英语词汇学6.3Synonymy
expectation: either good or evil. anticipation: as a rule is a pleasurable expectation of something good. hope: is not only a belief but a desire that some event would happen.
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Sense Relations between Words
-nyms Most wonderful of all are words, and how they …[relate] one with another.
O. Henry, as modified by a semantician
Words are related to one another in a variety of ways. These relationships have words to describe them that often end in the bound morpheme –nym It may be more accurate to think of the lexicon as network, rather than a listing of words as in a published dictionary.
to hope against hope, • to • lose • hope,• to pin one's hopes on sth.•
7.1.2 Patterns of synonymous sets in Modern English
Why so many synonyms? English is a language particularly rich in pairs of synonyms. The primary reason for this has to do with the history of language and especially with the wholesome borrowing from other languages. "The richness of • English • in synonyms is largely due to the happy mingling of Latin, French and Native elements". Generally speaking, the native words are the simplest and most ordinary and tends to belong to the ordinary colloquial language; The Greek or Latin borrowings are the most learned, most formal and most technical and they tend to be used in the most formal context; French borrowings stands between the native words and the Latin and Greek borrowings.
7.1 Synonymy
7.1.1 Definition of synonyms Gk synonymon --- “having the same name” syn--• together+• onuma,• a name . Traditionally: words differing in sound form but identical or • similar • in meaning. But: -- there are • more • polysemic • words • than • monosemic words, and it is inconceivable that a polysemic word could • have • the • same synonymous word for all its meanings. • e.g.•head: chief, boss, leader aptitude, talent He has a good head for history. mind, imagination to use one's head life It cost him his head. top headline, headgear front headlight, headwind
2) The triple scale pattern: Native French ask question fast firm fire flame fear terror goodness virtue holy scared rise mount time age
Latin interrogate secure conflagration trepidation probity consecrated ascend epoch
7.1.3 kinds of synonyms plete synonyms Complete synonyms or absolute or strict synonyms are very rare. Two words are totally synonyms only if they are fully identical• in • meaning • and interchangeable • in • any • context • without • the • slightest • alternation • • in connotative, affective and stylistic meanings. • e.g. fatherland—motherland word-formation--word-building breathed consonant--voiceless consonant scarlet fever – scarlatina caecitis – typhlitis (盲肠炎)
Latin amity aid interior exterior acute universe
In few cases, the native term is more literary than the foreign one: dale valley deed action foe enemy meed reward
(a) In degree of a given quality or in shade of meaning
(Synonyms with different connotation) e.g Small, tiny, diminutive, minute, microscopic, infinitesimal anger: the most general term rage: implies a loss of self control fury: The strongest word in the group, suggests a rage so violent that it may approach madness; indignation: denotes anger based on a moral condemnation of something • felt to be wrong and unfair. wrath: now limited in use to literature and figures of speech, • suggests a strong anger directed at some specific person or is uneconomical; it creates unnecessary redundancy in a language
2. Relative synonyms
Relative synonyms or loose synonyms or more accurately quasisynonymous • words, differ from complete synonyms in the following respects:
-- it seems impossible to speak of identity • or • similarity • of lexical meaning of a word as a • whole,• as • it • is • only • the • denotative meaning that may be said to be identical or similar. • Synonym: " • a word • having • the • same meaning as another word: as one of two or more words of the same language and grammatical category having the same essential or generic meaning • and differing only in connotation, application, or idiomatic use: • one • of • two or more words having essentially identical definition.• .• .• “ e.g.-- experiencing something experience interchangeable under certain conditions undergo
e.g. Tom is easily aroused to anger.
Mad with fury, John pounded his fist on the wall and beat his breast. Mary expressed her indignation at being unfairly dismissed. …the wrath of the gods refuse,• reject, • decline e.g. She decline the chair the judge pushed towards her. The employer refuse to "recognize" the unions. …those who accepted the offer and those who reject it.
英语词汇学chapter6 Polysemy and Hyponymy
Two approaches
1) Diachronic approach(历时的) •From the diachronic point of view, polysemy is thought to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of a word.
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2) synchronic approach(共时的) •Synchronically, polysemy is thought as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a historical period of time.
– The basic meaning of a word is considered to be the core of word meaning, called the central meaning (中 心意义). The derived meanings, no matter how numerous, are secondary meanings (次要意义).
A piece of timber
board→木板→餐桌→会议桌→董事会
table
dining table
council table
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• Concatenation describes a process where each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains.
