水利水电专业英语论文英文对照及翻译
Earth and rock dam
Summary
Earth and rock dam, with another name as "local material dam",is mainly built with earth and rock materials near the site. It can be classified based on the materials it used, earth dam mainly with earth, sand, grit, and gravel, and rock dam mainly with rock ballast, gravel, and exploded rocks.
Features of earth and rock dam
Strong points
With convenient supply of materials, many building materials such as steel, cement, and timbers can be saved.With granular structure more suitable to foundation deformation, it demands less on the foundation.Very flexible from simple artificial filling to highly mechanized construction, the procedure become simple, the construction become efficient, and the quality guarantee become easy.Simply structured, the?cost is low, the operation is convenient, works?is reliable, and maintenance and height adding is convient.
Weak points
Overflow not allowed, spillway has to be built.Diversion?less convenient, cost increases.Section larger, earth to be filled is easy to be affected by climate. This kind of difficult means possible extention of time limit and cost increase
Earth and rock dam types
Based on constructing ways, earth and rock dams can be classified into rolled ones of earth & rock, thrown rock-filled ones,?rock-filled ones with?directional detonation, ones with earth thrown into the water, and ones filled by hydraulic forces.?Among them, rolled ones are most popular.
Based on the earth proportion and the location of anti-seepage?parts, there 概述
土石坝又称“当地材料坝”，主要由坝址附近的土石料填筑而成，根据坝体所用材料不同又可分为土坝和堆石坝。坝体材料以当地土料和砂、砂砾、卵砾为主的称土坝，以石渣、卵石、爆破石料为主的称堆石坝。
土石坝的特点
优点
筑坝材料就地取材。可节省大量钢材、水泥、木材等建筑材料。适应地基变形能力强。土石坝散粒体结构具有适应地基变形的良好条件，对地基的要求比混凝土坝低。施工方法选择灵活性大。能适应不同的施工方法，从简单的人工填筑到高度机械化施工都可以；且工序简单、施工速度快，质量也易保证。结构简单。造价低廉、运行管理方便、工作可靠，便于维修加高。
缺点
坝顶不能溢流，常须另开溢洪道施工。导流不如混凝土坝方便，因而相应增加了工程造价坝体断面大，土料填筑的质量易受气候影响。这给施工带来困难，甚至延长工期、增加造价。
土石坝的类型
土石坝按施工方法的不同可分为：碾压式土石坝，抛填式堆石坝，定向爆破堆石坝，水中倒土坝和水力冲填坝等。其中尤以碾压式土石坝应用最广。
按土料在坝体中配置和防渗体的位置不同，又可分为均质坝，分区坝，人工防渗材料坝。均质坝优点：材料单一、工序简单；缺点：
are homogeneous (even-granular) dams, ?zoned earth dams, and dams with artificial anti-seepage materials. Strong points of homogeneous dams: one fold materials, simple process weak points: flat gradient, large section, weather-limited, strong water pressure
in holes. Zoned dams are classified into ones with core anti-seepage and ones with front anti-seepage. Less amount of earth, less affect of season. interfering with the filling of the dam body. Less interference with the construction of the dam body. weaker anti-earthquake and uneven sinking. The anti-seepage parts of dams with artificial anti-seepage materials use asphalt concrete, reinforced concrete or other artifical materials. Sometimes, the anti-seepage parts are in the dam front facing the upstream, sometimes, they are at the core of the dam. Working conditions
Trapeziform section
Earth-rock dam is a water retaining structure built with loose granules of earth and rocks?filled and roller compacted. With weaker strength between these granules, both upsteam and downsteam slopes have to be kept at a?certain degree to avoid landslide. So the dam section is usually?trapeziform.?It can be destablized in two ways, simple slope sliding and sametime sliding of slope and foundation caused by shear damage.?It's
a difference from other structures Seepage effects
