自考英语语言学Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics
chapter9psycholinguistics
Chapter 9 ： PsycholinguisticsI.Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1.The linguistic ability of human beings depends primarily on the structure of the vocal cords.2.Human beings are the only organisms in which one particular part of the lefthalf of the brain is larger than the corresponding part of the right half.3.The case of Phineas Gage suggests that if our language ability is located in the brain, it is clear that it is not situated right at the front.4.In general, the right side of the brain controls voluntary movements of, and responds to signals from, the left side of the body, whereas the left side controls voluntarymovements of, and responds to signals from, the right side of the body.5.L a nguage functions are believed t o b e lateralized p rimarily in the left hemisphereof the brain.6.The language we speak determines the way we perceive the world a nd t hereforethe nature of thought.7.Human beings can not think without language, just as they can not speak without thinking.8.If a language lacks a word, its speakers will not be able to grasp its concept.9.Generally speaking, left hemisphere is responsible for language and speech, analytic reasoning, associative thought, etc., while the right hemisphere is responsible for perception of nonlinguistic sounds, holistic reasoning, recognition of musical melodies, etc.nguage by no means determines the ways we perceive the objective world, but by its c onvenience, availability, and habitual use, does influence the perceptions of humanbeing.II.Fill in each of the blanks below with one word which begins with the letter given:11.P is the study of language in relation to the mind.12.The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain, called the cerebral c , which is the decision-making organ of the body.13.The brain is divided into two roughly symmetrical halves, called h , one onthe right and one on the l eft.14.The localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular side of thebrain is called l .15.Brain lateralization is g programmed, but takes time to develop.16.In addition to the m_____________area which is responsible for physical articulation of utterances, three areas of the left hemisphere are vital to language, namely, Broca's area,Wernicke's area and the angular gyrus.17.The relationship between the name and the meaning of a word is quitea .18.When language and t hought are identical or closely parallel to e ach other, we m ayregard thought as s speech and speech as o thought.19.Because languages differ in many ways, Whorf believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experience the world differently, relative to their linguistic background.This notion is called linguistic r .20.The basic essentials of the first language are acquired in the short period fromabout age two to puberty, which is called the c period for first language acquisition.21.The strong version of Sapir-Whorf hypothesis has two aspects: linguistic d_______ and linguistic relativism.III.There are four choices following e ach statement. Mark the choicethat can bestcomplete the statement:22.Human linguistic ability largely depends on the structure and dynamics of.A. human brainB. human vocal cordsC. human memoryD. human23.Psychologists, neurologists and lingui sts have concluded that, in addition to themotor area which is responsible for physical articulation of utterances, three areas of the leftbrain are vital to language, namely, .A.Broca's area, Wernicke's area and t he angular gyrusB.Broca's area, Wernicke's area and c erebral cortexC.Broca's area, Wernicke's area and n euronsD.Broca's area, Wernicke's area and E xner's area24.The ____ age for the acquisition of the first language coincides with the period o brain lateralization.A. youngestB. flexibleC. optimumD. relevant25.Linguistic is the brain's neurological specialization for language.A. fossilizationB. performanceC. competenceD. lateralization26.Our linguistic ability is a gift of the species' gene p rogram.A. chemicalB. physicalC. scientificD. biological27.s hows that if our language ability is located in the brain, it is clear that it isnot situated right at the front of the brain.A.The case of GenieB. The case of Phineas GageC. The componential analysisD. The contrastive analysis28.The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain, called.A. the neuronsB. nerve pathwaysC. cerebral cortex d. sensory organs29.A c c ording t o l ateralization theory, which of the following i s not the primary functionof the left hemisphere of the brain?A. analytic reasoningB. temporal orderingC. associative thoughtD.visual and spatial skills30.is commonly held to be an evolutionary precondition of the development of superior intelligence as well as a precondition of language acquisition.A. LateralizationB. MaturationC. Brain separationD. Memory capacity31.The dichotic listening research shows that the left hemisphere is not superior f or processing all sounds, but only for those that are