词义的关系(sense_relations)_上外新世纪高等院校英语专业本科生系列教材__第六单元
词汇学Chapter 5 Sense relations 2
is polysemy.
• Polysemy shows the economy and efficiency of human languages. • Polysemy: the same word may have a set of different meanings.
Polysemy
– means that one single word has two or more senses at the same time. – Eg.
3) radiation + concatenation
B E A D C F G…
radiation + concatenation
• 综合性： 词义的变化是很复杂的，并不都按单一的方式进行。 在通常的情况下，词义的演变是两种方式交叉结合进 行的。由只有一个原始意义的单义词通过多种词义演 变过程发展为多义词的过程叫做词义的“繁衍” （proliferation）
– relations between senses
sense relations of polysemy
– 1.2.1 original meaning vs. extended meaning 原始意义vs.引申意义 – 1.2.2 universal meaning vs. particular meaning 普遍意义vs.特殊意义 – 1.2.3 abstract meaning vs. concrete meaning 抽象意vs.特殊意义 – 1.2.4 literal meaning vs. figurative meaning字面意义vs.比喻意义
There is no connection between A and B, because the middle link (A+B) has vanished. The primary meaning A has also vanished. Now the derived meaning has become the central meaning.
[英语学习]词义关系
![[英语学习]词义关系](https://img.taocdn.com/s3/m/178e1c43a98271fe910ef9b5.png)
2. 同义词辨析 p.169 How to distinguish synonyms
• The conceptual meaning is the core of the sense. Therefore to tell the minute different conceptual meaning is the essence to distinguish the synonyms. • 概念意义是词义的核心, 因此, 区别同义词 在核心意义的微小差别是区别同义词的核 心.
Examples
• Touch: • to make sb feel upset or sympathetic • (what he said really touched my heart)
• Move: • to cause sb to have strong feelings, • expecially of sympathy or sadnes. • (we were moved to tears at the scenes)
Examples (p.169-172)
• • • • • • • • Much, more Little, few Answer, reply Sick, ill Statesman, politician Mature, ripe Cuddle, hug, embrace 拥抱 fondle, touch
Lexical variation • Whenever-whensoever
• • • • • • Some words ending with ‘ward’ or ‘wards’ e.g. Toward-towards hippie-hippy Egoism-egotism Whisky-whiskey
全国教资统考：高中英语语言知识与能力之语义学分析
全国教资统考：高中英语语言知识与能力之语义学分析【高频考点】Sense Relations between Sentences句间意义关系1. X is synonymous with Y (X与Y同义)Two sentences may have the same meaning.X与Y在意义上是等同关系，若X为真，则Y为真;若X为假，Y 也为假。
X: He was a bachelor all his life. Y: He never got married all his life.2. X is inconsistent with Y (X与Y不一致)X与Y在意义上相互矛盾，若X为真，则Y为假;若Y为真，则X 为假。
X: This is my first visit to Beijing. Y: I have been to Beijing twice.3. Entail and Presuppose蕴含和预设(1) Entail蕴含X entails Y. (Y is an entailment of X.)A sentence (meaning) A entailsB (A ||- B) if whenever A is true, then B must also be true. It is a semantic relation.如果当A为真，B一定为真的时候，则A蕴含B。
蕴含是一种语义关系。
Sue and Fred went to the party ||- Sue went to the party(2) Presuppose预设X presupposes Y. (Y is a prerequisite of X.)Presuppositions are implications that are often felt to be in the background—to be assumed by the speaker to be already known to the addressee.预设通常被认为是一种背景信息，也就是说话者假设听者已经知道的信息。
Chapter 7 Social Relations
Chapter Seven Social RelationsConcepts 163Case HistoriesMate Choice163Case HistoriesSociality173Applications and ToolsThe Comparative Method—A Tool for Understanding Complex Evolutionary Histories178Summary 183Review Questions 183Suggested Readings 185On the Net 185Chapter 7Social Relations161 n early evening as the sun’s rays shine obliquelythrough the clear waters over a coral reef, theactivity of some of its inhabitants quickens.As if activated by some remote switch, a vastschool of fish that had remained in the lagoonall day begins to move steadily toward an open-ing in the reef. The school is leaving thelagoon’s protection and going out to the open seafor a night of feeding. Living in a school appears to havefavored uniformity among its members. Approached under-water, the edge of the school looks like a giant translucentcurtain stamped with the silhouettes of thousands of identicalfish. Their coloration, countershaded dark above and silverybelow, their similar size, highly coordinated movements, andgreat numbers give the fish within the school some protectionfrom predators. Though seabirds and predaceous fish ambushthe school as it makes its way, the schooling fish are sonumerous and their individual movements so difficult to fol-low that only a small proportion of them are eaten. Gradually the school, moving like a gigantic, shape-shifting organism, passes through the channel connecting the lagoon to the open sea. The school of fish will be back by daybreak only to repeat its seaward journey next evening in a cycle of comings and goings that helps mark the rhythm of life on the reef.Meanwhile along the reef, damselfish are distributed singly on territories. The damselfish retain exclusive posses-sion of their territorial patches of coral rubble, living coral, and sand by patrolling the boundaries and driving off any fish attempting to intrude, especially other damselfish that would take their territory or other fish that would prey on eggs or consume food within the territory. Each day at this time, how-ever, some territory-holding males are joined by females. For the space of time that they court and deposit eggs and sperm on the nest site prepared by the male, the territory contains two fish. Once mating is complete, however, the male is again alone on the territory, guarding the food and shelter contained within its boundaries as well as the newly deposited eggs that he fertilized minutes before.Higher along the reef face a male bluehead wrasse mates with a member of the harem of females that live within his territory (fig. 7.1). In contrast to the male with his blue head, black bars, and green body, the female is mostly yellow with a large black spot on her dorsal fin. As the male bluehead extrudes sperm to fertilize the eggs laid by the