3
Polysemy
词汇学 synonymy
• 海洋文化_______________________ • 海洋文化海洋的广阔与一望无际而表现出大气与开放姿态（李白诗： “海水不满眼，观涛不称心。”）；又因海洋无法私人占有而形成 平等观念，密切了人间关系（“同舟共济”“风雨同舟”）。 • 海洋是人类的精神家园，天风海涛，最能启迪人们想象与幻想；而 险恶的风波，又能培养人们的冒险精神，使航海成为勇敢者的事业。 海洋是流动的，变化的，宽容的，有较大自由度（普希金诗：“大 海，自由的元素。”），较少狭隘观念与保守思想。海洋又是积极 的，进取的，浪漫的，有广阔的想象与联想的空间，开拓人的心灵 世界。这些构成了海洋文化大气、强悍、机智、热情、浪漫、生气 勃勃、充满想象力与创造性的基本特征，也构建了海边民豪爽、旷 达、灵活、容易接受新事物与新观念的心理素质。海洋文化作为一 种商业文化，是一种城市文化、市民文化，体现了人类文化最新发 展成果，有鲜明的时代标志。其外延涵盖当代的科技发明、商业流 通与社会进步；其内涵包含近代的民主理念、平民意识与自由思想， 从根本上提高了人的文化素质与精神境界。 • 它不仅具有地域性与民族性，更具有时代性与世界性，标志当代先 进文化的前进方向。
• 据国外媒体报道，法国近日出台一项规定向加班叫 板：晚上6点后到早上9点之前的非正常工作时间内， 公司将不允许向员工发送邮件，也不可以给员工打 电话，在法国的外企也必须遵守这一规定。而且， 法国每周法定的工作时间仅为35个小时，此外员工 每年还必须配至少5个星期的带薪假期。
2#（2）爱国
林则徐历史事件：叙事为主 课后提问：1.日本人治台五十年给台湾带来的正、负面 影响为何？
5#：文化差异原因上升为哲学总结：价值观差异
6#:窥探漏洞、追主流（窥探国内差异中的非客
观因素，寻求发展）
词汇学
Relative synonyms,also called by some people near-synonyms,are similar or nearly the same in denotation,but embrace（包含） different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.（相对同义词又叫近似同义词，指词的指示 意义基本相同或相似，但隐含意义或表达程度不同）
(词的比喻和委婉用法）
occupation(profession)
walk of life(fig)
4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions
(单词与习惯表达在意义上的隔阂）
win
gain the upper hand
Within the native element,words are also found to express similar meanings such as fast--speedy--swift,handsome--pretty--lovely.
4.Discrimination
Generally speaking, there is no difference between absolute synonyms, but relative synonyms always differ in one way or another.
英语词汇学_Unit_06_Sense_relations
beautiful
expensive fast hot long rich wide
cheap slow cold short poor narrow
These pairs are called gradable antonyms because they do not represent a more/less relation. The words can be the end-points of a continuum (连续体). Since they are gradable, they allow comparison.
English ask time begin buy French question age commence purchase Latin interrogate epoch
Antonymy (反义关系)
Antonymy is a relationship of ‘meaning opposition’ that may hold between two words. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning. Major types of antonyms：
Gradable antonyms Contradictory or complementary antonyms Converse antonyms
Gradable antonyms
Gradable antonyms include pairs like the following:
ugly
Synonymy
自考英语词汇学 第六章课件
6.2 Homonymy 同形同音异义关系
Homonyms are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling. 同形同音异义词一般定义为在读音和 拼写上或者只是在读音或拼写上相同而词义不同的 词。 Based on the degree of similarity, homonyms fall into three classes: perfect homonyms, homographs and homophones. 根据相似的程度， 同形同音异义词又可分为 3 类：完全同形同音异义 词、同形异音异义词和同音异形异义词。
6.1.2 Two Processes of Development 多义词的两种发展过程
The
development of word-meaning from monosemy to polysemy follows two courses, traditionally known as radiation and concatenation. 词义从单义像多义发展遵循两种模式：辐射 型和连锁型。
6.1 Polysemy 多义关系
When
a word is first coined, it is always monosemic. 当一个词最初被创造出来的 时候，一律是单语义词。
6.1.1 Two Approaches to Polysemy 两种多义关系的研究方法
The
problem of interrelation of the various meanings of the same word can be dealt with from two different angles: diachronic approach and synchronic approach. 同一词的各种意义之间相互关联 的问题可以从历时方法和共时方法两个角度 来研究。
6英语词汇学第六章_同义反义上下义汇总
• • • •
代表整体的词：holonym 代表局部的词：meronym 属于局部的词: co-meronyms共局部词 e.g: book: holonym cover/page: co-meronyms 共局部词
•
Plant
• leaf, bud, stem, root, flower, shoot • • Petal stamen
semantic component.
