，只有第三项没有提到。

Q3：正确答案：B解析：题目问的是确立财富多寡作为执政话语权基础的重要影响之一是什么。

整个第一句都是Solon的行为措施，比如开头说他确立了财富多寡作为执政的标准，而不是出身（he broke the aristocracy's stranglehold …establishing wealth rather than birth …）”等来打破贵族专权的统治。

从第二句开始就表达了影响：雅典贵族的影响力被进一步削弱，也就是B的同义表达。

TPO40 Lecture1

TPO40 Lecture1NarratorListen to part of a lecture in an art history class.ProfessorLast class I passed out your assignment for your first paper and today I want to spend some time going over it. Most people never take any art history until they get to college, so many of you have probably never written an art history paper before.I gave you a list of appropriate works of art for you to write about. So your next step in this process needs to be to go look at the work you've selected as your topic and bring a pencil and a notepad with you. Because I don't mean you should just drop by at the museum and glance at it, so you can say you've seen it in real life, you need to go and sit in front of the work and really look at it carefully and slowly, and keep careful notes about what you see. You'll need them for the kind of art history paper you are going to be writing. It's what we call a formal analysis.A formal analysis of a work of art, any kind of art, is based on its formal qualities, which means qualities related to the form.Things like color, texture, line, shapes, proportion and composition.Now, probably the closest thing to a formal analysis you might have written is for an English class. If, you've, say, written an analysis of a poem, you've used the same skills. You've given an analysis of the poem by describing and analyzing its form and meter. A formal analysis paper in art history is very similar.Now, before you begin writing your formal analysis, you'll want to start with a summary of the overall appearance of the work, a brief description of what you see: either figures, people, what are they doing, or is it a landscape, or an abstract representation of something. Tell what the subject is and what aspects are emphasized in the painting. This will give your reader an overview of what the work looks like before you analyze it.The next part of your paper, the actual formal analysis, would be the longest and most important section of your paper, where you describe and analyze individual design elements. For this portion of the paper, you are going to rely on the notes you took at the museum because you should be able to describe in detail the design elements the artist uses and how they are used. For example, does the artist use harsh lines or soft lines? Are the colors bright or muted? Focus on the design elements that you feel are most strongly represented in that particular work of art. And if you don't know where to begin, take note of where your eye goes first. Then describe things in the order in which your eye moves around the work. This will help you understand how one part relates to another, the interaction between the different parts of the work. 0k? This kind of analysis should occur throughout the main portion of the paper.In the last section of your paper, and this goes beyond formal analysis, you comment on the significance of what you've seen, what details of the work convey meaning. Some significant details will not be apparent to you right away. But if you look long enough, you realize how important they are for your interpretation of the work.Many years ago, I was writing a formal analysis of a painting of a little boy. In the painting, a little boy was standing in his nursery and he was holding a toy bird in his hand. And there were more toys around him in the background of the painting. Because of the bird he was holding, I assumed at first that the painting was about the innocence of children. But as I looked at the painting longer, I realized that the boy's eyes look sad even though there was no discernable expression on his face. And then it dawned on me that even though he was surrounded by toys, he was all alone in his nursery.The boy's eyes were a significant detail in the painting that I didn't notice at first.。