female, small males, similar in color to the female, streak by the mating pair, discharging a cloud of sperm as they do. Some of the female’s eggs will be fertilized by the large territorial blue-head male while others will be fertilized by the sperm dis-charged by the smaller yellow streakers. In addition to differences in color and courtship behavior, bluehead and yel-low males have distinctive histories. While the yellow males began their lives as males, the bluehead male began life as a female and only transformed to a male when the local blue-head male was eaten by a predator or met some other end. At that point, because she was the largest yellow phase among the local females and males, she was in line to become the dominant local male and so changed from the yellow to the bluehead form of the species. Within a week the former female was producing sperm and fertilizing the eggs pro-duced by the females in the territory.While male bluehead wrasses patrol their individual mating territories and male damselfish fight with each other at the boundaries of theirs, elsewhere on the reef groups of snapping shrimp live cooperatively in colonies that may con-tain over 300 individuals. Most of the individuals in the colonies are juveniles or males and each contains a single reproductive female. The female snapping shrimp, which plays a role much like the queen ant in an ant colony, breeds continuously and so is easily identified by her ripe ovaries or by the eggs she carries. Meanwhile the males of the colony, most of which will probably never mate, vigorously defend the nest site, with its “queen” shrimp and numerous juveniles against intruders. In this shrimp society most males serve the colony and its queen by protecting her offspring and the sponge where they live. While the queen reproduces pro-fusely, the chance to reproduce is probably rare for an indi-vidual male. The colony thrives but reproduction is restricted to a few individuals in the population.During a short swim over a coral reef you can observe great variation in social interactions among individuals belong-ing to the same species. Analogous variation can be found in terrestrial environments. In chapters 4, 5, and 6 of section II, we considered the relations of organisms to physical and chemical aspects of the environment, including temperature, water, energy, and nutrients. However, to an individual organism, other members of its own species are a part of the environment as significant to it as temperature, food, or the quantity and quality of available water. In chapter 7 we will consider some of the interrelations among individuals under the heading of social relations.The study of social relations is the territory of behavioral ecology,which concentrates on relationships between organ-isms and environment that are mediated by behavior. In the case of social relations, other individuals of a species are the part of the environment of particular interest. Abranch of biology FIGURE 7.1Bluehead wrasse male with yellow female of the species.Iconcerned with the study of social relations is sociobiology. Social relations, from dominance relationships and reproductive interactions to cooperative behaviors, are important since they often directly and obviously impact the reproductive contribu-tion of individuals to future generations, a key component of Darwinian or evolutionary fitness, usually referred to simply as fitness.Fitness can be defined as the number of offspring, or genes, contributed by an individual to future generations, which can be substantially influenced by social relations within a population.One of the most fundamental social interactions between individuals takes place during sexual reproduction. The timing of those interactions and their nature is strongly influenced by the reproductive system of a species. The behavioral ecologist considers several factors. Does the population engage in sexual reproduction? Are the sexes separate? How are the sexes dis-tributed among individuals? Are there several forms of one sex or the other? Questions such as these have drawn the attention of biologists since Darwin (1862) who wrote, “We do not even in the least know the final cause of sexuality; why new beings should be produced by the union of the two sexual elements, instead of by a process of parthenogenesis [production of off-spring from unfertilized eggs] . . . The whole subject is as yet hidden in darkness.” As you will see, behavioral and evolu-tionary ecologists have learned a great deal about the evolution and ecology of reproduction in the nearly one and a half cen-turies since Darwin published this statement. However, much remains to be discovered.Since mammals and birds reproduce sexually, from a human perspective sexual reproduction may appear the norm. However, asexual reproduction is common among many groups of organisms such as bacteria, protozoans, plants, and some vertebrates. However, most described species of plants and animals include male and female functions, sometimes in separate individuals or within the same individual. This brings us to a fundamental question in biology. What is female and what is male? From a biological perspective, the answer is simple. Females produce larger, more energetically costly gametes (eggs or ova), while males produce smaller, less costly gametes (sperm or pollen). Because of the greater energetic cost of producing their gametes, female reproduc-tion is thought to be generally limited by access to the neces-sary resources. In contrast, male reproduction is generally