( Jost Trier / German 1930’s)
• words of a semantic field are not synonyms but are joined together by some common semantic component
(between the genus（类概念） and the species（种概念）.
Note:***---grammatical structure: • He likes dogs and other animals. • There is no flower more beautiful than a rose. • I like all fruits except bananas. • She reads books all day---mostly novels.
semantic field theory 语义场理论 • vocab. of a language is not just a listing of independent items, but organized into areas or fields, the members of which are joined together by some common
6.现代英语词汇学(第六章)
现代英语词汇学（第六章）
Semantic Classification of Words
Semantic classification of words means that vocabulary units are classified on the basis of various meaning relations between words on the paradigmatic axis (语义聚合轴线). Paradigmatic relation existing between words not only define the word meaning but also function as the main criteria underlying (accounting for) the semantic classification of words. For example, the criterion of common concept serves to classify words into semantic fields, whereas semantic relations of similarity, contrast and inclusion underlie （ are the basis of) respectively the classification of lexical items into synonyms, antonyms and hyponyms (下义词）.
现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料chapter6
Chapter 6 Polysemy and Homonymy⏹6.1 Polysemy 一词多义⏹6.2 Homonymy 同音同形异义⏹6.3 The Stylistic Value of Polysemy and Homonymy 一词多义与同音异义的文体价值6.1 Polysemy 一词多义Polysemy: A term used in semantic analysis to refer to a lexical item which has a range of different meanings.*means that one single word has two or more senses at the same time.●Two approaches to polysemy :diachronic 历时的and synchronic 一时的，同步的●Two processes leading to polysemy1)Radiation辐射型：It is the process in which the primary or central meaning stands at thecenter while secondary meaning radiates from it in every direction like ray .*Though all the secondary meanings are independent of one another, they can all be traced back to the primary meaning.2)Concatenation连锁型: It is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word movesgradually away from its first sense by successive shifts ,like the links of a chain ,until thereis no connection between the sense that is finally developed and the primary meaning .*use relations between senses to master the different meanings of a polysemic word●Sense relations of polysemy1)original meaning vs. extended meaning 原始意义vs.引申意义2)universal meaning vs. particular meaning 普遍意义vs.特殊意义3)abstract meaning vs. concrete meaning 抽象意vs.特殊意义4)literal meaning vs. figurative meaning字面意义vs.比喻意义6.2 Homonymy 同音同形异义Homonymy: words which though different in meaning ,are pronounced alike ,or spelled alike ,or both .Eg.light（光）light（轻的）；bark（吠）bark（树皮）；flower（花）flour（面粉）●Three types of homonyms:1)Perfect homonyms完全同形同音异义词:Words identical in spelling but different in meaning .E.g.1)．poppop ／p p/ n．流行歌曲pop／p p／n．爸爸pop／p p／n．砰的一声2)．lastlast ／la:st／a．最后的last／la:st／v．持续last／la:st／n．鞋楦头现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料chapter62)Homophones同音异义词:Words identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning.Eg. air空气–heir继承人，后嗣bear忍受，熊–bare空的，赤裸的dear 亲爱的–deer鹿3)Homograph同形异音异义词:Words identical in spelling but different in sound and meaning .Eg. lead sow tear prayerSources of homonyms1.Phonetic convergenceUnder the influence of phonetic convergence ,two or more words whichonce were different in sound forms take on the same pronunciation thespoken language .E.g. melo –meal bean –been beat –beet flea –flee heal –heel2.Semantic divergenceWhen two or more meanings of the same word drift apart to such an extentthat there will be no obvious connection between them ,polysemy will giveplace to homonymy .E.g. flour –flower metal –mettle3.Foreign influenceE.g. host –one who entertains guest [L hospitis ]host –a large number ,an army [L hostis ,army ,hostile force ]4.ShorteningThis source is of decidedly subsidiary importance in formal writing but haswidespread influence in everyday speech.E.g. pop –popular (music )-to thrust ,to push (up ) 推6.3 The Stylistic Value of Polysemy and Homonymy一词多义与同音异义的文体价值Context plays a very important role in the hearer 's interpretation of words of two special types: different words of like form(homonymy)and words of several meanings (polysemy ).*Polysemic and homonymous words are stylistically useful to achievehumour or irony ,or to heighten dramatic effect .。
现代英语词汇学
现代英语词汇学一、词汇的构成（Word - formation）1. 词根（Root）- 定义：词根是单词的核心部分，它包含着单词的基本意义。
例如，“vis”在“visible”（可见的）、“vision”（视觉）和“visit”（参观）中是词根，其基本意义与“看”有关。
读音：[ruːt]，词性：名词。
2. 前缀（Prefix）- 定义：加在词根前面，改变单词的意义。
例如，“un - ”在“unhappy”（不快乐的）中表示否定。
读音：[ˈpriːfɪks]，词性：名词。
- 常见前缀及其意义：- “re - ”（再，又），如“rewrite”（重写）。
读音：[riː - ]，词性：前缀。
- “pre - ”（在……之前），如“preview”（预习，预演）。
读音：[priː - ]，词性：前缀。
3. 后缀（Suffix）- 定义：加在词根后面，改变单词的词性或意义。
例如，“ - er”在“worker”（工人）中表示“做……的人”。
读音：[ˈsʌfɪks]，词性：名词。
- 常见后缀及其作用：- “ - ness”（构成名词，表示性质、状态），如“happiness”（幸福）。
读音：[nəs]，词性：后缀。
- “ - ful”（构成形容词，表示充满……的），如“helpful”（有帮助的）。
读音：[fʊl]，词性：后缀。
