信息型演讲informative speech教学文案

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WHAT IS AN INFORMATIVE SPEECH 报告性演讲

WHAT IS AN INFORMATIVE SPEECHInformative speaking is all around us. Any speech is an informative speech if it present information to an audience. A report, a teacher‟s explanation, and a talk at asgroupsmeeting are all examples of informative speeches.When do we make informative speeches? We make them all the time. Whenever we give a stranger direction, explain a problem to a mechanic, or describe an illness to a doctor, we are speaking to inform.The goal in giving an informative speech is to state ideas simply, clearly, and interestingly. If you achieve this goal, the audience will understand and remember your speech. In this chapter, you will learn how to build an informative speech.PREPARING THE INTRODUCTION, BODY AND CONCLUSION Step 1: Prepare an Attention-Getting OpenerAt the beginning of your speech, it is very important to grab your audience‟s attention and make them interested in what you have to say. Four different ways to prepare an interesting, attention-getting introduction follow:(1)Ask your audience a series of rhetorical questions.Rhetorical questions are asked for dramatic effect with no answers expected. Your listeners will immediately be interested in knowing the answers. The following rhetorical questions were used to open a speech about the process of getting a tattoo:What can cost ten dollars or a thousand dollars?What can be every color of the rainbow?What can be with you as long as you live?What can you wear on your arm, your cheek, your leg, or even your back?(2)Tell a story.People love to listen to a story. They want to find out what it is about. This story was used to open a speech about the Gold Museum in Bogotá, Colombia:A guard took mesintosa square room with no lights. The room was so black I couldn‟t even see my own feet. All of a sudden a hidden electric wall closed behind me. There was no way out. I thought I was in a tomb. All at once bright lights came on. I was surrounded by gold on all four sides!(3)State a surprising fact.The statement below was used to introduce a speech about the billion-dollar business of services, or products to get almost anything you want without cash:You can get almost anything you want without cash! And you can begin today!(4) State a well-known quotation.This quotation from William Shakespeare‟s Hamlet was used to open a speech about the disadvantages of borrowing:Neither a borrower nor a lender be, for loan oft loses both itself and friend.Step 2: Prepare the BodyThen prepare the body of your speech. Arrange the points of your speech in a clear, logical manner. That way, your audience can follow you, understand your information, and remember what you have said. Insgroupsto do this, it is important to choose an organizational pattern that fits your topic.Read about the eight organizational patterns below. Then, choose the best one for your particular topic.(1)Past- Present-Future. Use this pattern to discuss how something once was, how it has changed, and how it will be in the future. For example, in discussing the Olympics, you might organize your information under the following three headings:Ⅰ.The history of the OlympicsⅡ.The Olympics todayⅢ.The future of the Olympics(2)Time. Use this pattern to describe how processes, personal experiences, events, or activities happen by the hour, part of the day, week, month, or year. It can also be used to explain the steps in a process. For example, in speaking about making a speech, you might organize your information under the following headings:Ⅰ.Choosing a topicⅡ.Gathering informationⅢ.Making an outlineⅣ.Presenting the speech(3)e this pattern to speak about a specific problem and ways to solve it. (Note: A problem isn‟t always a negative situation, such as crime or child abuse. It can also be a positive situation, such as choosing a career or about the problem of choosing.) For example, in speaking about the problem of choosing the college that s right for you, you might present the following solutions:Ⅰ.Read the different college catalogs.Ⅱ.Visit campuses of different colleges.Ⅲ.Talk to people who attend various colleges.Ⅳ.Talk to teachers at the colleges you are considering.(4)e this pattern to divide a topicsintosdifferent geographicalthe following sequence:Ⅰ.Marriage customs in JapanⅡ.Marriage customs in Saudi ArabiaⅢ.Marriage customs in the United States(5)e this pattern to describe a particular situation and its effect. For example, in speaking about the effects of cigarette smoking, you might discuss:Ⅰ.The effects of smoking on pregnant womenⅡ.The effect of secondhand smokeⅢ.The effects of smoking on people with allergies(6)Effect-Cause. Use this pattern do describe a particular situation and its causes. For example, in speaking about reasons for drug addiction, you might discuss: Ⅰ.The easy availability of drugsⅡ.The need to escape from the pressures of workⅢ.The lack of education about harmful effects of drugs(7) Related Subtopics. Use this pattern to divide one topicsintosdifferent parts, or subtopics. For example, in speaking about false advertising, you might discuss: Ⅰ.False advertising on televisionⅡ.False advertising in magazinesⅢ.False advertising on the radio(8)Advantage-Disadvantage. Use this pattern to talk about both positive and negative death penalty, you might discuss:Ⅰ.Advantages of capital punishmentⅡ.Disadvantages of capital punishmentStep 3: Prepare a SummaryEvery speech needs a summary of the information presented. The best way to summarize your information is to remind your audience of what you said by repeating the main points covered in the body of your speech.Example 1Well, I‟ve given you some ve ry important information today. You now know:A. How to prepare if a hurricane is comingB. What safety measures to make during the stormC. What to do after the hurricane is overExample 2As you can see, the Olympic Games are very important to people all over the world. I hope you learned some interesting information about:A. The history of the OlympicsB. The Olympics todayC. The future of the Olympic GamesStep 4: Prepare Memorable Concluding RemarksEvery speech needs an ending that leaves the audience thinking about and remembering what was said. Like attention-getting openers, memorable concluding remarks can take the form of rhetorical questions, stories, surprising facts, or quotations. Of these suggestions, quotations are popular among many famous public speakers.Example 1President John F. Kennedy ended many of his speeches with this quotation from the poet Robert Browning:“Some men see things as they are, and ask,…Why‟? I dare to dream of things that never were, and ask,…Why‟not?”Example 2Civil-rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. ended his famous“I Have a Dream”speech with words from an old spiritual song:“Free at last, free at last, thank God almighty, we are free at last.”Say your memorable concluding remarks slowly and clearly, maintaining eye contact with your audience. Be as dramatic and confident as possible!OUTLINING AN INFORMATIVE SPEECHThe outline that follows shows how one student outlined an informative speech. Notice how it includes the following components:Attention-getting openerPreviewBodySummaryPresentationMemorable concluding remarksAlso, notice how transitions have been used to connect the components.ATTENTION-GETTING OPENEREvery student in this room has something in common with famous astronauts, Olympic athletes, actors, politicians, and business executive. It‟s a common affliction thatcauses pain, s uffering, and distress. Can you guess what it is? I‟ll tell you. It‟s called stage fright.PREVIEWToday we will be learning four major facts about stage fright.Ⅰ.The physical symptoms of stage frightⅡ.The causes of stage frightⅢ.Famous people who have had stage frightⅣ.What can be done about stage frightTRANSITION: OK, let‟s get started on our investigation of stage fright by first looking at its six major symptoms.BODYⅠ. Physical symptoms of stage frightA. Rapid breathingB. Rapid heart rateC. Dry mouthD. Butterflies in stomachE.Increased perspirationF.Trembling handsTRANSITION: Now you understand the symptoms of stage fright. Let‟s continue our investigation by examining the causes of stage fright.Ⅱ.Causes of stage frightA. Many people worry that they‟ll forget what they want to say.B. Others are afraid that they‟ll look silly.C. Some people think that the audience won‟t like them.D. International students might worry that their English is n‟t very good.TRANSITION: Now you are aware of some of the causes of stage fright. Let‟s continue our inquirysintosstage fright by looking at a few famous people who have suffered from this affliction.Ⅲ. Famous people who have had stage frightA.Winston Churchill once said that he thought there was a block of ice in his stomach each time he made a speech.B. Julio Iglesias has revealed that he is nervous about his pronunciation when speaking English.C. Jane Fonda has admitted to having“tremendous fear.”D. Olivia Newton-John admits to shaking and crying before a performance.TRANSITION: As you can see, you are in good company with famous people who have has stage fright. Now, let‟s investigate what you can do to overcome this common problem.Ⅳ.What can be done about stage frightA. Short-term solutions1.Be thoroughly prepared and practice before a presentation.2.Take your time before you start to speak.a)Gently put your notes on the speaker‟s stand.b)Establish eye contact with your audience before beginning.c)Take several deep breaths before beginning.B. Long-term solutions1.Remember that stage fright is normal.2.Get as much experience as possible.3.Talk about stage fright with friends.TRANSITION: Now that you understand what you can do to reduce stage fright, our investigation is complete.SUMMARYYou should now understand four important facts about stage fright.Ⅰ. The physical symptoms of stage frightⅡ.The causes of stage frightⅢ.Famous people who have had stage frightⅣ.What can be done about stage frightMEMORABLE CONCLUDING REMARKSIn conclusion, stage fright is like a lion in a cage. It‟s only dangerous if it‟s allowed to roam free! Now that you know how to deal with stage frig ht, you‟ll be able to keep this beast under control. Remember, as long as you are in control of it, your stage fright, like the lion, will be unable to harm you!。