in nature.A. non-linguisticB. musicalC. linguisticD. natural32.is responsible for physical articulation of utterances.A. The motor areaB. Broca's areaC. Wernicke's areaD. The angular gyrusnguage disorder resulting from a damage toin the brain reveals word-finding difficulties and problems with syntax.A. the m otor areaB. Broca's areaC. Wernicke's areaD. the angular g yrus34.In 1874, the young German physician Carl Wernicke published his discovery in a paper which contributed to the hypothesis that .A.there was only one language area in the left brainB.there was no language area in the left brainC.there was one language area in the right brainD.there was more than one language area in the left brain.35.is the language center primarily responsible for converting a visual stimulus into an auditory form and vice versa.A. The motor areaB. Broca's areaC. Wernicke's areaD. The angular gyrus36.The neurobiologist Eric Lenneberg is a major proponent of the idea that .A.there is a distinction between acquisition and learningB.there is a critical period for language acquisitionnguage influences thinkingD.there is interrelationship between language and thinking37.The case of Genie s hows that .nguage can not be acquired at all after the critical period.B.Cerebral plasticity after puberty is still high enough to for a successful mastery of a new language.C.the language faculty of an average human degenerates after the critical periodD.the language learning should be done as early as possible.IV Explain the following terms:38.psycholinguistics 39. brain lateralization40. dichotic listening 41. Broca's area42. angular gyms 43. cerebral plasticity44. linguistic determinism 45. sub vocal speech46. cerebral cortex 47. linguistic lateralization48. right ear advantage 49. critical period hypothesis50. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 51. linguistic relativism52. overt thought 53. intrapersonal communication54.interpersonal communicationV. Answer thefollowingquestions:55.What are the biological foundations of language?56.What are the major mental functions under the control of each hemisphere?57.What can we do by means of dichotic listening tests?58.What is the safe conclusion from Genie's case?59.How are language and thought related to each other?Chapter 9 PsycholinguisticsI.Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. F2.T3.T4.T5.T6. F7.F8.F9.T 10.TII.II. Fill in each of the blanks below with one word which begins with the letter given:11. Psycholinguistics 12. cortex 13. hemispheres 14. lateralization15. genetically 16. Motor 17. arbitrary 18. sub-vocal, overt 19.relativism20. critical 21. determinismIII.There arefour choices following e ach statement. Mark the choice that can bestcomplete the statement:22.A 23.A 24.C 25.D 26.D 27.B 28.C 29.D 30.A31.C 32. A 33. B 34. D 35. D 36. B 37. CIV Explain the following t erms:38.Psycholinguistics: Psycholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind.39.brain lateralization: The localization of cognitive and perceptual functions ina particular hemisphere of the brain is called brain lateralization.40.dichotic listening: a research technique which has been used to study how the brain controls h earing and language, with which subjects wear earphones and simultaneously receive different sounds in the right and left ear, and are then asked to repeat what they hear. Dichotic listening research makes use of the generally established fact that anything experienced on the right-hand side of the body is processed in the left hemisphere of thebrain, andvice versa. A basic assumption, thus, would bethat a signal coming in the right earwill go to the left hemisphere and a signal coming in the left ear will go to the right hemisphere.41.Broca's area : It refers to the frontal lobe in the left cerebral hemisphere, whichis vital to language. This area is discovered by Paul Broca, a French surgeon and anatomist.42.angular gyms:The angular gyrus lies behind Wernicke's area.The angular g i syrus the language center responsible for converting a visual stimulus into an auditory form a ndvice versa. This area is crucial for the matching of a spoken form with a perceived object, forthe naming of objects, and for the comprehension of written language , all of which require connections between visual and speech regions.43.cerebral plasticity: According to L enneberg, p rior to the end o f the critical period, both hemispheres are involved to s ome extent in language and o ne c an take o ver if the otheris damaged. This neurological flexibility is called cerebral plasticity .44.linguistic determinism: a theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf, which states that the way people view the world is determined bythe structure of their native language.45.subvocal speech: a term used to refer to thought when thought and language areidentical or closely parallel to each other.46.cerebral cortex : the outside surface of the brain which receives messages fromall thesensory organs and where human cognitive abilities reside.47.linguistic lateralization: It