二、词性（Parts of Speech）1. 名词（Noun）- 定义：表示人、事物、地点、抽象概念等。
例如，“book”（书）、“city”（城市）、“love”（爱）。
读音：[naʊn]，词性：名词。
- 名词的分类：- 可数名词（Countable Noun），如“apple”（苹果），有单复数形式。
- 不可数名词（Uncountable Noun），如“water”（水），一般没有复数形式。
2. 动词（Verb）- 定义：表示动作或状态。
例如，“run”（跑）、“be”（是）。
《英语词汇学》知识点归纳
English Lexicology( 英语词汇学 )Lexicology （词汇学） : is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into theorigins and meanings of words.The Nature and Scope of English lexicology ：English lexicology aims at investigating and studying themorphological structures of English words and word equivalents, theirsemantic structures, relations, historical development, formation andusages.：The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extenttoEnglish Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态) 学 ),semantics( 语义学 ), etymology( 词源学 ),stylistics （文体论）and lexicography( 词典学The reason for a student to study English lexicology ：According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely bebeneficial for students of English.A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules ofword-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power. The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify andstore words more effectively. The understanding and their sense relationswill gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable themuse words more accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge ofdictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raisetheir problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study.Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord （词的定义） : A word is a minimal free form of a language that has agiven sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity(3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentencend and meaning （声音与意义） : almost arbitrary, “ no logical relationship betweenthesound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself ”Sound and form （读音和形式） : 不统一的四个原因（ 1 ）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （ 2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years （ 3） some ofthe difference were creates by the early scribes （4） the borrowings is an importantchannel of enriching the English vocabularyVocabulary （词汇） : all the words in a language make up its vocabularyClassification of English Words ：By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabulary By notion:content words&functional words By origin:native words&borrowed wordsThe basic word stock （基本词汇） : is the foundation of the vocabularyaccumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary. The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征) : 1)All-National character （全民通用性 mostimportant ） 2)Stabil ity（相对稳定性） 3)Productiv ity （多产性） 4)Polysem y （多义性） 5)Collocabi lity（可搭配性）没有上述特征的(4)Argot （暗语） words: (1)Terminology( 术语 ) (2)Jargon （行话）(3)slang （俚语） （ 5） Dialectal words( 方言 ) (6) Archaisms （古语） (7) Neologisms（新词语） :Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email)Content words/notionalwords functional words/empty words实词 ( cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently虚词 ( on, of, and, be, but )) and Native Words and Borrowed WordsNative words （本族语词） : known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basic word-stocks).Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in useBorrowed words/Loan words （外来语词） : words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)4 Types of loan words:1) denizens( 同化词 ): (shirt from skyrta(ON))2) aliens （非同化词 / 外来词） :are borrowed words which have retained their originalpronunciation and spelling (kowtow (CH) 磕头 )3) translation loans( 译借词 ): 按其他语言方式组成英语long time no see (from China)4) semantic loans （借义词）： they are not borrowed with reference to theform,but their meanings are borrowedChapter 2 the development of the English VocabularyThe Indo-European Language Family( 印欧语系 )The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages （ 8 大印欧语群）The Eastern set:（1 ） The Balto-slavic Group （波罗的- 斯拉夫语族）：Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc.（2 ） The Indo-Iranian Group （印度 -伊朗语族）： Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc.(3)The Armenian Group （亚美尼亚语族）： Armenian.(4)The Albanian Group （阿尔巴尼亚语族）： Albanian.The Western set:(5)The HellenicGroup（古希腊语族）：Greek.(6)The ItalianGroup（意大利语族）：Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian) etc.(7)The Celtic Group （凯尔特语族）：Irish,Welsh,Breton etc.(8)The Germanic Group （日耳曼语族）：Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc.The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language.2 Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E wordscome almost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endingswere mostly lost with just a few expections.English has evolved from asynthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language.Modes of Vocabulary Development( 词汇的发展模式):1)creation 创造新词： the formation of new words by usingthe existingtoots,affixes and other elements.