信息型演讲informative speech教学文案

信息型演讲i n f o r m a t i v es p e e c hInformative Speech信息型演讲: 偏重于一种信息，一种知识的分享。

------------------------------------六个部分：" 问候语（Greetings）" 提出话题（Presentation of the Topic）" 论述话题（Discussion of the Topic）" 结束话题（Conclusion of the Topic）" 呼吁行动（Appeal to Action）" 结尾语（Closing Remarks）====================================例文：Alcohol-----a Metaphor in the Chinese Culture 酒----中华文化的暗喻Ladies and gentlemen:Good morning!Our traditional culture has enjoyed a high level of civilization , all visitors to our country are impressed by its 3000 years of cultural treasures.Alcohol, ”Jiu” in Chinese, has occupied a very important status in Chinese traditional culture since ancient times. Our ancestors used it as a libation to their forefathers to express their yearning , or enjoyed it while writing poetry. Until now, as the old Chinese saying goes, ”Frequent drinking makes friends surrounding. ” Alcohol always goes together with delicious dishes on the occasions when relatives and friends have a beer during a feast. Alcohol he is intimately connected with the life of most Chinese people.There are various accounts in ancient Chinese books regarding the origin of alcohol. Among those stories, most of which are probably not credible in a historical senses, but the most well-know one is “Du Kang Makes Alcohol”. Folk legend regards Du Kang, living in the Xia Dynasty as the God of wine.And today some Chinese still use his name to mean alcohol. Actually, there is archaeological evidence of alcohol production 7000 years ago in the agricultural communities along the Yellow river. On the basis of this, some archaeologists deduce that the earliest crops were cultivated for the brewing of alcohol rather than the purpose of food. However, the historical record clearly suggested that , in the Shang Dynasty of the 16th through 11th centuries B.C., the use of grain to make alcohol had become widespread; wineries were discovered in a recent archaeological expedition. The development of Chinese brewing technology accelerated after the 3rd century A.D. New techniques were introduced from neighbors in the Han, Tang and Yuan Dynasties.Till the Wei, Jin and Tang Dynasties, drinking was popular and was highly praised by many famous poets. To me, it’s interesting that there are various relationships between drinking and Chinese culture. Being drunk and in the state of free creativity was important so that Chinese artists could release their artistic creativity. Wang Xizhi, famous Chinese calligrapher respectfully called ”Calligraphy Saint”, had tired dozens of times to surpass his most outstanding work, Langtingxu, which was finished when he was drunken, but he failed. The original one was the best.Not just calligraphy painting, but also poetry. Many medi outstanding poets such as the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove were hearty drinkers. They had left us surprisingly marvelous poem after drinking the mysterious liquid. For example, Tao Yuan-Ming, the prominent Jin-era poet, had a great zest for alcohol. He drunk along, brewed his own wine, and recounted the enjoyment of wine tasting. Ian Newman says it best, “Tao’s poems are imbued with wine, and there was poet from his wine.”Although alcohol has continually been regarded as a metaphor of happiness and congratulation, some Chinese still consider it as a disaster at the same time. They believe excessive drinking can cause health problem to the government will have to take measures to prevent the public from too much alcohol use. For example, the Han Dynasty imposed an alcohol tax and passed a variety of laws to laws to reduce consumption. The Chinese government today has chosen not to interfere with the traditional patters of alcohol use. There are no laws regulating the purchase, consumption, or selling of alcohol. Instead, alcohol use is to be controlled by culture, tradition, social pressure, and economy.Actually, Chinese people do believe that moderate drinking is good for one’s health. As a result, many Chinese take a sip of alcohol to keep themfresh and healthy. Some even soak tradition Chinese medicine into liquor in order to achieve a better effect. This has proven successful.The Chinese are used to drinking their wines at dinner, with food, rather than before dinner. If we are at banquet, we will turn to toast the host, raise our glass and say, “Gan Bei!” That means “Bottom up!”At the end of my speech, I’m glad to give a piece of advice: just remember that the principle at dinner is eating, not drinking. “Too much drink numbs the palate, which means that all those delicious Chinese dishes just go to waste”.Thank you very much, ladies and gentleman!。