refers the brain's neurological specialization for language.48.right ear advantage: The speech signals presented i n the right ear goes directly to theleft brain, while the speech signals in the left ear must first go to the right hemisphere, from where it is transferred to the left side of the brain for processing. Since the speech signals inthe left ear takes a non-direct route and a longer time before processing than a linguisticsignal received through the right ear, linguistic stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right ear. This phenomenon is called the right ear advantage.49.critical period hypothesis: The critical period hypothesis refers to a period in one' slife e xtendingfrom ab o ut age t wo t o p uberty, during which the h uman brain is most ready toacquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily, swiftly, and without explicit instruction.50.S apir-Whorf hypothesis: a theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf which states that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language.51.linguistic relativism: Whorf believed t hat speakers of different languages perceive and experience the world differently, relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion of linguistic relativism .52.overt thought: When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, wemay reg ard s peech as "overt thought.”53.intrapersonal communication: It means that language users use language to facilitates thinking, speech behavior and action for the individual.54.i nterpersonal communication: It means language users use language to convey information, thoughts and feelings fromone person to another, or to control each other' sbehavior.V. Answer thefollowingquestions:55.What are the biological foundations of language?Of all organisms, human beings are the only spontaneous creators and users of highly sophisticated languages that permit the communication of a wide range of knowledge and ideas. Evidently, our linguistic ability does not depend primarily on the structure of our vocalcords, for other mammals also h ave vocal cords. Human linguistic ability largely depends,instead, on the structure and dynamics of the human brain. As far as is currently known, human beings are the only organisms in which one particular part of the left half of the brainis larger than the corresponding part of the right half. This has led to the belief that human language is b iologically, or moreexactly, neurologically, based.56.What are the major mental functions under the control of each hemisphere?Psychological research suggests that both hemispheres perform important mental functions and they differ only in the manner in which they treat incoming stimuli. For example, the right hemisphere processes stimuli more holistically and the left hemi spheremore analytically.Brain lateralization for major mental functions under the control of each hemisphere isgiven as follows:(1)Left hemisphere Right hemispherelanguage and speech perception of nonlinguistic s oundsanalytic reasoning holistic reasoningtemporal ordering visual and spatial skillsreading and writing recognition of p atternscalculation recognition of musical melodiesassociative thoughtBecause each cerebral hemisphere has unique functional superiority, it is accurate to think of the hemispheres as complementarily specialized .57.What can we do by means of dichotic listening tests?Dichotic listening research makes use of the generally established fact that anything experienced on the right-hand side of the body is processed in the left hemisphere of thebrain, andvice versa. A basic assumption, thus, would bethat a signal coming in the right ear will go to the left hemisphere and a signal coming in the left ear will go to the right hemisphere. By means of dichotic listening tests, we can analyze the characteristics of incoming stimuli processed by the individual hemispheres.Dichotic listening test canshow that the left hemisphere is not superior for processing allsounds, but only for those that are linguistic in nature, thus providing evidence in support ofthe view that the left side of the brain is specialized for language and that it is where language centers reside.58.What is the safe conclusion from Genie's case?A safe conclusion from Genie' s case is that the language faculty of an average humandegenerates after the critical period and consequently, most linguistic skills cannot develop.59.How are language and thought related to each other?Language and thought may be viewed as two independent circles overlapping in some parts, where language and thought are consistent with each other and one never occurs without theother. When language and t hought are identical or closely parallel to each other,we may regard thought as "subvocal speech”,and speech as "overt thought. In such a case,speaking and thinking take place simultaneously.。
英语 语言学 名词解释