( 最重要方式 )materials,namely2)semantic change 旧词新义 :does not increase the number of word formsbut create many more new useages of the words.3) borrowing 借用外来词 :constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new wordsReviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant.Chapter 3 Word Formation IMorpheme( 词素 ) :the smallest functioning unit in the composition of wordsAllomorph( 词素变体 ) : is a different variant form of amorpheme and spelling form, but at the same in functionand meaning， differ in phonologicalType of Morpheme( 词素的分类)（1 ）Free Morphemes （自由词素） : have complete meaning in themselves and canbe used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that canstand by itself. (independent).（2 ） Bound Morpheme( 粘着语素 ): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself. Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root( 粘附词根 ) (2)Affix( 词缀 )Affixes can be put into two groups:1)Inflectional affixes ( 屈折词缀 ):affixes attached to the end ofwords to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thusknown as inflectional morphemes.2)Derivational affixes( 派生词缀 ): A) prefix: A prefix comes before words.B)suffix:An adjective suffix （形容词后缀） that is added to the stem,whatever class is belongs to , the result will be an adjective.Free Morpheme =free root （自由词根）Morpheme( 词素 )Bound root prefixbound derivationalaffix suffixinflectionalRoot and stem （词根和词干）The differences between root and stem:A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzedwithout total loss of identity.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.Chapter 4 Word-Formation II( 构词法 )1.Affixation 词缀法（Derivation 派生法）：the formation of words by addingword-formaing or derivational affixes to stem.（1 ） Prefixation( 前缀法 ) ：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.1)Negative prefixes( 否定前缀 ): un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey(not obey)2)Reversative prefixes （逆反前缀） : un-,de- ，dis- etc. unwrap(open)3)P ejorative prefixes: mis （贬义前缀）： mis- ， mal-, pseudo-etc.misconduct(bad behaviour)4) Prefixes of degree or size( 程度前缀 )：arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect. overweight5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude （倾向态度前缀）:contra-,counter-,anti-,pro-etc.anti-nuclear6)Locative prefixes （方位前缀） :extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc. extraordinary(more than ordinary)7) Prefixes of time and order （时间和顺序前缀） :fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc.monorail(one rail)8) Number prefixes （数字前缀） :uni- ，mono-, bi- ， di-, tri-,multi- ，poly-， semi- ， etc.bilingual(concerning two languages)9)M iscellaneous prefixes （混杂前缀）： auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-.vice-chairman(deputy chairman)(2)Suffixation （后缀法） : It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixespounding 复合法（ also called composition ）Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stemsCompounds are written in three ways: solid 连写 (airmail) ，hyphenated 带连字符(air-conditioning)and open 分开写 (air force, air raid)Formation of compounds （复合词的形式）（1 ） noun compounds ： e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot（2 ） adjectivecompounds： e.g. acid + head = acid-head（3 ） verbcompounds： e.g. house + keep = housekeep3.Conversion 转类法Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of oneclass to another class. （功能转换，又叫零派生 .functional shift/zero-derivation ）4.Blending 拼缀法Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. e.g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog =smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN5.Clipping 截短法Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead.e.g. plane from airplane, phone fromtelephone.四种形式：1).Front clippings 删节前面(phone from telephone)2).Back clippings 删节后面(dorm from dormitory)3).Front and back clippings 前后删节(flu from influenza)4).Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music)6.Acronymy 首字母缩写法Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initialletters of names of social and political organizations or special nounphrases and technical terms.（1 ） Initialism （首字母缩写词法）: initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter.e.g.:BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)（2 ） Acronym （首字母拼音法） :Acronyms are words formed from initialletters but pronounced as a normal word. E.g.:TEFL(teaching English as aforeign language)（逆生法，逆构词）7.Back-formationBack-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It?s the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. (greed from greedy)8.Words From Proper Name( 专有名词转成法):Names of people, places, book, and tradenames (e.g.: sir watt siemens( 人名 ) -- watt （瓦特，电功率单位）Chapter 5 Word MeaningThe meanings of “ Meaning( “意”义”的意义 )Reference ( 所指 ):It is the relationship between language and the word.It is the arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yetwith the help of context, it can refer to something specific.Concept （概念） :which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition( 认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Sense （意义） :It denotes the relationship inside the language. ,The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relat ionships with other expressions in the language.?Motivation ( 理据 ) ： It accounts for the connection between thelinguistic symbol and its meaning.1) Onomatopoeic motivation （拟声理据） :words whose sounds suggest their meaning, forthese words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises. Knowingthe sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. E.g.: bang, ping-pong, ha ha.2)Morphological motivation （形态理据）:multi-morphemic words and the meaning of manyare the sum total of the morphemes combines. E.g.: airmail, miniskirt . 