limited by access to female mates. Biologists long ago pro-posed that this difference in investment in gametes has usu-ally led to a fundamental dichotomy between actively courting males and highly selective females.Despite the basic differences between males and females, distinguishing the two sexes in nature is sometimes difficult. While it is easy to distinguish between males and females in species where males and females differ substan-tially in external morphology, the males and females of other species appear very similar and are very difficult to distin-guish using only external anatomy. Still other species are her-maphrodites,organisms that combine male and female function in the same individual (fig. 7.2). The most familiar examples of hermaphrodites are plants, among which the vast majority of species produce flowers that have both male and female parts. Among animals, fish provide many interesting examples of hermaphroditism. For instance, many species of small seabasses are hermaphrodites. As pairs within these species court, one member of the pair performs male-specific courtship behaviors while the other member of the pair pro-duces eggs. As the eggs are laid ,the first member of the pair fertilizes them. Later, the two fish may switch roles, with the second individual behaving as a male while the first assumes the female role and lays eggs.162Section IIIndividuals(a)(b)FIGURE 7.2Male and female function: (a) Male and female Canadageese, a species in which males and female have very similar externalanatomy, i.e., are monomorphic; (b) A“perfect” flower which includes bothmale (stamens) and female (pistil) parts and function.Chapter 7Social Relations163Many aspects of sexual function that we may take for granted represent complex biological problems that have puz-zled biologists for generations. For example, what factors have favored separate sexes in some species and hermaphrodites in others. Eric Charnov, J. Maynard Smith, and James Bull (1976) addressed this question in a classic paper titled, “Why Be a Hermaphrodite?” These authors identified three condi-tions that should favor a hermaphroditic population over one with separate sexes: (1) low mobility, which limits the oppor-tunities for male to male competition, which often depends on structures designed to find and compete aggressively for females, (2) low overlap in resource demands by female and male structures and functions, such as in plants, where pollen production often occurs earlier in the season than seed matu-ration, and (3) sharing of costs for male and female function, for instance in insect-pollinated plants where attractive flowers promote both male and female reproductive success.Clearly, the way populations are divided between the sexes will influence social relations, which will in turn affect the fitness of individuals, particularly through influences on their reproductive rates. Here are two concepts that have emerged from studies of social relations that provide examples of the complex relationships between social interactions and fitness. These concepts form the framework of this chapter.C O N C E P T S•Mate choice by one sex and/or competition for mates among individuals of the same sex can result in selec-tion for particular traits in individuals, a process calledsexual selection.•The evolution of sociality is generally accompanied by cooperative feeding, defense of the social group, andrestricted reproductive opportunities.CASE HISTORIES:mate choiceMate choice by one sex and/or competi-tion for mates among individuals of thesame sex can result in selection for par-ticular traits in individuals, a processcalled sexual selection.Darwin (1871) proposed that the social environment, particularly the mating environment, could exert significant influence on the characteristics of organisms. He was particularly intrigued by the existence of what he called “secondary sexual characteristics,”the origins of which he could not explain except by the advan-tages they gave to individuals during competition for mates.Darwin used the term secondary sexual characteristics to mean characteristics of males or females not directly involved in the process of reproduction. Some of the traits that Darwin had in mind were “gaudy colors and various ornaments . . . the power of song and other such characters.” How do we explain the exis-tence of characteristics such as the antlers of male deer, the bright peacock’s tail, or the gigantic size and large nose of the male ele-phant seal? In order to explain the existence of such secondary sexual characteristics, Darwin proposed a process that he called sexual selection.Sexual selection results from differences in reproductive rates among individuals as a result of differences in their mating success.Sexual selection is thought to be important under two circumstances. The first is where individuals of one sex com-pete among themselves for mates, which results in a process called intrasexual selection.For instance, when male moun-tain sheep or elephant seals fight among themselves for domi-nance or mating territories, the largest and strongest generally win such contests. In such situations the result is often selec-tion for larger body size and more effective weapons such as horns or teeth. Since this selection is the result of contests within one sex, it is called intrasexual selection.Sexual selection can also occur when members of one sex consistently choose mates from among members of the opposite sex on the basis of some particular trait. Because two sexes are involved, this