名词解释nguage: language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2.Design features of language(语言的区别性特征) :i.Arbitrariness:the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to theirmeaning=language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a word(e.g.pen) and the object it refers to .ii.Duality:the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level. By duality we mean that language system has two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meanings.指拥有两层结构的这种特性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分。
指语言是声音和意义双重结构组成的系统。
举例：Sounds > syllables > words > phrases > clauses > sentences> texts/discoursesiii.Productivity： Language can be used to create new meanings because of its duality .语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子，是由双层结构造成的结果（Understand and create unlimited number with sentences）iv.Displacement：Human languages enable their users to symbolize something which are not present at the moment of communication.v.Cultural transmission: language is passed on from generation to generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct.3.Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It is a scientific study because it is based on thesystematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.4.Psycholinguistics: It is the study of how language is acquired, understood and produced.ngue:F. de Saussure. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all themembers of a speech community.语言指语言系统的整体，这个整体相对是比较稳定的。
英语语言学概论第九章笔记
英语语言学概论第九章笔记Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics 心理语言学1.The biological foundations of language 语言的生理基础a)The case of Phineas Gage 盖奇案例One afternoon in September 1848, a tragedy happed to Gage. A huge metal rod had gone through the front part of Gage’s brain, but his langua ge abilities were unaffected.The point of this amazing case is that, if our language ability is located in the brain, it is clear that it is not situated right at the front.1848年9月的一个下午，有一名叫菲尼亚斯.盖奇的美国人身上发生了一场悲剧。
一根大铁杆穿过了盖奇的大脑的前部，但他的语言能力却未受影响。
这一令人惊异的案例的意义在于，如果我们的语言能力位于大脑中，很显然不在其头部。
b)The human brain 人的大脑The human brain is the most complicated organ of the body. Lying under the skull, the human brain contains an average of ten billion nerve cells called neurons.人的大脑是人体最复杂的器官，它位于头盖骨下，平均包含有一百亿个神经细胞，即神经元。
The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain, called the cerebral cortex. The cortex is the decision-making organ of the body, receiving messages from all the sensory organs and initiating all voluntary action. Many of the cognitive abilities that distinguish humans from other mammals, such as sophisticated reasoning, linguistic skills, and musical ability, are believed to reside in the cortex.大脑最主要的部分是它的外表面，这一外表面称为大脑皮层。
自考英语本科 《现代语言学》 复习大纲
C h a p t e r1I n t r o d u c t i o n绪论what is linguistics?定义 definitionLinguistics is generally defined as scientific study of language.语言学的研究范畴 the scope of linguisticsa. The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.把语言作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。
b. The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch oflinguistics called phonetics.语音学How speech sounds are produced and classified.c. how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.how sounds form systems and function to convey meaning. phonology音位学/ 音系学交际中语音的组合规律及传达意义的方式d. The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged to form words has constituted the branchof study called morphology.形态学how morphemes are combined to form words.这些符号通过排列组合而成构成语词，对于这种排列组合方式的研究构成了语言学研究的另一个分支，如对形态学的研究。
Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics
Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics1.Define or explain the following terms:1)PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind，with focus on the process of language production, comprehension and acquisition.2)Cerebral cortexThe outside surface of the brain，it is the decision-making organ of the body, receiving messages from all the sensory organs and it is where human cognitive abilities reside.3)Brain lateralizationThe localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain4)Linguistic lateralizationHemispheric specialization or dominance for language5)Dichotic listeningA research technique which has been used to study how the brain controls hearing and language, with which subjects wear earphones and simultaneously receive different sounds in the right and left ear, and are then asked to repeat what they hear.6)The critical periodAn early period of one’s life extending to the age of puberty, during which the human brain is most ready to acquire language naturally and effortlessly, a period that coincides with the period of brain lateralization for language functions.7)Te Sapir-Whorf hypothesisThe hypothesis refers to the theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf, which states that the language we speak determines the way we perceive the world and therefore the nature of thought. Whorf illustrated his view based in part on a number of differences that he observed among languages. For example, there are different words for snow in the Eskimo language. Proponents of the hypothesis believe that the English and Eskimo speakers perceive snow in