英语信息性演讲稿范文(推荐9篇)

英语信息性演讲稿范文第1篇英文演讲自我介绍good morning, teachers. i am glad to have thechance to introduce myself.my chinese name is yang english name is evan. i am a boy. i am five years old. i am fromyingzhong training center.there are five people in myfamily. they are father, mother, grandpa, grandma and i. my fatheris a doctor, he works in union hospital. my mother is a teacher ofyoung children.i like englsh. i have learnedenglish for one year. i learn englsh from mycomputer, my english teacher and my parents. now i can speak alittle englsh. that’s you for listening.英语信息性演讲稿范文第2篇It is easy to describe success in terms of money, fame and reputation. But I believe that success is not external. I believe that success comes from within. My definition of success is to be true to yourself, and be true to others. That means, that you must cherish your personal ideal even in the face of adversity. I also believe that success is not discriminatory. Success is not restricted to such a class of people, in fact, it may be achieved by any person irrespective of his race, creed, gender and economic background. A good example of success is that of Beethoven. He is one of the world\'s most famous composers, yet he was deaf. He could not hear the majestic pieces of music that he created. Yet, in the face of this adversity, he was able to maintain his ideals\'\'that of composing music.To exemplify what success means to me, I pose a question to all of you. What brings us together here today? I believe that it is the beauty of the spoken word. The effect of pause and the sound of rhetoric are unique to the spoken word. I believe the beauty of the spoken word is even stronger for those who have difficulty in expressing themselves. These people are reclusive and had their emotions hidden within them. I once went to Australia and I saw two pictures, Once was drawn by a normal child, the other was drawn by a child with social inhibitions. The picture drawn by the normal child was simple and plain. The other waslife\'like, full of details and imagination. What this shows is that these are ideas, emotions and feelings that are locked internally in these children.My ideal is to be the key, spreading the beauty of the spoken words to these children. These children have been neglected, but I feel that I can and should help these children to find themselves and be able to express themselves.I realize that this is a difficult task, and there are many obstacles on the way. But I believe in my ideals and I will stick to them\'\'even in the face of adversity. We should never have a premature abortion of ideals\'let the child, let our ideals, stand the challenge. For a life without ideals is not living.Thank you!信息类个人英语演讲稿3篇（扩展6）——即兴英语演讲稿即兴英语演讲稿英语信息性演讲稿范文第3篇如何写好信息类材料经常有朋友问如何写好材料，不过材料的种类纷繁复杂，三言两语难以阐明，在此仅以机关材料的一种常见类型――信息类材料为例，与大家共同探讨。

英语演讲选修课教案informativespeech I

英语演讲选修课教案Informative Speech I第一章：课程简介1.1 课程目标让学生掌握informative speech 的基本概念和技巧提高学生的英语口语表达能力和演讲能力1.2 课程内容informative speech 的定义和特点informative speech 的结构和要求如何选择合适的题目和收集资料1.3 课程安排共计16 课时，每课时45 分钟每课时包括演讲技巧讲解、实践演练和反馈环节第二章：Informative Speech 的定义和特点2.1 什么是Informative Speech解释Informative Speech 的定义和作用强调Informative Speech 的目的：传递信息和知识2.2 Informative Speech 的特点结构清晰，逻辑性强使用恰当的例子和证据支持观点语言简明扼要，易于理解2.3 为什么学习Informative Speech提高学生的口语表达能力和演讲能力培养学生的研究和批判性思维能力增强学生的自信心和公众演讲技巧第三章：Informative Speech 的结构和要求3.1 结构概述引言：吸引听众的注意力，提出主题阐述主题，提供相关信息和支持论据结尾：总结全文，强调重点，提出建议或号召3.2 引言部分开头句：吸引听众的注意力，与主题相关背景信息：介绍话题的背景和重要性主题句：明确提出要传递的信息或知识3.3 部分段落结构：每段只包含一个主要观点论据支持：使用事实、数据、例子等支持观点过渡句：连接各个段落，保持演讲的连贯性3.4 结尾部分总结全文：回顾主要观点和论据强调重点：突出重要信息和观点提出建议或号召：引导听众采取行动或思考问题第四章：如何选择合适的题目和收集资料4.1 选择题目的原则个人兴趣和热情：选择自己感兴趣的话题知识储备：选择自己熟悉或有所了解的话题听众需求：考虑听众的兴趣和需求4.2 收集资料的方法图书馆研究：查阅相关书籍、杂志和期刊网络搜索：利用互联网资源进行资料收集采访专家：请教专业人士的意见和见解4.3 资料整理和筛选整理收集到的资料，分类别和关键词评估资料的可信度和可靠性筛选出与演讲主题相关的重要资料第五章：演讲技巧讲解与实践5.1 演讲技巧讲解声音与语调：保持声音的清晰和语调的抑扬顿挫肢体语言：运用合适的肢体动作表达观点和情感时间控制：掌握演讲的时间，避免超时或拖延5.2 实践演练分组练习：学生分组进行演讲练习，互相观摩和反馈角色扮演：模拟演讲场景，进行角色扮演和演讲练习录音反馈：学生录制自己的演讲，回放听取并进行自我评价5.3 反馈环节学生互相评价：给予同学演讲的反馈和建议教师评价：教师对学生的演讲进行评价和指导改进和提升：根据反馈意见进行改进，提升演讲技巧第六章：演讲的开头和结尾技巧6.1 开头技巧钩子：用一个有趣的故事、引用或问题吸引听众的注意力相关性：解释演讲与听众的关联，激发听众的兴趣定义：简洁明了地定义演讲主题，为后续内容做铺垫6.2 结尾技巧总结：回顾演讲的主要观点，强化听众的记忆呼吁行动：鼓励听众采取具体行动或思考问题留下悬念：提出一个引发思考的问题，为后续讨论提供话题第七章：使用视觉辅助材料7.1 视觉辅助材料的作用增强演讲的吸引力：通过图片、图表等视觉元素吸引听众的注意力辅助说明：用视觉材料展示数据、流程或概念，使内容更清晰易懂提高记忆：视觉元素有助于听众更好地记忆和理解演讲内容7.2 选择合适的视觉辅助材料图片：选用与演讲主题相关的图片，简洁明了地表达观点图表：用图表展示数据和趋势，使信息更直观易懂幻灯片：制作简洁清晰的幻灯片，辅助说明演讲内容7.3 使用视觉辅助材料的注意事项视觉元素与演讲内容紧密结合，避免无关或过多的装饰确保视觉辅助材料清晰可见，避免文字过小或颜色过于刺眼适时展示视觉辅助材料，与演讲内容同步，避免中断演讲流程第八章：处理紧张和失误8.1 认识紧张和失误紧张：面对听众时的自然情绪反应，影响演讲的表现失误：演讲过程中出现的口误、忘词等情况8.2 应对紧张的策略深呼吸：通过深呼吸放松身体和心情积极心态：调整心态，相信自己的准备和能力模拟练习：提前进行模拟练习，增加对演讲场景的熟悉度8.3 应对失误的策略镇定处理：保持镇定，不要慌张，继续演讲巧妙转移：用幽默或灵活的语言转移听众注意力补救措施：如果忘词，可以简要回顾上文内容，或借助视觉辅助材料提示第九章：演讲的语音语调与表达9.1 语音语调的重要性语音：清晰准确地发音，增强语言的感染力语调：适当的抑扬顿挫，使演讲更具表现力9.2 练习发音和语调模仿训练：模仿优秀演讲者的发音和语调，提高自己的表达能力录音反馈：录下自己的演讲，回放听评，改进发音和语调注重语流：保持语言的连贯性，避免生硬或过度的停顿9.3 增强表达力使用修辞手法：运用比喻、排比等修辞手法，丰富语言表达适当运用感叹词和语气词：增强语言的情感色彩关注听众反应：根据听众的反应调整语气和表达方式第十章：演讲的评估与自我提升10.1 评估标准内容：是否完整、准确地传达了信息结构：演讲是否条理清晰、逻辑严密表达：语音语调、肢体语言是否恰当，富有感染力互动：与听众的眼神交流、提问等互动是否自然顺畅10.2 自我提升策略反思总结：每次演讲后，进行自我反思和总结，找出不足之处持续练习：定期进行演讲练习，不断提高自己的表达能力学习借鉴：观看优秀演讲者的演讲视频，学习他们的经验和技巧10.3 寻求反馈和建议向同学、老师或其他听众寻求反馈，了解自己的演讲表现根据反馈意见进行改进，提升自己的演讲能力重点和难点解析1. Informative Speech 的结构和要求：理解并掌握informative speech 的基本结构，包括引言、和结尾，以及每个部分的功能和写作要求。