With a large section, the dam is generally kept from entire sliding unless caused by weak interlayers. Effected by water levels at the upsteam and downsteam, seepage is easy to happen with streams passing the ?faying surfaces between the dam and foundation, 坝坡较缓、剖面大，受气候限制，坝体孔隙水压力大，高坝很少采用。分区坝分心墙坝、斜墙坝等，前者优点：土料占总方量比重不大，施工受季节影响小。缺点：心墙与坝体大体要同时填筑，相互干扰。后者优点：与坝体施工干扰小。缺点：抗震性能和适应不均匀沉陷的能力不如前者。人工防渗材料坝的防渗体由沥青混凝土、钢筋混凝土或其他人工材料组成，其余部分由土石料筑成。其中防渗体在上游的称为斜墙坝（面板坝），在坝体中央的称为心墙坝。
工作条件
梯形剖面
土石坝是由松散颗粒土石料填筑碾压而成的挡水建筑物。由于土粒间的抗剪强度小，上下游坡如不维持一定的坡度，就可能发生坍塌现象。所以，土石坝的剖面一般呈梯形。失稳的形式则是坝坡滑动或坝坡连同地基一起滑动的剪切破坏，这是与其他建筑物的不同之处. 渗流影响
土坝挡水后，由于坝体断面较大，除坝基有水平软弱夹层外，产生整体滑动的可能性较小。但在上下游水位的作用下，水流经过坝身及坝基（包括两岸）的结合面和坝体土与混凝土等建筑物的结合面易产生渗漏。渗流在坝体内形成自由水面，浸润线以下的土体全部处于饱和状态。饱和区的土体受水的浸泡而使土的有效重量减轻，并使土的内摩擦角和粘结力减小。同时，渗透水流
and between dam earth and concrete buildings. The seeping streams?form a free water surface inside the dam. Under the surface, all the earth body is saturated. ?Dipped in the water, the earth become lighter in effect. And its angle of internal friction is narrowed, and ?cohesive force weakened. With the hydrodynamic pressure from the seeping steams, more sliding of dam slopes is possible. When seeping steams?move in?soil,?the dam body and foundation will be deformed from too steep hydraulic gradient.??Sometimes the dam even crashes.
Scour effect
Its anti-scour ability is weak because the cohesive force between earth granules is small. On the one hand, the rain water enters the dam and lower the stability of the dam, and on the other hand, the rain scour the dam surface along the slope. At the same time, the waves inside the reservoir also wash out the dam surface, putting the surface in the risk of being damaged. Sometime,?landslide even happens due to this.?So effective protecting measures have to be taken for dam slopes both upstream and downstream.
Sinking effect
The dam body and foundation will sink under their self weight and water load besides the space between earth granules. If it sinks too much, the elevation level will not be sufficient, and then the operation of the dam will be affected. And, too much uneven sinkage will cause fracture of the dam boday, and even a seepage passage, putting the dam at risk.
Other effects
In freezing regions, an ice-covered layer will be formed over the reservoir when the temperature is below 0 degree. 对土体还有动水压力的作用，这些力增加了坝坡滑动的可能性。渗透水流在土壤中运动时，如渗透坡降超过允许渗透坡降，还会引起坝体和坝基的渗透变形，严重时会导致坝的失事。
冲刷影响
由于土料颗粒间的粘结力很小，因此土石坝抗冲能力较低。雨水一方面侵入坝内降低坝的稳定性，另一方面将沿坝坡面下流而冲刷坝面；库内风浪对坝面也将产生冲击和淘刷作用，使坝面容易受到破坏，甚至滑坡。因此，上下游坝坡均需采取有效的保护措施。
沉陷影响
由于土料间存在孔隙，在坝体自重和水荷载作用下，坝体和地基（土基）都会由于压缩而产生沉陷。沉陷量过大会造成坝顶高程不足而影响坝的正常工作；过大的不均匀沉陷量还会引起坝体开裂，甚至造成渗水通道而威胁大坝安全。
其它影响
在严寒地区，当气温低于零度时，库水面结冰形成冰盖层。当岸坡及坝坡冻结在一起，冰层的膨胀，对坝坡产生很大冰压力，易导致护坡的破坏。位于水位以上的坝体粘土，在冻融作用下会造成孔穴、裂缝。在夏季，由于含水量的损失，上述土壤也可能干裂引起集中渗流。在地震区筑坝，还应考虑地震影响。地震的作用增加坝坡坍滑的可能性。粉沙地基在强烈振动作用下还容易引起液化破坏。
土石坝的筑坝材料
Then the bank slope and dam slope will be frozen together with the ice. When the ice expands, slopes will be pressed. In this way, the protecting slopes will be damaged. Besides, the clay above the water level will have holes and cracks effected by freezing and thawing. In summer, with water lost, the clay will cracked, making seepage much easier.Earthquakes have to be taken into account. They can make landslide more possible. If the foundation is made of silty sand, liquidified damage is more possible.