different ways.8)Intrapersonal communicationIntrapersonal communication refers to the process of using language within the individual to facilitate thinking, speech behavior and action. For example, a word can be used as a stimulus for evoking and manipulating a concept.9)Subvocal speechA term used to refer to thought when thought and language are identical or closely parallel to each other.10）Right ear advantageThis phenomenon is know as the right ear advantage.11）Linguistic determinismWhorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. That is, language determines thought, hence the strong notion of linguistic determinism.12）Linguistic relativismWhorf also believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experience the world differently, that is, relative to their linguistic background.2.In what cortical regions are speech and language thought to be localized?In what have come to be known as Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area and angular gyrus, all located in the left hemisphere of the brain.3.Describe one research technique that has provided linguists with information about the localization of speech and language in the brain.A research technique known as the “dichotic listening” has been used to study how the brain controls hearing and language. When performing a dichotic listening task, subjects wear earphones and simultaneously receive different sounds in the right and left ear, and are asked to repeat what they hear. Dichotic listening research makes use of the generally established fact that anything experienced on the right-hand side of the body is processed in the left hemisphere of the brain, and vice versa. During dichotic listening experiments, subjects reported hearing the language spoken to their right ears prior to the language spoken to their left ears. The results provide empirical support for the belief that the left hemisphere of the brain is dominant for language and speech.4.Many left-handed people have their language centers in the right hemisphere of the brain. What type of result would we expect to obtain from such people on a dichotic listening task?Since the left-handed subjects have language centers resident in their right hemisphere of the brain, they would hear the auditory signal given to the left ear first. This is because it takes a shorter time for the signal to go directly from the left ear to the right side of the brain than it does for the signal spoken to the right ear to travel first to the left hemisphere and then onto the right hemisphere for processing.5.Describe the processes of language perception, comprehension and production （What pattern does the brain activity follow?）From the perspective of psycholinguistic analysis, language use in terms of perception, comprehension and production follows a certain pattern which involves the coordination of various language. For example, when we speak, words are drawn from Wernicke’s area and transferred to Broca’s area, which determines the details of their form and pronunciation. The appropriate instructions are then sent to the motor area which controls the vocal tract to physically articulate the words. When we hear something and try to comprehend it, the stimulus from the auditory cortex is transmitted to Wernicke’s area, where it is then interpreted. When we perceive a visual image, a message is sent to the angular gyurs, where it is converted into a visual pattern6.When asked to read a list of words, some aphasic patients substitute other words for those printed on the list. Often the substituted words are similar or related to the printed words, as it shown by the data given below. What does the data reveal about how words are likely to be stored in the brain?Printed Words Words Uttered by Aphasicsabroad overseascanary parrotdecide decisionliberty freedomremember memoryportray portraitshort smallspeak discussiontall longEvidently, what is actually stored in the brain is meaning instead of form, and categorical information, instead of discrete information.7.Provide evidence for the view that there is a critical period for language acquisition.The critical period for language acquisition coincides with the time during which the brain’s hemispheric lateralization for language and other cognitive skills take place. It is believed that the end of the critical period corresponds to the completion of this lateralization process. Evidence in support of the critical period hypothesis comes from the fact that children acquiring their first language beyond the critical age are hardly successful such as the case of “Genie.”Aphasic studies also seem to support the critical period hypothesis; it is reported that preadolescent children suffering damage to the left hemisphere are able to transfer their language centers to the right hemisphere and reacquire the lost linguistic skills. Further supporting evidence comes from studies in the field of second language acquisition; adults experience much greater difficulty in learning a second or foreign language, in contrast to young children, who