英语演讲知识学习进修课课程教案informativespeechI

注：教案附后Lesson 9 Informative speech ISupporting your ideasHeather Kolpin decided to give her first classroom speech on the benefits of good nutrition. A dedicated fitness enthusiast, she had recently switched to a high-protein diet. Part of her speech ran like this:“For years we’ve been told that meat, eggs, and cheese are bad for us and that we should eat more carbohydrates like cereal, grains, pasta, and rice. But too many carbohydrates can unbalance the body and make you tired and overweight. Do you want more energy? Do you want to concentrate better and get higher grades? Do you want to enjoy real meals and still lose those unsightly pounds? If so, you should eat more protein. I’ve been on a high-protein diet for six months, and I’ve never felt better or done better in my classes!”After the speech, Heather’s classmates were interested but skeptical. As one remarked，“I knowhigh-protein diets are popular right now, but Heather is no expert on nutrition. Besides, there are lots of diets around, and they all claim to work wonders. Personally, I’d be more convinced if Heather gave some scientific evidence to back up her opinion.”Good speeches are not composed of hot air and generalizations. They need strong supporting materials to bolster the speaker’s point of view. In Heather’s case, although there is plenty of evidence on the need to balance protein and carbohydrate consumption, many nutritionists have warned about the dangers of overloading on protein. So Heather’s listeners were right to be skeptical. Heather made a mistake of generalizing from her own experience with nothing concrete to support her ideas.The problem with generalizations is that they do not answer the three questions listeners always mentally ask of a speaker: “What do you mean?”, “Why should I believe you?”“So what?”The skillful use of supporting materials often makes the difference between a poor speech and a good one. Using supporting materials is not a matter of tossing facts and figures into your speech. You must decide which ideas need to be supported given your audience, topic, and specific purposes. You must do research to find materials that will bring your ideas across clearly and creatively. And you must evaluate your supporting materials to make sure they really do back up your ideas.As you put your speeches together, you will need to make sure your supporting materials are accurate, relevant, and reliable. You will find yourself asking such questions as, “Are my examples representative?”，“Am I quoting reputable, qualified sources?”There are three kinds of supporting materials we use most often, they are: examples , testimony and statisticsI．ExamplesExamples：a specific case used to illustrate or to represent a group of people, ideas, conditions, experiences or the like.In the course of a speech you may use brief examples—specific instances referred to in passing —and sometimes you may want to give several brief examples in a row to create a stronger impression. Extended examples—often called illustrations, narratives, or anecdotes—are longer and more detailed.Examples are useful when you wish to make an abstract concept or idea concrete. For example, it is difficult for the audience to see exactly what you mean by such abstract concepts as persecution, denial of freedom, friendship, and love unless you provide specific examples of what you mean.Here is one example a student used in a speech about lead poison.‘When Denise Waddle and her family moved to a nice, middle-class section of Jersey City, New Jersey, they had dreams of healthy living, block parties, even a big backyard so their kid could make mud pies. In less than one year in their new home, their two-year-old son had been poisoned, and their newborn showed high levels of poisoning in his bloodstream. Unknowingly, the Waddle’s had been poisoned by their own backyard, for high levels of lead contaminated their water and their lives.”Examples may be real and factual on one hand or hypothetical and imagined on the other. The hypothetical and imagined ones are called hypothetical examples.Hypothetical example: an example that describes an imagery or fictitious situationHere is one student used a hypothetical example to illustrate the need for college students to protect themselves against crime:Y ou’re tired; you’re hungry. You’ve just spent a long day at College Library and you cannot wait to get back to your room. Glancing outside, you remember how quickly it becomes dark. You don’t think much of it, though, as you bundle up and head out into the gusty wind. Not until you spy the shadows on the sidewalk or hear the leaves rustling beside you do you wish you weren’t alone. You walk quickly, trying to stop your imagination from thinking of murderers and rapists. Only when you are safely inside your room do you relax and try to stop your heart from pounding out of your chest.Can you remember a time when you felt this way? I would be surprised if you never have. The FBI reported last year that there were three murders, approximately 430 aggravated assaults, 1400 burglaries, and 80 rapes here in Madison alone. And while these statistics are quite alarming, they don’t compare to the numbers of larger metropolitan areas.This hypothetical example is particularly effective. The speaker creates a realistic scenario, relates it directly to her listeners, and gets them involved in the speech. In addition, she uses figures from the FBI to show that the scenario could really happen to any of her classmates. Whenever you use a hypothetical example, it is a good idea to follow it with statistics or testimony to show that the example is not far-fetched.Tips for using examples1. Use examples to clarify your ideasExamples are an excellent way to clarify unfamiliar or complex ideas. This is why so many teachers use examples in the classroom. Examples put abstract ideas into concrete terms that listeners can easily understand.This principle works exceptionally well in speeches. Suppose you are talking about suspension bridges, you could give a technical descriptionThe suspension bridge has a roadway suspended by vertical cables attached to two or more main cables. The main cables are hung on two towers and have their ends anchored in concrete or bedrock.If your listeners were made up of people familiar with structural systems, they might be able to visualize what a suspension bridge looks like. But for listeners lacking this background, you might want to add a simple example:Two well-known suspension bridges are the Golden Bridge in San Francisco and the Brooklyn Bridge in New York.Because almost everyone has at least seen a picture of the Golden Bridge in San Francisco and the Brooklyn Bridge in New York, using them as examples clarifies your meaning quickly and effectively.2. Use examples to reinforce your ideasIn a speech entitled “Boxing: The most dangerous sport”, the speaker argued that professional boxing should be banned. To reinforce his point, he cited the