曼昆《经济学原理》英文版完整讲义丛externalities.ppt
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曼昆《经济学原理》讲座讲义(英文)
Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
4. People respond to incentives.
Marginal changes in costs or benefits motivate people to respond. The decision to choose one alternative over another occurs when that alternative’s marginal benefits exceed its marginal costs!
Ten Principles of Economics
How People Make Decisions
People face tradeoffs. The cost of something is what you give up to get it. Rational people think at the margin. People respond to incentives.
Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
6. Markets are usually a good way to organize economic activity.
Because households and firms look at prices when deciding what to buy and sell, they unknowingly take into account the social costs of their actions. As a result, prices guide decision makers to reach outcomes that tend to maximize the welfare of society as a whole.
曼昆经济学原理ppt课件
30
参考资料：如何阅读本书
7. 教其他人 学习某种东西的最好的方法莫过于再教其他人， 比如学友或朋友
8. 不要忽略现实世界中的例子 阅读每章的案例研究和新闻摘录专栏。它们将帮 你看到新的术语，概念，模型，图表等是如何应 用到现实世界中的。当你阅读报纸或看晚间新闻 时，尝试着发现它们与你在教科书上所学知识的 联系
水平的影响远远小于生产率
25
整体经济如何运行
原理 9 :当政府发行了过多货币时，物价上升
▪ 通货膨胀：物价总水平的上升 ▪ 长期而言，通货膨胀总是由于货币数量的过度增长
而导致货币价值的下降所引起
▪ 政府创造货币的速度越快，通胀率越高
26
整体经济如何运行
原理 10 :社会面临通货膨胀与失业之间的短期权衡 取舍
间学习
▪ 想要更多的收入需要工作更长时间，这就使得休
息时间减少
▪ 保护环境意味着生产消费物品的资源减少 人们面临权衡取舍
▪ 社会面临一种重要的权衡取舍:
效率 vs. 平等
▪ 效率: 社会能从其稀缺资源中得到的最大利益 ▪ 平等: 经济成果在社会成员中平均分配 ▪ 权衡取舍：为使社会更加平等, 需要在富人与穷人
十倍以上
▪ 今天美国的生活水平比100年以前大约增长了
八倍
24
整体经济如何运行
原理 8 ：一国的生活水平取决于它生产物品与 劳务的能力
▪ 决定生活水平的最重要因素：生产率，即每一单位劳
动投入所生产的物品与劳务数量
▪ 生产率取决于设备，劳动者的技能以及可用的技术 ▪ 其它因素（比如，工会组织，国外的竞争）对于生活
28
参考资料：如何阅读本书
3. 考考自己 在你开始阅读下一节之前，试着解决上节的“即问 即答”。并写下你的答案，与书后的答案进行核对。 如果你答错了，也许你就需要复习一下该节
参考资料：如何阅读本书
7. 教其他人 学习某种东西的最好的方法莫过于再教其他人， 比如学友或朋友
8. 不要忽略现实世界中的例子 阅读每章的案例研究和新闻摘录专栏。它们将帮 你看到新的术语，概念，模型，图表等是如何应 用到现实世界中的。当你阅读报纸或看晚间新闻 时，尝试着发现它们与你在教科书上所学知识的 联系
水平的影响远远小于生产率
25
整体经济如何运行
原理 9 :当政府发行了过多货币时，物价上升
▪ 通货膨胀：物价总水平的上升 ▪ 长期而言，通货膨胀总是由于货币数量的过度增长
而导致货币价值的下降所引起
▪ 政府创造货币的速度越快，通胀率越高
26
整体经济如何运行
原理 10 :社会面临通货膨胀与失业之间的短期权衡 取舍
间学习
▪ 想要更多的收入需要工作更长时间，这就使得休
息时间减少
▪ 保护环境意味着生产消费物品的资源减少 人们面临权衡取舍
▪ 社会面临一种重要的权衡取舍:
效率 vs. 平等
▪ 效率: 社会能从其稀缺资源中得到的最大利益 ▪ 平等: 经济成果在社会成员中平均分配 ▪ 权衡取舍：为使社会更加平等, 需要在富人与穷人
十倍以上
▪ 今天美国的生活水平比100年以前大约增长了
八倍
24
整体经济如何运行
原理 8 ：一国的生活水平取决于它生产物品与 劳务的能力
▪ 决定生活水平的最重要因素：生产率，即每一单位劳
动投入所生产的物品与劳务数量
▪ 生产率取决于设备，劳动者的技能以及可用的技术 ▪ 其它因素（比如，工会组织，国外的竞争）对于生活
28
参考资料：如何阅读本书
3. 考考自己 在你开始阅读下一节之前，试着解决上节的“即问 即答”。并写下你的答案，与书后的答案进行核对。 如果你答错了，也许你就需要复习一下该节
曼昆《经济学原理》(宏观经济学分册)英文原版PPT课件
© 2007 Thomson South-Western
Table 2 Real and Nominal GDP
© 2007 Thomson South-Western
Table 2 Real and Nominal GDP
© 2007 Thomson South-Western
Table 2 Real and Nominal GDP
© 2007 Thomson South-Western
THE ECONOMY’S INCOME AND EXPENDITURE
• When judging whether the economy is doing well or poorly, it is natural to look at the total income that everyone in the economy is earning.