form is called intersexual selection. Examples of traits used for mate selection include female birds choosing among potential male mates based on the brightness of their feather colors or on the quality of their songs. Darwin proposed that once individuals of one sex begin to choose mates on the basis of some anatomical or behavioral trait, sex-ual selection would favor elaboration of the trait. For instance, the plumage of male birds’color might become brighter over time or their songs more elaborate or both.However, how much can sexual selection elaborate a trait before males in the population begin to suffer higher mortality due to other sources of natural selection, such as that exerted by predators? Darwin proposed that sexual selec-tion will continue to elaborate a trait until balanced by other sources of natural selection, such as predation. Since Darwin’s early work on the subject, research has revealed a great deal about how organisms choose mates and the basis of sexual selection. An excellent model for such studies is the guppy, Poecilia reticulata.Mate Choice and Sexual Selection in GuppiesIt would be difficult for experimental ecologists interested in mate choice and sexual selection to design a better experimental animal than the guppy (fig. 7.3). Guppies are native to the streams and rivers of Trinidad and Tobago, islands in the south-eastern Caribbean, and in the rivers draining nearby parts of the South American mainland. The waters inhabited by guppies range from small clear mountain streams to murky lowlandrivers. Along this gradient of physical conditions, guppies also encounter a broad range of biological situations. In the headwa-ters of streams above waterfalls, guppies live in the absence of predaceous fish or with the killifish Rivulus hartii,which preys mainly on juveniles and is not a very effective predator on adult guppies. In contrast, guppies in lowland rivers live with a wide variety of predaceous fish, including the pike cichlid, Crenicichla alta,a very effective visual predator of adult guppies.Male guppies show a broad range of coloration both within and among populations. What factors may produce this range of variation? It turns out that female guppies, if given a choice, will mate with more brightly colored males. However, brightly colored males are attacked more frequently by visual predators. This trade-off between higher mating success by bright males but greater vulnerability to predators provides a mechanistic explanation for variation in male coloration among different habitats. The most brightly colored male guppies are found in populations exposed to few predators, while those exposed to predators, such as the pike cichlid, are much less brightly colored (Endler 1995). Thus the coloration of male guppies in local populations may be determined by a dynamic interplay between natural selection exerted by pred-ators and by female mate choice.While field observations are consistent with a trade-off between sexual selection due to mate choice and natural selection due to predation, the evidence would be more con-vincing with an experimental test. John Endler (1980) per-formed such a test in an exemplary study of natural selection for color pattern in guppies.Experimental TestsEndler performed two experiments, one in artificial ponds in a greenhouse at Princeton University (fig. 7.4) and one at field sites (fig. 7.5). For the greenhouse experiments, Endler constructed 10 ponds designed to approximate pools in the streams of the Northern Range in Trinidad. Four of the ponds were of a size (2.4 m ×1.2 m ×40 cm) typical of the pools inhabited by a single pike cichlid in smaller streams. During the final phase of the experiment, Endler placed a single pike cich-lid in each of these ponds. The six other ponds were similar in size (2.4 m ×1.2 m ×15 cm) to stream pools in the headwaters which contain approximately 6 Rivulus.Endler eventually placed 6 Rivulus in 4 of these ponds and maintained the other two ponds with no predators as controls. What did Endler create with this series of pools and predator combinations? These three groups of ponds represented three levels of predation: high pre-dation (pike cichlid), low predation (Rivulus), and no predation.However, before introducing predators, Endler estab-lished similar physical environments in the pools and stocked them with carefully chosen guppies. He lined all ponds with commercially available dyed gravel, taking care to put the same proportions of gravel colors in each of the ponds. The gravel he used in all ponds was 31.4% black, 34.2 % white, 25.7 % green, plus 2.9% each of blue, red, and yellow. Why did Endler take great care to put the same colors of gravel in the same proportions into all of his ponds? One of the most critical elements of the experiment was to standardize the background colors across all of the ponds. The influence of prey color on vulnerability to predators depends on the back-ground against which the prey is viewed by visual predators. As a consequence, controlling background color was of criti-cal importance to Endler’s experiments.Endler stocked the experimental pond with 200 gup-pies, which were descended from 18 different populations in Trinidad and Venezuela. By drawing guppies from so many populations, Endler ensured that the experimental populations would include a substantial amount of color variation. As we will see in chapter 8, genetic variation is an essential require-ment for evolutionary change in populations.Endler’s second experiment was conducted in the field