are known to be excellent second language learners.8.According to the strong version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, language determines speaker s’perceptions and patterns their way of life. How in your view does language relate to thought and culture?Language does not so much determine the way the speaker perceives the world as it functions as a means by which information can be stored and retrieved, by which a culture transmits its belief, values and norms, and by which the speaker interacts with other members of the culture.9.What can we do by means of dichotic listening tests?By means of dichotic listening tests, we can analyze the characteristics of incoming stimuli processed by the individual hemispheres.Result shows that stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right ear, also the left hemisphere is not superior for processing all sounds (such as blowing wind, rushing water) but only for those that are linguistic in nature, thus providing evidence in support of the view that the left side of the brain is specialized for language and that it is where language centers reside.10.What is the safe conclusion from Genie’s case?A safe conclusion from Genie’s case is that the language faculty of an average human degenerate after the critical period and consequently, most linguistic skills cannot develop.11.How are language and thought related to each other?Language by no means determines the ways we perceive the objective world, but by its convenience, availability, and habitual use, does influence the perceptions, memory tasks, and other verbal and nonverbal behavior of human beings.。
语言学教程期末考试笔记整理
1. sociolinguistics: as an interdisciplinary study of language use, attempts to show therelationship between language and society. We try to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context and understand sociological things of society by linguistic phenomenon in speaking community.2. pragmatics: is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly therelationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used.Pragmatics includes the study of3. Psycholinguistics can be defined as the storage, comprehension, production and acquisition oflanguage in any medium (spoken or written). It is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structures.4. Cognitive psycholinguistics: Cognitive psycholinguistics is concerned above all with makinginferences about the content of the human mind.5.illocutionary act: it is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed insaying something.municative competence: refers to what a learners knows about how a language is used inparticular situations for effective and appropriate communication, which include knowledge of the grammar and vocabulary, knowledge of rules of speaking, knowledge of how to use and respond to different types of speech acts and social conventions, and knowledge of how to use language appropriately.7.interlanguage: is often understood as a language system between the target language and thelearner’s native language. It is imperfect with the target language.8. Context of situation(1) The relevant features of the participants: persons, personalities:a. The verbal action of the participantsb. The non-verbal action of the participants(2) The relevant objects(3) The effects of the verbal action9. Speech community: Speech community refers to a group of people who form a community,e.g. a village, a region, a nation, and who have at least one speech variety in common.10. Gender difference: Gender difference is the difference in a speech between men and women.11. Linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity: Linguistic determinism is one of the twopoints in S-W hypothesis, i.e. language determines thought. Linguistic relativity is the other point: there is no limit to the structural diversity of languages.12. What is a speech act?A speech act is an utterance as a functional unit in communication. In speech act theory,utterances have two kinds of meaning.Propositional meaning (locutionary meaning): This is the basic literal meaning of the utterance which is conveyed by the particular words and structures which the utterance contains.Illocutionary meaning (illocutionary force): This is the effect the utterance or written text has on the reader or listener. E.g. in I’m thirsty, the propositional meaning is what the utterance says about the speaker’s physical state. The illocutionary force is the effect the speaker wants the utterance to have on the listener. It may be intended as request for something to drink. A speech act is a sentence or utterance which has both propositional meaning and illocutionaryforce.A speech act which is performed indirectly is sometimes known as an indirect speech act, such as the speech act of the requesting above. Indirect speech acts are often felt to be more polite ways of performing certain kinds of speech act, such as requests and refusals.13. What the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis suggests is like this: our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express our unique ways of understanding the world. Following this argument, two important points could be captured in the theory. On the one hand, language may determine our thinking patterns; on the other hand, similarity between language is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be. For this reason, this hypothesis has alternatively been referred to as linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity. This hypothesis has two versions: a strong and a weak version. The strong version of the theory refers to the claim the original hypothesis suggests, emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns. The weak version, however, is a modified type of its original theory, suggesting that there is a correlation between language, culture, and thought, but the cross-cultural differences thus produced in our ways of thinking are relative, rather than categorical.14. Locutionary act: A distinction is made by Austin in the theory of speech acts between three different types of acts involved in or caused by the utterance of a sentence.A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood. Illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is using a sentence to perform a function. Perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the results or effects that are produced by means of saying something.15. Cooperative principle refers to the “co-operation”between speakers in using the maxims during the conversation. There are four conversational maxims:(1) The maxim of quantity:a. Make your contribution as informative as required.b. Don’t make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality: Try to make your contribution one that is true.a. Don’t say what you believe to be false.b. Don’t say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relation: Say things that are relevant.(4) The maxim of manner: Be perspicuous.a. Avoid obscurity of expression.b. Avoid ambiguity.c. Be brief.d. Be orderly.16. Conversational implicature: The use of conversational maxims to imply meaning during conversation is called conversational implicature.17. Error: Error is the grammatically incorrect form.Mistake: Mistake appears when the language is correct grammatically but improper in a communicational context.18. Input Hypothesis was offered by Krashen. It refers to learner acquire language as a result ofcomprehending input addressed to them. “i+1”principle is most famous.The Input hypothesis is a theory proposed by Krashen (1985) to deal with the relationship between language input and learner s’ acquiring language. According to thishypothesis, learners acquire a language as a result of comprehending input addressed tothem. Krashen brought forward the concept of “i + 1” principle, i.e. the language thatlearners are exposed to should be just far enough beyond their current competence thatthey can understand most of it but still be challenged to make progress. Input shouldneither be so far beyond their reach that they are overwhelmed, nor so close to theircurrent stage that they are not challenged at all.19. Interlanguage is a language system between the target language and the learner’s nativelanguage. It formed when the learner attempts to learn a new language, and it has features of both the first language and the second language but is neither.20. Error: Error is the grammatically incorrect form.21. Mistake: Mistake appears when the language is correct grammatically but improper in acommunicational context.22. Error analysis: Error analysis is the study and analysis of error and is confined to thelanguage learner.。
现代语言学_自考本科00830
Chapter 1——1
Some important distinctions in linguistics
Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.
Competence and performance
He defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.
Chapter 1——2
What is language?
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Sapir uses “ideas” “emotions” and “desires” in his definition. Hall, like Sapir, treats language as a purely human institution. Chomsky’s definition is quite different, it focus on the purely structural properties of languages and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathematically precise point of view.
psycholinguistics心理语言学 ppt课件
Definition of computational linguistics and functions
of corpus in linguistic studies;
psycholinguistics心理语言学
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psycholinguistics
Psycholinguistics studies the storage, comprehension, production and acquisition of language in any medium (spoken or written). Its subjects are adults and children as well as aphasics, people with speech disorders.
psycholinguistics心理语言学
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Types of schemata
Schemata are categorized into three types: linguistic schemata, formal schemata and content schemata.
Linguistic schemata are about learners‘ linguistic knowledge.
LAD: posited by Chomsky and is present in the minds of children by which a grammar of their native language is internalized.
psycholinguistics心理语言学