托福阅读 tpo40-2 WORD 打印Amphibian Thermoregulation

Amphibian ThermoregulationIn contrast to mammals and birds, amphibians are unable to produce thermal energy through their metabolic activity, which would allow them to regulate their body temperature independent of the surrounding or ambient temperature. However, the idea that amphibians have no control whatsoever over their body temperature has been proven false because their body temperature does not always correspond to the surrounding temperature. While amphibians are poor thermoregulators, they do exercise control over their body temperature to a limited degree.According to paragraph 1, what indicates that amphibians have some control over their body temperature?∙Amphibians can regulate their metabolic rates to generate energy.∙Amphibians use the same means of thermoregulation as mammals and birds do.∙The body temperature of amphibians sometimes differs from the temperature of their surroundings.∙The body temperature of amphibians is independent of their metabolic activity. Physiological adaptations can assist amphibians in colonizing habitats where extreme conditions prevail. The tolerance range in body temperature represents the range of temperatures within which a species can survive. One species of North American newt is still active when temperatures drop to -2ºC while one South American frog feels comfortable even when temperatures rise to 41ºC-the highest body temperature measured in a free-ranging amphibian. [] Recently it has been shown that some North American frog and toad species can survive up to five days with a body temperature of -6ºC with approximately one-third of their body fluids frozen. [] The other tissues are protected because they contain the frost-protective agents glycerin or glucose. [] Additionally, in many species the tolerance boundaries are flexible and can change as a result of acclimatization (long-term exposure to particular conditions). []Why does the author mention a “South American frog” species in the passage?∙To make the point that an amphibian’s temperature tolerance depends on a number of factors∙To indicate how precise the range of body temperatures is for certain amphibians∙To contrast its ability to adapt to that of the North American newt∙To help illustrate the range of environmental conditions to which amphibians have adaptedFrog species that remain exposed to the sun despite high diurnal (daytime) temperatures exhibit some fascinating modifications in the skin structure that functionas morphological adaptations. Most amphibian skin is fully water permeable and is therefore not a barrier against evaporation or solar radiation. The African savanna frog Hyperolius viridiflavus stores guanine crystals in its skin, which enable it to better reflect solar radiation, thus providing protection against overheating. The tree frog Phyllomedusa sauvagei responds to evaporative losses with gland secretions that provide a greasy film over its entire body that helps prevent desiccation (dehydration).“Phyllomedusa sauvagei” is mentioned as an example of a frog with an adaptation that∙protects its glandular system∙helps reduce its secretions∙increases the amount of solar radiation that its skin can reflect∙modifies its skin structure to protect against the drying effects of the sunHowever, behavior is by far the most important factor in thermoregulation. The principal elements in behavioral thermoregulation are basking (heliothermy), heat exchange with substrates such as rock or earth (thigmothermy), and diurnal and annual avoidance behaviors, which include moving to shelter during the day for cooling and hibernating or estivating (reducing activity during cold or hot weather, respectively). Heliothermy is especially common among frogs and toads: it allows them to increase their body temperature by more than 10ºC. The Andean toad Bufo spinulosus exposes itself immediately after sunrise on moist ground and attains its preferred body temperature by this means, long before either ground or air is correspondingly warmed. A positive side effect of this approach is that it accelerates the digestion of the prey consumed overnight, thus also accelerating growth. Thigmothermy is a behavior present in most amphibians, although pressing against the ground serves a dual purpose: heat absorption by conductivity and water absorption through the skin. The effect of thigmothermy is especially evident in the Andean toad during rainfall: its body temperature corresponds to the temperature of the warm earth and not to the much cooler air temperature.Paragraph 4 mentions each of the following as an example of behavioral thermoregulation EXCEPT∙pressing against the ground∙speeding up of the metabolism∙reducing activity during the summer∙adjusting exposure to the sunThe “Andean toad Bufo spinulosus” illustrates which of the following behavioral modifications?∙Heliothermy and thigmothermy∙Diurnal avoidance behavior∙Absorbing heat from the air∙Moving to shelter during the summerThe word “attains” in the passage is closest in meaning to∙raises∙lowers∙reaches∙regulatesThe phrase “this approach” in the passage refers to∙gradually increasing body temperature by 10ºC∙basking as soon as the sun comes up∙waiting for the ground and air to warm∙keeping body temperature above the temperature of the airAvoidance behavior occurs whenever physiological and morphological adaptations are insufficient to maintain body temperature within the vital range. Nocturnal activity in amphibians with low tolerance for high ambient temperatures is a typical thermoregulatory behavior of avoidance. Seasonal avoidance behavior is extremely important in many amphibians. Species whose habitat lies in the temperate latitudes are confronted by lethal low temperatures in winter, while species dwelling in arid and semi-arid regions are exposed to long dry, hot periods in summer.In amphibians hibernation occurs in mud or deep holes away from frost. North of the Pyrenees Mountains, the natterjack toad offers a good example of hibernation, passing the winter dug deep into sandy ground. Conversely, natterjacks in southern Spain remain active during the mild winters common to the region and are instead forced into inactivity during the dry, hot summer season. Summer estivation also occurs by burrowing into the ground or hiding in cool, deep rock crevasses to avoid desiccation and lethal ambient temperatures. A mphibians are therefore hardly at the mercy of ambient temperatures, since by means of the mechanisms described above they are more than able to exercise some control over their body temperature.In paragraph 6, which of the following can be inferred from the discussion of the natterjack?∙Amphibians have greater tolerance for heat than for cold.∙Desiccation is not a threat to amphibians.∙Both hibernation and estivation may serve as avoidance behaviors depending on the climate.∙Some species of amphibians are active only in the spring and in the fall.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.∙Thus, although amphibians use the various mechanisms described above, they have hardly any control of their body temperature.∙Thus, by the mechanisms described above, amphibians are quite capable of controlling their body temperature to survive extreme ambient temperatures.∙Thus, unless they can use the mechanisms described above, amphibians are at the mercy of ambient temperatures.∙Thus, the mechanisms described above give amphibians control over much more than just their body temperature.Look at the four squares [] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.On the other hand, amphibians in very hot climates use secretions from the mucus glands to decrease their temperature through evaporative cooling on the skin.。

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