within the drainage network of the Aripo River (fig 7.5), where he encountered three distinctive situations within a few kilo-meters. Within the mainstream of the Aripo River, guppies coexisted with a wide variety of predators, including pike cichlids, which provided a “high predation” site. Upstream from the high predation site, Endler discovered a small tribu-tary which flowed over a series of waterfalls near its junction with the mainstream. Because the waterfalls prevented most fish from swimming upstream, this tributary was entirely free of guppies but supported a population of the ineffective pred-ator Rivulus.This potential “low predation” site provided an ideal situation for following the evolution of male color. The third site, which was a bit farther upstream, was a small tribu-tary that supported guppies along with Rivulus.This third site gave Endler a low predation reference site for his study. Endler captured 200 guppies in the high predation environment, measured the coloration of these guppies, and then introduced them to the site lacking guppies. Six months later the intro-duced guppies and their offspring had spread throughout the previously guppy-free tributary. Finally 2 years or about 15164Section IIIndividualsFIGURE 7.3A colorful male guppy courting a female guppy: What are the influences of mate selection by female guppies and natural selection by predators?Chapter 7Social Relations165guppy generations after the introduction, Endler returned and sampled the guppies at all three study sites.The results of the greenhouse and field experiments sup-ported each other. As shown in figure 7.6, the number of colored spots on male guppies increased in the greenhouse ponds with no predators and with Rivulus but decreased in the high preda-tion ponds containing pike cichlids. Figure 7.7, which summa-rizes the results of Endler’s field experiment, compares the number of spots on males in high predation and low predation stream environments with guppies transferred from the high predation environment to a low predation environment. Notice that the transplanted population converged with the males at the low predation reference site during the experiment. In other words, when freed from predation, the average number of spots on male guppies increased substantially. This result, along with the results of the greenhouse experiment, supports the hypothe-sis that predation reduces male showiness in guppy populations.Research by many other researchers supports the impact of predators on male ornamentation. However, the observation that male colorfulness increased in the absence of predators or in the presence of weak predation both in the field and the lab-oratory invites explanation. Why did male color increase rather that just remain static? The observed changes imply that color-ful males enjoy some selective advantage. That advantage appears to result from how female guppies choose their mates. Mate Choice by Female GuppiesWhat cues do female guppies use to choose their mates? Anne Houde (1997), who summarized the findings of numerous studies, found that several male traits were associated with greater mating success. The weight of the evidence supports the conclusion that male coloration contributes significantly to male mating success. Color characteristics that have been shown to confer a male mating advantage include “bright-ness,” number of red spots, number of blue spots, iridescent area, total pigmented area, and carotenoid or orange area. These results appear to account for the increase in male col-orfulness observed by Endler in the absence of predation or in the presence of low predation pressure. That is, female pref-erence for more colorful males gave them greater fitness in the absence of strong predation. As a consequence, male col-orfulness increased in the study populations in low predation or no predation environments. Male behavior, especially their rate of making courtship displays, has also been found asso-ciated with increased male mating success.Decreased color in male guppies supports the hypothesis that visual predators feed disproportionately oncolorful males.Results Increased color in male guppiesDecreased color in male guppiesIncreased colorin male guppies Low predationRivulusplus guppiesHigh predation Pike cichlid plus guppiesNo predationGuppies only Experimental conditionsIncreased color in low andnonpredatory environmentssupports the hypothesis thatcolorful males have a matingadvantage.FIGURE 7.4Summary of greenhouse experimental design and results (information from Endler 1980).There have been fewer studies of how competition among males, that is intrasexual selection, may influence male mating success. Let’s look at one of the few studies that does.Astrid Kodric-Brown (1993) studied whether competitive interactions among males contribute to variation in male mat-ing success. She obtained guppies for her behavioral experi-ments from stock John Endler had originally collected from the Aripo and Paria Rivers in Trinidad. Males and females used in the behavioral experiments were reared separately.Males were kept in 95-liter aquaria in populations consisting of 10 males and 20 females. Meanwhile virgin females were reared in all-female groups of sisters until they were 6 months old. During this period they had no visual contact with males.166Section II IndividualsExperimental designRivulus onlyRivulusHigh predationGuppies in mainstream remained less colorfulAripo Riverother predatorsFIGURE 7.5Field experiment on effects of predation on male guppy coloration (information from Endler 1980).Both males and females were fed a standardized diet and maintained at the same temperatures and exposed to the same numbers of hours of dark and light.From her stock populations, Kodric-Brown chose 59pairs of males with contrasting colors and 59 females. To test female preference she placed a single female into the central chamber of a test tank and each member of a male pair in the side chambers flanking the central chamber. Screens cover-ing glass partitions prevented visual contact between males and females initially. After 10 minutes of acclimation by the guppies, Kodric-Brown removed the screens. Once the screens were removed males would usually begin courtship displays and the female would inspect the males throughChapter 7Social Relations 167the glass partition. Kodric-Brown recorded the behavior of males and females in the display tank for 10 minutes, record-ing the time and the rates at which males displayed, and the amount of time the female spent within 5 cm of the glass par-tition of each male. She designated the male that the female spent the most time with as the preferred or attractive male and the male with which the female spent less time as the nonpreferred or unattractive male.After this initial 10-minute period during which females indicated their preferences, Kodric-Brown removed the glass partitions separating the guppies, allowing interac-tions among the males and the female. Kodric-Brown observed that males engaged in agonistic interactions, such as chasing and nipping, in over 94% of mating trials, which gave her a basis for determining which males were behaviorally dominant and which were subordinate. Kodric-Brown recorded the interactions between the two males and between the males and the female until 5 minutes after a copulation.After a mating trial the female was moved to a rearing tank where she eventually gave birth. The offspring from each female were raised separately. In order to establish paternity,male offspring were raised to maturity when they expressed their full coloration, which is inherited from their fathers.The results of Kodric-Brown’s experiments indicate that reproductive success was determined by a combination of male attractiveness and male dominance status. Female mate preference, which was determined when the guppies had visual contact only, was highly correlated with subse-quent male mating success (fig. 7.8). The males that attracted females when viewed through the glass partition subse-quently sired a greater percentage of broods than did unat-tractive males. Approximately 67% of the broods were sired by attractive males compared to 33% that were sired by unat-tractive males. However, it appears that male dominance sta-tus also contributes to male reproductive success. Among unattractive males that sired broods, 87.5% were dominant.The conclusion that reproductive success is determined by a combination of competition between males and female choice is reinforced by the low reproductive success by males that were neither attractive nor dominant. These males,which lacked the apparent advantages associated with either dominance or attractiveness, sired only 4% of the broods.The result indicates that reproductive opportunities are highly restricted for these males.The characteristics associated with male mating success among guppies are often correlated. Kodric-Brown observed that attractive males tended to be dominant, court more, and have more and brighter orange and iridescent spots. These characteristics are closely associated with a male’s anatomy and physiology. Let’s look at a mating system where male attractiveness is dependent upon complex behaviors that in effect extend the male phenotype.Mate Choice Among ScorpionfliesScorpionflies (fig. 7.9) belong to the order Mecoptera, a group of insects most closely related to the caddisflies (order Trichoptera) and the moths and butterflies (order Lepidoptera).The common name “scorpionfly” is related to the way that males hold their genitalia over the back of their abdomens in a position that suggests a scorpion’s sting. Despite their appear-ance, male scorpionflies are entirely harmless to people.N u m b e r o f s p o t s p e r m a l eFounder populationStart of predation5 months Population14 monthsFIGURE 7.6Results of greenhouse experiment which exposed popula-tions of guppies to no predation, low predation (killifish) and high preda-tion (pike cichlid) environments (data from Endler 1980).N u m b e r o f s p o t s p e r m a l eHigh predationHigh predation Low predation Transferred from high predation to low predation experimental siteLow predationConditionsFIGURE 7.7Results of field experiment involving transfer of guppies from high predation site to site with killifish, a fairly ineffective predator (data from Endler 1980).。
语义关系
Synonyms different in collocation
Words are similar in meaning but co-occur with different words.
E.g.
Assassinate and murder
President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas in 1963. He was murdered by a killer yesterday. Assassinate and murder refer to killing a person deliberately, but they are different in collocation. The former requires an object that denotes a very important person and the verb implies a political motivation of the action; the latter is followed by a noun or pronoun that denotes an ordinary person and the action is not for political purpose.
Differences between relative synonyms
We often take the following things into consideration when we try to find the differences between synonyms.