Y = C + I + G + NX
© 2007 Thomson South-Western
THE COMPONENTS OF GDP
• Consumption (C):
• The spending by households on goods and services, with the exception of purchases of new housing.
© 2007 Thomson South-Western
THE MEASUREMENT OF GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT
• The equality of income and expenditure can be illustrated with the circular-flow diagram.
外部性 曼昆经济学原理第七版PPT课件
• Positive externality
– Impact on the bystander is beneficial
© 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as
– Why markets sometimes fail to allocate resources efficiently
– How government policies can potentially improve the market’s allocation
– What kinds of policies are likely to work best
• Welfare economics: a recap
– Demand curve: value to consumers
• Prices they are willing to pay
– Supply curve: cost to suppliers – Equilibrium quantity and price
Externalities
• Externality
– The uncompensated impact of one person’s actions on the well-being of a bystander
– Market failure
• Negative externality
– Impact on the bystander is adverse
1
permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
– Impact on the bystander is beneficial
© 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as
– Why markets sometimes fail to allocate resources efficiently
– How government policies can potentially improve the market’s allocation
– What kinds of policies are likely to work best
• Welfare economics: a recap
– Demand curve: value to consumers
• Prices they are willing to pay
– Supply curve: cost to suppliers – Equilibrium quantity and price
Externalities
• Externality
– The uncompensated impact of one person’s actions on the well-being of a bystander
– Market failure
• Negative externality
– Impact on the bystander is adverse
1
permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
曼昆《经济学原理》(宏观经济学分册)英文原版PPT课件
© 2007 Thomson South-Western
THE COMPONENTS OF GDP • GDP includes all items produced in the economy and sold legally n markets. • What Is Not Counted in GDP?
– Every transaction has a buyer and a seller. – Every dollar of spending by some buyer is a dollar of income for some seller.
© 2007 Thomson South-Western
Y = C + I + G + NX
© 2007 Thomson South-Western
THE COMPONENTS OF GDP • Consumption (C):
• The spending by households on goods and services, with the exception of purchases of new housing. • Investment (I):
© 2007 Thomson South-Western
Table 2 Real and Nominal GDP
© 2007 Thomson South-Western
Table 2 Real and Nominal GDP
© 2007 Thomson South-Western
Table 2 Real and Nominal GDP
• “. . . Final . . .” – It records only the value of final goods, not intermediate goods (the value is counted only once).
THE COMPONENTS OF GDP • GDP includes all items produced in the economy and sold legally n markets. • What Is Not Counted in GDP?
– Every transaction has a buyer and a seller. – Every dollar of spending by some buyer is a dollar of income for some seller.
© 2007 Thomson South-Western
Y = C + I + G + NX
© 2007 Thomson South-Western
THE COMPONENTS OF GDP • Consumption (C):
• The spending by households on goods and services, with the exception of purchases of new housing. • Investment (I):
© 2007 Thomson South-Western
Table 2 Real and Nominal GDP
© 2007 Thomson South-Western
Table 2 Real and Nominal GDP
© 2007 Thomson South-Western
Table 2 Real and Nominal GDP
• “. . . Final . . .” – It records only the value of final goods, not intermediate goods (the value is counted only once).
曼昆经济学原理英 Chap10
Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
Positive Externalities in Production
When an externality benefits the bystanders, a positive externality exists.
Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
The Market for Aluminum and Welfare Economics
For each unit of aluminum produced, the social cost includes the private costs of the producers plus the cost to those bystanders adversely affected by the pollution.
Quantity of Aluminum
Negative Externalities in Production
The intersection of the demand curve and the social-cost curve determines the optimal output level.
Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
Market Failures: Externalities
When the impact on the bystander is adverse, the externality is called a negative externality.
Positive Externalities in Production
When an externality benefits the bystanders, a positive externality exists.
Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
The Market for Aluminum and Welfare Economics
For each unit of aluminum produced, the social cost includes the private costs of the producers plus the cost to those bystanders adversely affected by the pollution.
Quantity of Aluminum
Negative Externalities in Production
The intersection of the demand curve and the social-cost curve determines the optimal output level.
Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
Market Failures: Externalities
When the impact on the bystander is adverse, the externality is called a negative externality.
曼昆经济学原理-第十章-外部性
(private value)
Social value
0
QQ
OPTIMUM MARKET
Quantity 0
of Alcohol
Social
value
Demand
(private value)
QQ MARKET OPTIMUM
Quantity of Education
The Equivalence of Pigovian Taxes and Pollution Permits...
机器人的数量
Positive Externalities in Production
需求曲线与社会成本曲线的交点决定了社 会最适的产量水平。
最适产量水平超过均衡水平。 市场的生产量小于社会的合意数量。 生产的社会成本小于生产与消费的私人成本 。
外部性内在化: 补贴
政府多次使用补贴作为主要的方 式来尝试使正外部性内部化。
外部性内在化（Internalizing an externality ）指改变激励，以使人 们考虑到自己行为的外部性。
Achieving the Socially Optimal Output
政府可以通过向生产者征税使外部 性内在化，从而均衡量减少到社会 最适水平。
生产产品的正外部性
当外部性给旁观者带来利益，正的外部 性就出现了。
Price of Aluminum
Cost of pollution
Social cost
Supply
(private cost)
Optimum
Equilibrium
Demand
(private value)
0
Qoptimum QMARKE
T
Social value
0
OPTIMUM MARKET
Quantity 0
of Alcohol
Social
value
Demand
(private value)
QQ MARKET OPTIMUM
Quantity of Education
The Equivalence of Pigovian Taxes and Pollution Permits...
机器人的数量
Positive Externalities in Production
需求曲线与社会成本曲线的交点决定了社 会最适的产量水平。
最适产量水平超过均衡水平。 市场的生产量小于社会的合意数量。 生产的社会成本小于生产与消费的私人成本 。
外部性内在化: 补贴
政府多次使用补贴作为主要的方 式来尝试使正外部性内部化。
外部性内在化（Internalizing an externality ）指改变激励，以使人 们考虑到自己行为的外部性。
Achieving the Socially Optimal Output
政府可以通过向生产者征税使外部 性内在化，从而均衡量减少到社会 最适水平。
生产产品的正外部性
当外部性给旁观者带来利益，正的外部 性就出现了。
Price of Aluminum
Cost of pollution
Social cost
Supply
(private cost)
Optimum
Equilibrium
Demand
(private value)
0
Qoptimum QMARKE
T
曼昆《经济学原理》英文版完整讲义丛elasticity精品文档45页
• Price elasticity of demand is the percentage change in quantity demanded given a percent change in the price.
Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning
(2.(21001028.)00)1010001200% %2 2.00
Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning
The Midpoint Method: A Better Way to Calculate Percentage Changes and Elasticities • The midpoint formula is preferable when
increases from $2.00 to $2.20 and the amount
you buy falls from 10 to 8 cones, then your
elasticity of demand, using the midpoint
Elasticity . . .
• … allows us to analyze supply and demand with greater precision.
• … is a measure of how much buyers and sellers respond to changes in market conditions
Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning
The Price Elasticity of Demand and Its Determinants • Demand tends to be more elastic :
Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning
(2.(21001028.)00)1010001200% %2 2.00
Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning
The Midpoint Method: A Better Way to Calculate Percentage Changes and Elasticities • The midpoint formula is preferable when
increases from $2.00 to $2.20 and the amount
you buy falls from 10 to 8 cones, then your
elasticity of demand, using the midpoint
Elasticity . . .
• … allows us to analyze supply and demand with greater precision.
• … is a measure of how much buyers and sellers respond to changes in market conditions
Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning
The Price Elasticity of Demand and Its Determinants • Demand tends to be more elastic :
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• Negative Externalities
• Automobile exhaust • Cigarette smoking • Barking dogs (loud pets) • Loud stereos in an apartment building
Copyright © 2004 South-Western
• When the impact on the bystander is beneficial, the externality is called a positive externality.
Copyright © 2004 South-Western
EXTERNALITIES AND MARKET INEFFICIENCY
• Externalities cause markets to be inefficient, and thus fail to maximize total surplus.