example of Muhammad Ali, who suffers a severe case of Parkinson’s disease brought on by his years in the ring. The example is very effective. It put the medical facts about boxing and brain damage in vivid, human terms that everyone could understand.When you use examples, make sure it is representative. The example of Muhammad Ali is quite representative.3. Use examples to personalize your ideasPeople are interested in people. AS social psychologist Eliot Aronson said, “Most people aremore deeply influenced by one clear, vivid, personal example than by an abundance of statistical data. ”Whenever you talk, you can include examples that will add human interest to your speech. SEE WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING WOULD YOU BE MORE LIKELY TO RESPOND TO?There are many hungry families in our community who could benefit from food donations.Or:Let me tell you about Arturo. Arturo is four years old. He has big brown eyes and a mop of black hair and an empty belly. In all his four years on this earth, Arturo has never once enjoyed three square meals in a single day.You can also use personal examples: personal examples are an excellent way to clarify ideas and to build audience interest. To be most effective, they should be delivered sincerely and with strong eye contact.II．TestimonyTestimony ---quotations or paraphrases used to support a point..People tend to respect the opinions of people who have special knowledge or experience on the topic. By quoting or paraphrasing such people, you can give your ideas greater strength and impact. The two major kinds of testimony are expert testimony and peer testimony.Expert testimony:Testimony from people who are recognized experts in their fields. It is a good way to lend credibility to your speeches by citing the viewpoints of people who are experts. It shows that you are not just mouthing your own opinions, but your position is supported by people who are knowledgeable about the topic.Expert testimony is more important when a topic is controversial or when the audience is skeptical about a speakers’point of view.As Einstein has put it; as Li Siguang said…Peer Testimony---Testimony from ordinary people with firsthand experience or insight on a topic.Testimony not from famous people, but from ordinary citizens who have firsthand experience on the topic. This kind of testimony is especially valuable because it gives a more personal viewpoint on issues than can be gained from expert testimony. It conveys the feelings, the knowledge, the insight of people who speak with the voice of genuine experience.For example, if you were speaking about the barriers faced by people with physical disabilities, you would surely include testimony from doctors and other medical authorities. But in this case, the expert testimony would be limited because it cannot communicate what it really means to have a physical disability. To communicate that, you need statements from people who have physical disabilities---such as the following:Itzhak Perman, the world-renowned violinist whose legs are paralyzed, once said: “When you are in a wheelchair, people don’t talk to you. Perhaps they think it is contagious, or perhaps they think crippled legs mean a crippled mind. But whatever the reason, they treat you like a thing.”Paul Longmore, who lost the use of his legs as a child, notes that most people are uncomfortable in the presence of someone who is handicapped, “It’s only when they really go out of their way to get to know us,”he says, “that they realize we are just as bright, witty, and companionable as they are.”There is no way expert testimony can express theses ideas with same authenticity and emotional impact.Tips for Using testimony1.quote or paraphrase accurately: make sure you do not misquote someone; make sure you donot violate the meaning of statements you paraphrase; make sure you do not quote out of context(quoting a statement in such a way as to distort its meaning by removing the statement from the words and phrases surrounding it. ).e testimony from qualified sources. That is, use testimony from recognized experts orordinary citizens with special experience on the speech topic.e testimony from unbiased sources. Be sure to use testimony from credible, competent,objective authorities.4.Identify the people you quote or paraphrase. The usual way to identify your source is to namethe person and sketch her or his qualifications before presenting the testimony. For instance: John Silber, Chancellor of Boston University and Chairman of the Massachusetts Board of Education, remarks: “It is quite clear that remarkable competence in a language can be achieved in three years--- if theses years are the ages three, four, and five. There is no question that for the average child to become bilingual, the earlier the better. ”After this statement, there is no doubt about Silber’s qualifications or why the audience should respect his judgment on the subject of education.III．StatisticsWe live in an age of statistics. Day in and day out we are bombarded with numbers. When used properly, statistics is an effective way to clarify and support ideas.Like brief examples, statistics are often cited in passing to clarify or strengthen a speaker’s point. The following examples show how three students used statistics in their speeches:To show the dangers posed by running red lights: “According to the U.S. Department ofTransportation, 200,000 people are injured and more than 800 are killed every year in the U.S. due to motorists who run red lights.”To illustrate the growing popularity of organic foods: “Consumers Union reports that sales of organic crops now exceed $9 billion a year and are increasing at the rate of 20 percent annually.”To document the problem of identity theft: “As stated by Newsweek magazine, identity theft has become the leading source of consumer fraud in the U.S., with an estimated 500,000 to 700,000 victims each year.”When using statistics, ask yourself the following two question:Are the statistics representative?Are the statistics from a reliable source?Tips for using statisticsUse statistics to quantity your ideasThe main value of statistics is to give your ideas numerical precision. This can be especially important when you are trying to document the existence of a problem. Examples can bring the problem alive and dramatize it in personal terms. But your listeners may still wonder how many people the problem actually affects. In such a situation, you should turn to statistics. Research has shown that the impact of examples is greatly enhanced when they are combined with statistics that show the examples to be typical.Suppose you are talking about the need for tougher driver’s license requirements for elderly drivers. Part of your speech deals with the growing number of auto accidents caused by drivers aged 70 and older. You give an example, you personalize it, you provide many details, as follows:Marie Wyman’s 87th birthday celebration at the Lobster Trap and Steakhouse in