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Language comprehension
Language and culture, and the causes leading to difficulties in cross-culture communication;
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Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics心理语言学一、本章纲要二、本章重点(2005，单选；2007，名词解释) Psycholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind. As the term suggests, it is viewed as the intersection of psychology and linguistics, drawing equally upon the language we acquire, produce and comprehend, and the mind or brain in which our linguistic and cognitive faculties are localized and organized, and interact with each other in particular ways. Our linguistic capability depends largely on the structure and dynamics of the human brain. 心理语言学主要从心理的角度对语言进行研究，目的在于揭示人类是如何掌握语言，说出语言和理解语的，语言与思维的关系等一系列问题。
1.The biological foundations of language语言的生理基础（2005，判断）Our linguistic ability is a biological gift of the species’ gene program. 人类不需要课堂教学就可以自然习得自己的母语。
人类有语言能力的主要原因不可能是人有声带，因为其它动物也有声带。
人类的语言能力主要依赖人脑结构和人脑的机制。
人类大脑的左半球的某些区域比右大脑相应的区域要大，这是人类大脑所特有的特征。
由此，人们相信人类的语言能力有其生理基础。
The case of Phineas Gage盖奇案例(2007，单选) The view that the brain is the source of human language and cognition goes back over 2000 years. 19世纪中叶,菲尼亚斯•盖奇由于工伤事故大脑前部损伤严重，但是他的感知能力、语言能力和理解能力都没有受到明显的影响。
（2008，单选）盖奇案例使得研究人员认为如果支配语言活动的中枢是在大脑的话，那么显然它不在大脑的前部。
大脑的表面，即大脑皮层，布满了上百亿个神经原(neurons)。
将人与动物区别开来的认知能力都集聚在大脑皮层上（cerebral cortex）。
大脑分为左半球和右半球。
将大脑两个半球相连的是神经路径(nerve pathway)。
通常大脑左半球控制着人体右半身的活动，大脑右半球则控制着人体左半身的活动。
The human brain人的大脑Human brain contains an average of ten billion nerve cells named neurons. The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain called cerebral cortex (大脑皮层).（2002，填空）The brain is divided into two roughly symmetrical halves, called hemispheres, one on the right and one on the left. The nerve pathway connecting two hemispheres coordinates their activities.（2006，2008，判断）In general, right hemisphere controls voluntary movements of, and responds to signals from, the left side of the body, vice versa.Brain lateralization大脑的侧化（2005，填空）The localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain is called lateralization.The process of lateralization is believed to be maturational (发展成熟的过程). Although many maturational processes are not uncommon in the biological development of other species, brain lateralization appears to be specific to human beings. It is a commonly held view that lateralization is an evolutionary precondition of the development of superior intelligence as well as a precondition of language acquisition.（2004，判断）Psychological research shows that both hemispheres perform important, mental functions and they differ only in the manner in which they treat incoming stimuli.大脑的认知等功能的分工过程叫作大脑侧化。
脑力活动功能的分工有一个发育成长的过程。
大脑单侧化的功能是人类大脑所特有的。
左大脑和右大脑都参与人类重要的智能活动，只是在处理所接收的刺激信号的方式上有所差异。
它们之间的关系是一种相互依赖、互为补充的关系：如：（单选，判断）Left hemisphere Right hemispherelanguage and speech perception of nonlinguistic soundsanalytic reasoning holistic reasoningtemporal ordering visual and spatial skillsreading and writing recognition of patternscalculation recognition of musical melodiesassociative thought2.Linguistic lateralization语言侧化It is the brain’s neurological specialization for language. Linguistic lateralization in terms of left hemisphere dominance for language is found to exist in an overwhelming majority.Left hemisphere dominance for language左半球的语言优势语言侧化(linguistic lateralization)指语言能力在大脑神经系统中的分工。
一般认为，语言功能的侧化主要在大脑的左半球。
对于多数人而言，大脑左半球有着语言上的优势，这种优势与与惯用右手之间没有直接和必然的联系。
Dichotic listening research两耳分听实验It was used to analyze the characteristics of incoming stimuli processed by the individual hemispheres, later leading to right ear advantage not for all sounds, but only for those that are linguistic in nature.两耳分听研究的结果证实了人类大脑左半球的语言侧化现象。
两耳分听实验让受试者带着耳机，然后同时向左右耳输入不同的语言信号。
研究人员发现受试者能够更为准确地报告由右耳输入的语言信号。
研究人员认为右耳接收到的语言信息直接进入左脑进行加工，而左耳接收到的信息先进入右脑，然后再从右脑送至左脑进行加工。
由于间接的路径比直接的路径长，且信息传输所需的时间也长，所以受试者在报告左耳听到的信息没有右耳听到的信息准确。
这种现象又称为“右耳优势”。
3.The language centers语言中枢In addition to the motor area which is responsible for physical utterances, three areas of the left hemisphere are vital to language, which are Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area, the angular gyrus.Broca’s area (Broca is a French surgeon and anatomist) 布罗卡区The first to substantiate the claim that damage to a specific area of the brain results in a speech production deficit. （2004，单选）Language disorder resulting from damage to this area in the brain reveals word-finding difficulties and problems with syntax. 布罗卡区位于左大脑前部小叶区,有着控制语言表达的机能。
布罗卡区受伤的病人在交际时在句法和选择单词时遇到障碍。
Wernicke’s area韦尼克区He contributed directly to the hypothesis that there was more than one language area in the left-brain. His patient may suffer a severe loss of understanding. Unlike Broca’s aphasics (失语症), it produces fast and fluent speech with good intonation and pronunciation. The content of their speech ranges from mildly inappropriate to complete nonsense, often intelligible. They are very general in response to specific requests for information. 韦尼克区是另一个重要语言区域，它位于左大脑后部的一个区域。