例外：black market, ect.3)Semantic motivation （词义理据）： refers to the mental associationssuggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connectionbetween the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. E.g:the foot ofthe mountain(foot)4)Etymological motivation （词源理据） :the history of the word explains themeaning of the word. E.g:pen-featherTypes of meaning( 词义的类别 )1.Grammatical Meaning （语法意义） :indicates the grammatical concept or relationships (becomes important only in actual context)2.Lexical Meaning （词汇意义）(Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning)Lexical meaning has 2 componentsmeaning( 关联意义 ) 内容 : Conceptualmeaning(概念意义) and associative1） Conceptual meaning( 概念意义 ): also known as denotativemeaning( meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core ofword-meaning.外延意义 ) is the2） Associative meaning( 关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented to theconceptual meaning. [4types:（1 ）Connotative （内涵意义）：theovertonesorassociationssuggestedby theconceptua l meaning, traditionallyknown as connotations.(例如“母亲”经常与“爱”“关心”“温柔”联系起来 )（2 ） Stylistic （文体意义）： many words have stylistic features, which make themappropriate for different contexts.（3 ）Affective（感情意义）：indicates the speaker?s attitude towards the personor thingin question. 这种情感价值观分两类：褒义和贬义appreciative & pejorative（4 ）Collocative （搭配意义）： is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the wordsbefore or after the word in discussion.]Chapter 6 --Sense relation and semantic field （语义关系和语义场）Polysemy （多义关系）Two approached to polysemy （多义关系的两种研究方法）:1.diachronic approach( 历时方法 ) ：from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure ofone and same word. First meaning is the primary meaning , the latermeanings are called derived meanings.2. synchronic approach ( 共时方法 ) : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistenceof various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time. centralmeaning , 次要意基本意义是Two processes of development （词义的两种发展类型）:1.radiation （辐射型）： is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at thecentre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every directionlike rayes. (e.g: face, neck)2.concatenation （连锁型） :is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word movegradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is not asign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that whichthe term had atthe beginning.(e.g:treacle)3.In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primary meaning.In concatenation, each of the later meaning is related only to thepreceding one like chains. Though the latest sense can be traced backto the original, there is no direct connection in between.4.They are closely related, being different stages of the development leading topolysemy. Generally, radiation precedes concatenation. In many cases, the twoprocesses work together, complementing each other.Homonymy （同形同音异义关系） :words different in meaning but eitheridentical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.Types of homonyms( 同音同形异义关系的类别)1）Perfect homonyms （完全同音同形异义词）：words identical both in sound andspelling, but different in meaning.2)Homographs （同形异义词） :words identical only in spelling, but differentin sound and meaning.( 最多最常见 )3）Homophones （同音异义词）：words identical only in sound but different inspelling and meaning.Origins of homonyms ( 同形同音异义词的来源 )1） change in sound and spelling ： (eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long)2） borrowing (feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball )3） Shortening( 缩略 ): (ad-advertisement,)The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes （同音同形异义词和多义词的区别)：1)The fundamental difference : Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings.2)One important criterion is to see their etymology( 词源)： Homonymys are from differentsources. Polysemant is from the same source.3)The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness( 语义关联 ): The various meanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning.Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another. Indictionaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headwordwhereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.Rhetoric features of homonyms( 同形同音异义词的修辞特色) ： As homonyms are identicalin sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed tocreate puns for desired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule.Synonymy ( 同义关系 ): one of two or more words in the English languagewhich have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning .Types of Synonymy( 同义词的类别 ) :(1) Absolute synonyms （完全同义词）：also known as complete synonyms are words whichare identical in meaning in all aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings.[ Absolute synonyms arerestricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology. ](2) relative synonyms （相对同义词）:also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly thesame in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.(e.g: change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer,idle/lazy/indolent)Sources of synonyms( 同义词的来源 ) :1)Borrowing （借词）：最重要的来源 (room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid, leave-depart, wise-sage, buy-purchase)2)Dialects and regional English （方言和地区英语）3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words （单词的修饰和委婉用法） :occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer--star-gazer, drunk-elevated, lie-distort of fact.4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions （与习惯表达一致）:win-gain the upper hand,decide- make up one?s mind, finish -get through, hesitate-be in two minds, help-lend one a hand.Discrimination of Synonyms(1)difference in denotation 外延不同 . Synonyms may differ in the range andintensity of meaning.(rich-wealthy, work-toil, want-wish-desire)(2)difference in connotation 内涵不同 . By connotation we mean the stylisticand emotive colouring of words. Some words share the same denotation butdiffer in their stylistic appropriateness. ( 借词： answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual,unlike-dissimilar, homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal. 中性词：policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request. 古语词、诗歌： ire/anger,bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadful, list-listen, enow-enough, save-expect, mere-lake )(3)difference in application. Many words are synonymous in meaning butdifference in usage in simple terms. They form different collocationsand fit into difference sentence patterns. (allow sb. to do sth.- letsb. do sth. / answer the letter-reply to the letter)Antonymy (反义关系 ) :it is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.Types of Antonyms:1)contradictory terms ( 矛盾反义词 ): these antonyms truly representoppositeness ofmeaning. 特点：① The assertion of one is the denial ofthe other. ②Such antonyms arenon-gradable. They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs ofintensity like “ very ” toqualify(e.g:themsingle/married).2)contrary terms （对立反义词） : antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scalerunning between two poles or extremes.(e.g: old/young, rich/young, big/small) The twoopposites are gradable and one exists in comparison withthe other.3)relative terms （关系反义词）： this type consists of relationalopposites.（ parent/child,husband/wife, employee/employer, sell/buy, receive-give ）Some of the characteristics ofantonyms( 反义关系的特点 ):1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semanticopposition( 语义对立 ) 2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion （语义内涵）4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms ， differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.(hot/warm: hot-cold/warm-cool)The use of antonyms （反义词的使用）1） Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words.2)To express economically the opposite of a particular thought forthe sake ofcontrast.(e.g :now or never, rain or shine, friend or foe 敌友， wealand woe哀乐 )3） To form antithesis( 对比法 ) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together. (proverbs and sayings: easy come , easy go./ more haste, less speed.)Hyponymy ( 上下义关系 ): Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion.The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another moregeneral word. For example, a cat is hyponym of animalSuperordinate and Subordinate ( 上义词和下义词) ： use subordinates which are concrete and precise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the reader.Superordinates which convey only a general and vague idea.Semantic Field( 语义场 )Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory.e.g.(apple, pear, peach, date, mango, orange,lemon, ,fruits?)etc. make up the semantic field ofThe semantic field of the same concept may not have the same membersin different language.e.g.(aunt in English, may means 父亲的姐姐“，妈妈的姐姐，父亲哥哥的妻子”inChinese.(122)Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning 词义的演变Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content. Comparatively the content is even more unstable than the form.Types of Changes ( 词义变化的种类 )1.Extension /generalization( 词义的扩大 ) : is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.(e.g: manuscript, fabulous, picture, mill, journal, bonfire, butcher, companion)It is 2.Narrowing/ specialization( 词义的缩小 ) ： is the opposite of wideningmeaning. a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower orspecialized sense. Inother words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomesrestricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-dayEnglish.