Problems with the definition
Sense relations 语义关系ppt课件
structure, phonological form and usage are
synonyms, and the relationship between them
is one of synonymy.
.
5
types of synonymy
• total / absolute / perfect synonyms • partial synonyms （部分同义词）
.
4
Synonymy
• Synonymy
is a term used in semantics to refer to
a major type of sense relation between
lexical items: lexical items which have the
same meaning but differ in morphemic
• Native
foreign
room
chamber
foe
enemy
begin
commence
buy
purchase
bodily
corporal
.
11
heaven
sky
Chapter6 词义关系
•
Synonyms are different phonological words which have the same or very similar meanings. • (couch/sofa boy/lad large/big) • types of synonyms – Complete synonyms (submarine vs. U-boats, wordformation vs. word-building, mother tongue vs. native language, 吉他/六弦琴) – Relative synonyms • In degree of a given quality or in shade of meaning Finish/complete/close/conclude/end/terminate/finalize 优良/优秀/优异
The Use of antonyms
• Rhetoric functions: More haste, less speed. United we stand, divided we fall. Hope for the best and prepare for the worst.
HYPONYMY
CHAPTER VI
SENSE RELATIONS BETWEEN WORDS
1. Synonymy – Definition of synonyms – types of synonyms – Sources of synonyms – How to distinguish the meaning of synonyms – The appropriate use of synonyms 2. Antonymy – Types of antonyms – Features of antonyms – The use of antonyms 3. Hyponymy 4. taxonomy
词义关系
一、同义关系
6、易混淆的词 英语中有些词的拼写和发音相似，又是常用词， 所以容易混淆，被称为“容易混淆的 词”(confusable words). 详参P174-P175.
一、同义关系
练习：
1. 2.
练习一至练习五； 练习九 on P133.
一、同义关系
1、概念 The vocabulary of a given language 客观世界的矛盾对立现象反映在词汇里，就是词义 的反义关系 。互相矛盾对立的一对词就 is not (antonymy) simply a list of independent 是反义词 (antonyms) 。 items, but is organized into fields, within which words interrelate and 2、反义词的类型(P1824-P185) define each other in various ways.
4、同义词的辨析
Differences in stylistic level Your report on child abuse has evoked serious concern. He gave a vivid account of the car accident.
Report：Formal. often used to refer to information about recent events, esp. in newspapers and on television and radio; what’s in it is often more or less authoritative. Account: Common. often used to refer to the written or spoken detailed description of what happened to oneself or what one saw or experienced.
英语语言学概论第五章笔记
There are words that bear the same meaning but express different emotions of the user, indicating the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about.
意念论认为，语言形式及其所代表的对象之间（即语言与现实世界之间）没有直接联系；确切地说，在理解语义时，是通过大脑中存在意念这一中介物来联系的。
3)Contextualism语境论
Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context and the linguistic context.
Autumn fall
Lift elevator
Flat department
Windscreen windshield
Torch flashlight
b)Stylistic synonyms – synonyms differing in style.
Words having the same meaning may differ in style, or degree of formality. In other words, some words tend to be more formal, others casual, and still others neutral in style.
英汉词语翻译技巧汇总
Semantic Relations of Words 词义关系
英语中的hippie（嬉皮士），cowboy（牛仔），hot dog （热狗），hamburger（汉堡），bingo game（宾果游戏，一种 数字抽奖叫号游戏），等等；
汉语中的“糖葫芦”、“三教九流”、“四书五经”、 “三伏”、“三九”、“阴阳”、“三个代表”、“八荣八 耻”，等等。