Copyright © 2004 South-Western
EXTERNALITIES AND MARKET INEFFICIENCY
4
THE ECONOMICS OF THE PUBLIC SECTOR
Externalities
10
Copyright©2004 South-Wemith’s “invisible hand” of the marketplace leads self-interested buyers and sellers in a market to maximize the total benefit that society can derive from a market.
EXTERNALITIES AND MARKET INEFFICIENCY
• Positive Externalities
• Immunizations • Restored historic buildings • Research into new technologies
Copyright © 2004 South-Western
Copyright © 2004 South-Western
Welfare Economics: A Recap • The Market for Aluminum
• For each unit of aluminum produced, the social cost includes the private costs of the producers plus the cost to those bystanders adversely affected by the pollution.
Figure 1 The Market for Aluminum
Price of Aluminum
Supply (private cost)
Equilibrium
Demand (private value)
0
QMARKET
Quantity of
Aluminum
Copyright © 2004 South-Western
But market failures can still happen.
Copyright © 2004 South-Western
EXTERNALITIES AND MARKET INEFFICIENCY
• An externality refers to the uncompensated impact of one person’s actions on the wellbeing of a bystander.
Copyright © 2004 South-Western
EXTERNALITIES AND MARKET INEFFICIENCY
• When the impact on the bystander is adverse, the externality is called a negative externality.
EXTERNALITIES AND MARKET INEFFICIENCY
• Negative externalities lead markets to produce a larger quantity than is socially desirable.
• Positive externalities lead markets to produce a larger quantity than is socially desirable.
Copyright © 2004 South-Western
Welfare Economics: A Recap
• The Market for Aluminum
• The quantity produced and consumed in the market equilibrium is efficient in the sense that it maximizes the sum of producer and consumer surplus.
• If the aluminum factories emit pollution (a negative externality), then the cost to society of producing aluminum is larger than the cost to aluminum producers.
• An externality arises...
. . . when a person engages in an activity that influences the well-being of a bystander and yet neither pays nor receives any compensation for that effect.
• Automobile exhaust • Cigarette smoking • Barking dogs (loud pets) • Loud stereos in an apartment building
Copyright © 2004 South-Western
• When the impact on the bystander is beneficial, the externality is called a positive externality.
Copyright © 2004 South-Western
EXTERNALITIES AND MARKET INEFFICIENCY
• Externalities cause markets to be inefficient, and thus fail to maximize total surplus.
Copyright © 2004 South-Western
EXTERNALITIES AND MARKET INEFFICIENCY
4
THE ECONOMICS OF THE PUBLIC SECTOR
Externalities
10
Copyright©2004 South-Wemith’s “invisible hand” of the marketplace leads self-interested buyers and sellers in a market to maximize the total benefit that society can derive from a market.
EXTERNALITIES AND MARKET INEFFICIENCY
• Positive Externalities
• Immunizations • Restored historic buildings • Research into new technologies
Copyright © 2004 South-Western
Copyright © 2004 South-Western
Welfare Economics: A Recap • The Market for Aluminum
• For each unit of aluminum produced, the social cost includes the private costs of the producers plus the cost to those bystanders adversely affected by the pollution.
Figure 1 The Market for Aluminum
Price of Aluminum
Supply (private cost)
Equilibrium
Demand (private value)
0
QMARKET
Quantity of
Aluminum
Copyright © 2004 South-Western
But market failures can still happen.
Copyright © 2004 South-Western
EXTERNALITIES AND MARKET INEFFICIENCY
• An externality refers to the uncompensated impact of one person’s actions on the wellbeing of a bystander.
Copyright © 2004 South-Western
EXTERNALITIES AND MARKET INEFFICIENCY
• When the impact on the bystander is adverse, the externality is called a negative externality.
EXTERNALITIES AND MARKET INEFFICIENCY
• Negative externalities lead markets to produce a larger quantity than is socially desirable.
• Positive externalities lead markets to produce a larger quantity than is socially desirable.
Copyright © 2004 South-Western
Welfare Economics: A Recap
• The Market for Aluminum
• The quantity produced and consumed in the market equilibrium is efficient in the sense that it maximizes the sum of producer and consumer surplus.
• If the aluminum factories emit pollution (a negative externality), then the cost to society of producing aluminum is larger than the cost to aluminum producers.
• An externality arises...
. . . when a person engages in an activity that influences the well-being of a bystander and yet neither pays nor receives any compensation for that effect.