(e.g: deer, corn, garage, liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife,accident, girl). [ when a common word is turned into a proper noun, themeaning is narrowed accordingly. ]3.Elevation /amelioration( 词义的升华 ) :refers to the process by which words rise fromhumble（粗陋的） beginnings to positions of importance. [nice, marshal,constable, angel, knight, earl, governor, fond, minister, chamberlain ]4.Degradation / pejoration( 词义的降格 ) :A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in derogatory （贬损的）sense.[boor,churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly, knave, lewd, criticize, lust ]5.Transfer( 词义的转移 ) : Words which were used to designate 指明one thing but laterchanged to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.Causes of Semantic Change( 词义变化的原因 )1.Extra-linguistic factors( 词义演变的语言外部因素):1)H istorical reason( 历史原因 ) ： Increased scientific knowledge anddiscovery, objects, institutions, ideas change in the course of time. E.g:pen, car, computer.2 )Class reason( 阶级原因 ) ： The attitude of classes have also madeinroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or degradation.3) Psychological reason( 心理原因 ) ：the associated transfer of meaning and euphemisticuse of words are often due to psychological factors. Such slow, humbleand despised occupations take more appealing names is all due topsychological reasons.2.Linguistic factors （语言内部原因）：the change of meaning may be caused byinternal factors with in the language system.1)shorting 缩略 :gold-gold medal, gas-coal gas, bulb-light bulb, private-private soldier2)borrowing 借用 :deer-animal-beast3)analogy 类推 :Chapter 8 Meaning and Context 词义和语境Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word. Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic and extra-linguistic contexts.Two types of context （语境的种类）1. Extra-linguistic context/ Non-linguistic situation （非语言语境）：In a broad sense, context includes the physical situation as well, which embraces thepeople, time, place, and even the whole cultural background. (look out,weekend, landlord )2.Linguistic context/ grammatical context ( 语言语境 ) ： In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. It may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book. 分为两类：1)L exical context （词汇语境）： It refers to the word that occurs togetherwith the word in question. (e.g: paper, do)2) Grammatical context （语法语境）： It refers the situation when themeaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. (e.g:become)The role of context( 语境的作用 )1.Elimination of ambiguity( 消除歧义 )1） Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy.2） Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity如何消除歧义？——① extend the original sentence ② alter the context a little2.Indication of referents( 限定所指 )如何限定所指？——① with clear context ② with adequate verbal context3.Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning ( 提供线索以猜测词义 )1)definition2)explanation3)example4)synonymy5)antonymy6)hyponymy （上下义关系）7)relevant details8)word structureChapter 9 English Idioms 英语习语Idioms （习语的定义） : are expressions that are not readilyunderstandable from their literal meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms（俗语） , Catchphrases （标语） ,slang expressions （俚语） ,proverbs （谚语） ,etc. They form an important part of the English vocabulary.Characteristics of Idioms （英语习语的特点）1.Semantic unity （语意的整体性）： words in the idiom they have lost their individual identity. Their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom.The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literal meaning of each of the idiom.2.Structural stability( 结构的稳定性 ):the structure of an idiom is to a largeextentun changeable.1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced2) the word order cannot be inverted or changed3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article.4) many idioms are grammatically unchangeable The fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity. 习语性表达习惯Classification of Idioms （英语习语的分类）1. idioms nominal in nature名词性习语(white elephant累赘物 )2 .idioms adjectival in nature 形容词性习语 （as poor as a church mouse） 3 .idioms verbal in nature动词性习语 （ look into ）4 .idioms adverbial in nature 副词性习语 （ tooth and nail拼命） 5 .sentence idioms 句式习语（ never do things by halves）Use of idioms （习语的使用） 1.Stylistic features （文体色彩） ：1） colloquialisms （俗语）2） slang （俚语）3） literary expressions （书面表达）The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned （指派） different meanings.2.Rhetorical features( 修辞色彩 )1) phonetic manipulation （语音处理）：（1 ） alliteration 头韵法（2 ） rhyme 尾韵法2） lexical manipulation （词法处理）（1 ） reiteration （ duplication of synonyms ）同义词并举[scream and shout] （2 ） repetition 重复 [out and out]（3 ） juxtaposition (of antonyms) 反义词并置[here and there]3.figures of speech （修辞格）（1 ） simile 明喻（2 ） metaphor 暗喻（3 ） metonymy 换喻 / 以名词代动作：live by one?s pen（4 ） synecdoche 提喻 / 以部分代整体： earn one?s bread（5 ） Personification 拟人法（6 ） Euphemism 委婉语： kick the bucket(die)（7 ） hyperbole 夸张： a world of troubleVariations of idioms( 习语的变异形式 ) ：1.addition 增加2.deletion 删除。