Winslow, Maine, ended with a bang. As Wyman backed out of her parking spot, she lost control of her Buick and plowed right through the restaurant’s crowded dining room. T ables and chairs scattered as terrified diners scrambled for cover. Twenty-seven people were injured, and police say it was a miracle that no one was killed.Then the speaker used figures to quantity the problem:According to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, almost 5,000 drivers age 70 or older were killed last year, a 33 percent increase over the past 10 years. In few than 20 years, there will be more than 30 million drivers over age 70 in the United States, and highway safety experts warn that the number of people killed in crashes involving elderly motorists is likely to exceed the drunk-driving death toll.Use statistics sparinglyNothing puts an audience to sleep faster than a speech scattered with numbers from beginning to end. Insert statistics only when they are needed, and then make sure that they are easy to grasp. Identify the source of your statisticsAs we have seen, figures are easy to manipulate. This is why careful listeners keep an ear out for the sources of a speaker’s statistics. Tell your listeners where your statistics is from, and it is reliable.Explain your statisticsStatistics don’t speak for themselves, they need to be interpreted and related to your listeners.A speech made by US Secretary of State Collins Powell on the international AIDS crisisMany speakers have noted the dreadful toll that AIDS is taking….But let me try to make it more relevant.This hall holds about 2,000 people. By the time the three hours of this session elapse, 2,000people around the world---just about the same number who are here---will be newly infected with HIV/AIDS. That’s one for every person in this room. In some countries the infection rate is so high that one in three of us---the delegate to your right, the delegate to your left, or you, yourself---would be HIV positive.Explaining what statistics mean is particularly important when you deal with large numbers, since they are hard to visualize. Here is an example to explain the $6.5 trillion U.S. national debt.How much money is a trillion dollars? Think of it this way. If you had $1million and spent it at the rate of $1,000 a day, you would run out of money in less than three years. If you had $1 billion and spent it at the rate of $1,000 a day, you would not run out of money for almost 3,000 years. And if you had $ 1 trillion and spent it at the rate of $1,000 a day, you wouldn’t run out of money for nearly 3 million years！Round off complicated statisticsSometimes you do not have to give the exact number; they are too complicated to be really understood by listeners. Unless there is an important reason to give exact numbers, you should round off most statistics.For instance, Mount Kilimanjaro is 19,341, you should say , it is 19,300.The moon is 238,855 miles from earth, you should say: it is 239,000 miles from earth.Use visual aids to clarify statistical trendsVisual aids can save you a lot of time, as well as make your numbers easier to understand.Sample speech with commentaryThe following speech illustrates how to wok supporting materials into a presentation. as you readstudy how the speaker uses a variety of examples, statistics, and quotations to make her ideas clear, credible, and convincing.Suffer the childrenMatthew Garvey was just 13 years old when he was hired by Quality Car Wash in Laurel, Maryland, to towel-dry cars as they came off the line. Not long after he began working, Matthew lost his right leg when it got caught in an industrial machine used to suck the moisture out of the towels. After investigating, the U.S. Department of Labor fined the car wash for illegally hiring a minor and for operating a machine with a broken safety lid.The speaker begin with an extended example to gain attention and interest The example is specific and detailed .We are told Matthew Garvey’s name and age, where he lived, the kind of work he did ,and how he was injured. These are the kinds of details that bring examples to life and help get listeners involved in a speech.This in just one of the more tragic examples of what Jeffrey Newman of the National Child Labor Committee calls the “crisis”of child-labor law abuses in the United States. In researching this speech, I discovered that employers from New York to California are breaking the law by hiring children from age 7 to 17 who often put in long, hard hours in dangerous conditions Today I would like to show you the extent of the problem and how it jeopardizes the education and safety of millions of young people.The speaker moves into testimony suggesting that the opening story is representative of a major problem in the U.S. When you use an extended example, it is usually a good idea to precede or follow the example with statistics or testimony showing that the example is not unusual or exceptional.To understand the problem of child-labor law violations we need to begin by looking at the provisions of the law. As explained on the U.S. Department of Labor website, the Fair Labor Standards Act sets a minimum working age of 14.It limits 14-year-old and 15-year-old to three hours of work on school days, prohibits them from working after 7 at night, and allows them a total of 18 work hours per week during the school year. The law also restricts employment of children under 18 in dangerous jobs such as construction, meat-cutting, and mining.In her first main point the speaker explores the problem of child-labor law violations in the United States. She begins by summarizing the provisions of the law. Notice how she identifies the website where she acquired the information.Passed in 1938 and amended several times since, the Fair Labor Standards Act was designed to prevent the exploitation of child labor that took place during the 19th century. Yet today violations of the law are shockingly widespread. According to the Associated Press, 148,000 minors in the U.S. are employed illegally in nonagricultural jobs during an average week, working too many hours or in hazardous conditions. In addition, the National Child Labor Committee reports that more than 110,000 children work illegally on U.S. farms.Statistics in this and the next paragraph back up the speaker’s point that violations of child-labor laws are widespread in the U.S. Rather than giving the exact number of violations, she round them off, making them easier to grasp and recall.Some of the most serious violations occur in garment industry factor is known as sweatshops that hire immigrant children at rates well below minimum wage. The Associated Press estimates that as many as 2,600 minors are employed illegally in New York City sweatshops. Thomas Cubiak, head of the city’s garment district task force, says “most of the children in these factories are below 18, some as young as 8.”Like Faviola Flores, a 15-year-old Mexican girl in a Manhattan sweatshop, they toil long days in unsafe