1.3 文化内涵 (Cultural Implications)
各个社会都有其独特的文化，文化包罗万象，无处不 在，渗透在社会的各个方面。语言是一种特殊的文化，是 文化的载体和写照；同时，它的形成和发展又或直接或间 接地受到社会文化因素的影响。词语是构成语言大厦的基 石，因此，各民族文化的个性特征经过历史的积淀而结晶 在词汇层面上，词语承载着丰厚的文化内涵。有效地把握 语言与文化之间的内在联系，准确地理解词语的文化内涵， 我们才能最大限度地传达语言载体所承载的文化信息，做 出精当的翻译。
词语的翻译（一） 英汉词语对比
1.1 构词特征 1.2 词义关系 1.3 文化内涵
1.1 构词特征 (Features of Word Formation)
汉语：字，词组，由“字”所构成的灵活多样、数量巨大的词 是汉语使用的主体层级，其使用价值为最高。
早期汉语词语以单音节和多音节的单纯词居多：“天”，地”， “人”，“蜘蛛”，“彷徨”，“窈窕”，“徘徊”，等等。发 展过程中，汉语词汇构词方式日益多样化，合成词逐渐增多；汉 语还吸收了许多外ns of Words 词义关系
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• discover和find
• I found/discovered a strange stone in the pool. 发现，找到
• Marie Curie discovered radium in 1898. 第一次发现，找到
• 搭配上的差异则更多 ripe、mature、和perfect (第一个指水果，第二个指人，第三个指事情、人、情况)
• 情况，状况situation,occasion,circumstance
in the situation,
on the occasion,
under the circumstance • 一群的，成群的
produce-----create-----manufacture
↓
↓
↓
中性词 褒义词 贬义词
生产 创造
机械生产
D.用法和搭配的差异
• 用法上的差异主要是指同义词的语法特征的不同。 sleeping和asleep sleeping children 前置定语 children asleep 后置定语 answer 和 reply answer:及物动词，answer a letter reply: 不及物动词，reply to a letter
a flock of birds 一群鸟 a swarm of bees 一群蜜蜂 a gang of hooligans 一群暴徒 a herd of elephants 一群大象 a shoal of fish 一群鱼 a group of people 一群人
• 文体差异：
girl: girlie(口语体), lass(方言),skirt(俚语), maiden(诗歌体), damsel(古词)
meal: snack(口语体), snap(方言), feast(书 面体)
to leave: to be off(口语体), to hoof it( 俚语)stingy.
a notorious murderer, robber, swindler 一个臭名昭著的杀人犯，强盗，骗子
a famous teacher, professor 一个有名的教师，教授
a celebrated scholar, artist, man-of-letters 一个声名远扬的学者，艺术家，作家
I found it easy to play basketball. 感觉，觉得
5、词义的辨析
词与词之间细微的语义差别
具
体 差
文体差别
异
主
要 表
感情色彩差别
现
用法和搭配差别
A.细微的语义差别
• 主要指同义词之间存在的概念意义上的差别 • excellent、perfect、outstanding • 三个词都形容“事物极好”（to describe sth that is good
） • excellent尤用于“服务或人们努力达到的标准”，如The
rooms are ~ value at 20 dollars a night.亦用于表示“愉 快或赞同”，如You can all come？Excellent！ • outstanding尤指“做某事或在某方面杰出”，如He is an outstanding athlete. • perfect尤指“条件状况极好或很合适”，如She came up with the perfect excuse. • P93
艺术等 ）
4、同义词的类型
• A.完全同义词（absolute 、exact、perfect synonyms）： 词义完全相同、在所有语境中都是等义关系的词。
• 主要指一些专有名词和术语 • word building和word formation （构词法） • breathed consonant和voiceless consonant（清辅音）
to depart( 书面体)
C.感情色彩的差别
• 主要是指由于说话者对同一事物表现出不同态度而使词的 内涵意义（connotative meaning）产生了差别。意义相同 的词会被分为贬义、褒义和中性词。
• 如：economical、thrifty、stingy
↓
↓
↓
中性词 褒义词 贬义词
You are economical.
——
第 六 单 元词
义 的 关 系
词义的关系（sense relations）
• 指词汇系统中词与词之间的意义关系，这里的意义我们指 的是词的概念性意义。
同义反义关系
一词多义关系
词
义
同形异义关系
的
关 系
上义下义关系
分类关系
部分整体关系
一、同义关系 (Synonymy)
• 1、两个或以上有相同意义的关系的词，这样的词叫做同 义词（synonym）。
•
That object is a bird.
•
That living thing is a bird.
3、同义词的来源
• 英语中同义词的产生主要是由于英语词汇中的大量借词 • A.诺曼底登陆之前：拉丁语和斯堪的纳维亚语 • B.1066诺曼底人征服英国：法语词汇（政治、法律、宗教
、烹调、服饰） • C.文艺复兴运动：希腊词和拉丁词（文化、学术、科学、
B.文体差别
• 主要是因为因语言使用场合的不同而造成多个词表达相同 意义。
• 正式场合和非正式场合 • die---decease praise---eulogy argument---
disputation • 根据文体差别，同义词可包括：口语体（colloquial）、俚
语（slang）、方言（dialect）、书面体（written）、学术 体（learned）、诗歌体（poetic）、术语体（ terminological）、古词（archaic）等
以什么标准来定义相同意义？
• 2、定义相同意义的标准： • A. 概念标准（conceptual criterion）：wind和breeze • B. 语义标准（semantic criterion）：stare和glare • C. 可替换性标准（interchangeable criterion）：