conditions for as little as $3.50 an hour. “I don’t like working here,”Flores says, ”but I have no choice.”The speaker uses a combination of statistics and testimony to support her point about child-labor abuses in the garment industry. The statement form Thomas Gubiak is an example of expert testimony; the closing quotation from Faviola Flores in an instance of peer testimony.Although the exploitation of child labor has been a problem in the garment trade since the 1800s, it can be found in almost every industry that employs minors. In January 2000, Wagner’s Meats of New Orleans was fined nearly $150,000 for illegally employing 27 minors in dangerous jobs and for exceeding federal hour limits. In February 2001, Thornton Roofing was fined $34,000 for child-labor violations in connection with the death of a teenage worker in Montgomery, Alabama. In March 2002, the Six Flags amusement parks paid $85,000 in penalties for violating federal child-labor laws.A series of brief examples supports the speaker’s claim about the pervasiveness of child-labor law violations. Because the examples deal with companies throughout the U.S. and in different lines of business, they provide strong evidence to reinforce the speaker’s point that violations of the law are widespread.Like other business caught breaking child-labor laws, Wanger’s and Six Flags tried to downplay the seriousness of their offenses. But the growing epidemic of child-labor law violations threatens both the education and the physical safety of young workers.The speaker begins her second main point—that violations of child-labor laws have serious consequences for the education and physical safety of young workers.The educational consequences are most damaging to illegal underage employees who work instead of attending school. As Hugh McDaid of New York City’s garment task force says, illegal underage workers “sacrifice their education and literally commit themselves to a life of working in a sweatshop. They have on future.”But even for children who do attend school, too many hours at work can harm their education. In their book When Teenager Work, psychology professors Ellen Greenberger and Laurence Steinberg note that intensive levels of work among youth tend to produce higher truancy and lower grades. According to Greenberger and Steinberg, one study after another has found that working more than a very few hours a week has a negative impact on teenagers’academic performance.The quotation from Huge McDaid is a good instance of expert testimony. This quotation, like others in the speech , is short and forceful. There is no reason to use a direct quotation unless it makes the point more clearly and forcefully than you can in your own words.Here the speaker paraphrases rather than quoting verbatim. Notice that she gives the name of the book she is paraphrasing from and identifies its authors. Speakers have an ethical obligation to indicate the sources of paraphrases, as well as of quotations.Not only do child workers harm their education, but they often endanger their physical safety as well . Recall the story I told in my introduction about Matthew Garvey, the 13-year-old who lost his leg while working at a car wash. Even more tragic is the case of Michael Hurcone, a 17-year-old Pennsylvania high-school student. While employed at a supermarket, he was working with a bailer —a machine that crushes and bins cardboard boxes and is supposed to be off-limits to minors. Noticing that some material was stuck in the bailer, Michael tried to free up the jam when he got caught in the machine. It crushed his body for 30 minutes before he suffocated.The examples in this paragraph show specific cases in which teenagers were injured or killed by the violation of child-labor laws. The extended example about Michael Hurcone is especially effective. Filled with specific details that make it interesting and credible, it puts the speaker’s point in human terms with which the audience can identify.Nor are these isolated examples. USA Today reported on July 12, 2002, that 230,000 teenagers are injured at work each year. According to former U.S. Labor Secretary Alexis Herman, nearly 70 minors are killed on the job annually—most in accidents involving infractions of child-labor laws.In this paragraph he speaker presents testimony and statistic to prove that the examples in the previous paragraph are not atypical. As in other parts of the speech, she is quite specific in identifying the sources of her evidence.In the light of all this evidence, there can be no doubt that the violation of child-labor laws is widespread problem with serious consequences. The issue is well summarized by former U.S. Senator Howard Metzenbaum of Ohio, who stated after congressional hearings on the subject, “I shudder to think that children the same age as my own grandchildren are being robbed of an education, their limbs, and indeed, their lives through illegal child labor.”The speaker begins her conclusion by summarizing the two main points she had made in the body of the speech. She then ends with a dramatic quotation,. As we shall see in previous chapter,, this is an effective way to pull a speech together and to reinforce its central idea.SummaryGood speeches are not composed of hot air and unfounded assertions. They need strong supporting materials to bolster the speaker’s point of view. In fact, the skillful use of supporting materials often makes the difference between a good speech and a poor one. The three basic types of supporting materials are examples, statistics, and testimony.In the course of a speech you may use brief examples—specific instances referred to in passing —and sometimes you may want to give several brief examples in a row to create a stronger impression. Extended examples—often called illustrations, narratives, or anecdotes—are longerand more detailed. Hypothetical examples describe imaginary situations and can be quite effective for relating ideas to the audience. All three kinds of examples help clarify ideas, reinforce ideas, or personalize ideas. To be most effective, though, they should be vivid and richly textured.Testimony is especially helpful for student speakers because students are seldom recognized as experts on their topics. Citing the views of people who are experts is a good way to make your ideas more credible. When you include testimony in a speech, you can either quote or paraphrase his or her words. As with statistics, there are guidelines for using testimony. Bu sure to quote or paraphrase accurately and to cite qualified, unbiased sources. If the source is not generally known to your audience, be certain to establish his or her credentials.Statistics can be extremely helpful in conveying your message as long as you can use them sparingly and explain them so that they are meaningful to your audience. Above you should understand your statistics and use them fairly. Numbers can easily be manipulated and distorted. Make sure your figures are representative and reliable.。

英语信息型演讲范文

英语信息型演讲的魅力与技巧In the realm of public speaking, the art of delivering an informative speech in English holds a unique allure. It not only requires the mastery of language but also the ability to engage, educate, and persuade an audience. An effective informative speech in English is a blend of clarity, conciseness, and creativity, all wrapped up in a compelling narrative that keeps listeners engaged fromstart to finish.The foundation of any informative speech is thorough research. This involves gathering relevant and reliable information from various sources, analyzing it critically, and synthesizing it into a coherent narrative. The speaker must ensure that the content is accurate, up-to-date, and presented in a way that is easy to understand. This requires a deep understanding of the subject matter and the ability to translate complex information into language that is accessible to a general audience.Once the research is complete, the next step is to structure the speech. An informative speech should have a clear beginning, middle, and end. The introduction shouldcapture the audience's attention and provide a brief overview of the topic. The body of the speech should build upon the introduction, presenting the main points in a logical order and supported by evidence. The conclusion should sum up the main ideas and leave the audience with a lasting impression.Throughout the speech, the use of effective language techniques is crucial. Clear and concise language helps to convey information efficiently. The speaker should avoid jargon and technical language that may confuse the audience. Instead, they should use plain English and examples that resonate with the listeners. Additionally, the speaker can employ rhetorical devices such as analogies, metaphors, and stories to make the content more engaging and memorable.Moreover, an informative speech benefits from the useof visual aids. Charts, graphs, and images can helpillustrate complex concepts and make the information easier to digest. These visual elements should be designed to complement the speech, not overshadow it. They should be clear, concise, and visually appealing.However, it is important to note that while the content and delivery of an informative speech are crucial, the speaker's credibility is also a key factor. The audience is more likely to engage with and believe the information presented if the speaker comes across as knowledgeable and trustworthy. Therefore, the speaker should ensure that they have a thorough understanding of the topic and are able to present it with confidence.In conclusion, delivering an effective informative speech in English requires meticulous planning, clear communication, and the ability to engage the audience. By combining thorough research, a well-structured narrative, effective language techniques, visual aids, and credibility, speakers can captivate their listeners and convey valuable information in a memorable and impactful way.**英语信息型演讲的魅力与技巧**在公开演讲的领域中，用英语进行信息型演讲具有独特的魅力。

Informative speech演示文稿

The comic god in the eastern —Zhao Ben Shan
In my speech i will introduce Zhao Ben Shan’s different childhood, growing up, difficult successful way and future.
The Six Steps
Step 1: Choose a topic Step 2: Make a thesis Step 3: Make points that support your thesis Step 4: Develop, research and refine your points Step 5: Write your Outline Step 6: Prepare to deliver the speech
Leading In
Would you please name some of your favorite public speeches? Why do they make your favorites? Would you name some famous public speeches, please? Why are some speeches good, and others poor?
Aiming at another fields --- movies.
Conclusion
Zhao Ben Shang is a great man. I admire not only for his achievement,
How to prepare and present a speech
The speeches you will give in this class include an informative speech, and a persuasive speech. With any of these kinds of speeches, you can prepare by following the 6-step process:

信息型演讲informative

信息型演讲: 偏重于一种信息，一种知识的分享。

------------------------------------六个部分：" 问候语（Greetings）" 提出话题（Presentation of the Topic）" 论述话题（Discussion of the Topic）" 结束话题（Conclusion of the Topic）" 呼吁行动（Appeal to Action）" 结尾语（Closing Remarks）====================================例文：Alcohol-----a Metaphor in the Chinese Culture 酒----中华文化的暗喻Ladies and gentlemen:Good morning!Our traditional culture has enjoyed a high level of civilization , all visitors to our country are impressed by its 3000 years of cultural treasures.Alcohol, ”Jiu” in Chinese, has occupied a very important status in Chinese traditional culture since ancient times. Our ancestors used it as a libation to their forefathers to express their yearning , or enjoyed it while writing poetry. Until now, as the old Chinese saying goes, ”Frequent drinking makes friends surrounding. ” Alcohol always goes together with delicious dishes on the occasions when relatives and friends have a beer during a feast. Alcohol he is intimately connected with the life of most Chinese people.There are various accounts in ancient Chinese books regarding the origin of alcohol. Among those stories, most of which are probably not credible in a historical senses, but the most well-know one is “Du KangMake s Alcohol”. Folk legend regards Du Kang, living in the Xia Dynasty as the God of wine.And today some Chinese still use his name to mean alcohol. Actually, there is archaeological evidence of alcohol production 7000 years ago in the agricultural communities along the Yellow river. On the basis of this, some archaeologists deduce that the earliest crops were cultivated for the brewing of alcohol rather than the purpose of food. However, the historical record clearly suggested that , in the Shang Dynasty of the 16th through 11th centuries ., the use of grain to make alcohol had become widespread; wineries were discovered in a recent archaeological expedition. The development of Chinese brewing technology accelerated after the 3rd century . New techniques were introduced from neighbors in the Han, Tang and Yuan Dynasties.Till the Wei, Jin and Tang Dynasties, drinking was popular and was highly praised by many famous poets. To me, it’s interesting that there are various relationships between drinking and Chinese culture. Being drunk and in the state of free creativity was important so that Chinese artists could release their artistic creativity. Wang Xizhi, famous Chinese calligrapher respectfully called ”Calligraphy Saint”, had tired dozens of times to surpass his most outstanding work, Langtingxu, which was finished when he was drunken, but he failed. The original one was the best.Not just calligraphy painting, but also poetry. Many medi outstanding poets such as the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove were hearty drinkers. They had left us surprisingly marvelous poem after drinking the mysterious liquid. For example, Tao Yuan-Ming, the prominent Jin-era poet, had a great zest for alcohol. He drunk along, brewed his own wine, and recounted the enjoym ent of wine tasting. Ian Newman says it best, “Tao’s poems are imbued with wine, and there was poet from his wine.”Although alcohol has continually been regarded as a metaphor of happiness and congratulation, some Chinese still consider it as a disaster at the same time. They believe excessive drinking can cause health problem to the government will have to take measures to prevent the public from too much alcohol use. For example, the Han Dynasty imposed an alcohol tax and passed a variety of laws to laws to reduce consumption. The Chinese government today has chosen not to interfere with the traditional patters of alcohol use. There are no laws regulating the purchase, consumption, or selling of alcohol. Instead, alcohol use is to be controlled by culture, tradition, social pressure, and economy.Actually, Chinese people do believe that moderate drinking is good for one’s health. As a result, many Chinese take a sip of alcohol to keep them fresh and healthy. Some even soak tradition Chinese medicine into liquor in order to achieve a better effect. This has proven successful.The Chinese are used to drinking their wines at dinner, with food, rather than before dinner. If we are at banquet, we will turn to toast the host, raise our glass and say, “Gan Bei!” That means “Bottom up!”At the end of my speech, I’m glad to give a piece of advice: just remember that the principle at dinner is eating, not drinking. “Too much drink numbs the palate, which means that all those delicious Chinese dishes just go to was te”.Thank you very much, ladies and gentleman!。

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信息型演讲i n f o r m a t i v es p e e c hInformative Speech信息型演讲: 偏重于一种信息，一种知识的分享。