Materials for building earth and rock dam
Obtaining raw material locally is a basic design principle. Generally speaking, familiar earth and rock materials can be used. exceptions include swampy soil, bentonite, surface soil, and other soil materials containing organic matter not completely decomposed. therefore, dam type is often determined based on availability of earth and rock materials nearby the site. stockyard must be rich in storage and near in distance. As for the selection, technical and economic factors will be considered. The dam body?is mainly made up of dam shell, antiseepage, drainage, and protection slope. They work under different conditions, so they demand differently. Materials must be durable and suitable to their purpose. Antiseepage and structure of dam crest Seepage-proofing work for a dam must be based on structural and constructing requirements, reducing seepage gradient, down-stream saturation line, and seepage to an allowance extent. We can use terrene seepage-proofting materials and?artificial materials including asphalt concrete and reinforced concrete. terrene materials
就地取材是土石坝设计的基本原则。一般而言，常见的土石料（沼泽土、斑脱土、地表土及含有未完全分解有机质的土料除外）均可用作筑坝材料。因此，应根据坝址附近土石料的具体条件选择坝型。土石料场的选择宜储量充足，以近为原则，具体选用须通过技术经济比较而定。土石坝坝体主要由坝壳、防渗体、排水设备、护坡等组成。由于他们工作条件不同，因而对材料的要求也不同。筑坝材料应具有与其使用目的相适应的工程特性，并具有较好的长期稳定性。
坝的防渗体和坝顶构造
坝的防渗体必须满足将渗透坡降、下游坝体浸润线及渗流量降低到允许范围内，还要满足结构上和施工上的要求。作为坝的防渗体的材料有土质防渗体，人工材料（沥青混凝土，钢筋混凝土），其中用的最多的是土质防渗体。在坝顶应该设路面，如坝顶有交通要求，则应按道路要求设计，如没有交通要求，则可用单层砌石或砾石护面以防雨水冲蚀。坝顶上游侧通常设防浪墙，下游侧设拦杆。防浪墙高度通常为1～1.3米。用浆砌石或钢筋混凝土筑成。墙的基础应牢固地埋入坝内，伸入防渗体内。为排除雨水坝顶路面通常向两侧或一侧做1～3%的斜坡。有防浪墙时坡向下游，并在坝顶下游侧设纵向排水沟，以便汇集雨水，经坡面排水沟排至下游。
坝坡
土石坝坝坡对坝的稳定
are more used. Road is built on crest. If traffic is necessary, road has to be built based on relevant standard. If traffic is not anticipated, single-layer masonry or gravels is sufficient for resisting rain scouring. anti-wave wall is built upstream, and railings are built downstream. the wall, usually 1 to 1.3 meters high, is built with stone masonry or reinforcing concrete.?its foundation must be firmly buried in the dam, protruding into anti-seepage. For the sake of rain, the road on the crest is usually built with slopes on one side or on both sides. When there is a anti-wave wall, the slope is towards downstream, and there will be a lengthways drainage downstream the dam crest for gathering water. The water will go downstream through drainage.
Dam slope
Influencing dam stability and construction directly, dam slope is determined by dam type, dam height, dam scale, material of dam body and foundation, load to?bear, and conditions for construction and operation. Generally speaking, dam slope is initially designed according to projects completed. Then a proper section is decided after calculation in terms of stability. To slopes made of sand and soil in a rolled dam, their gradient is between 1:2 and 1:4. For?dam foundation which is weaker, the gradient should be slow.
For slope design, we have to consider the shearing strength which of earth will be reduced due to being soaked in up-stream water. So if the upstream and downstream slopes are made of same earth materials, the former one has to be slow. for earth dams with inclined soil walls, their upstream slopes are slower than those of core dams, and their downstream 和工程有着直接的影响，主要取决于坝型、坝高、坝的等级、坝体及坝基的材料性质、所承受的荷载、施工和运用条件等因素。一般先参照已建工程的实践经验或用近似方法初步拟定坝坡，然后进行稳定计算、确定合理的坝体断面。对碾压式土坝砂、壤土类坝坡，其平均坡度一般在1：2.0~1：4.0左右。当坝基较为软弱时还需适当放缓。
在拟定坝坡时，应考虑到上游坝坡长期浸泡于水中，土的抗剪强度降低。所以当采用相同土料时坝的上游坡比下流坡要缓；在一般情况下土质斜墙坝的上游坡比心墙坝缓，而下游坡则可比心墙坝陡些；砂壤土、壤土的均质坝坡比砂或砂砾料的坝坡缓些；粘性土均质坝的坝坡与坝高有一定关系，其高度越大，坝坡越缓。砂或砂料坝体的坝坡与坝高的关系则很小。一般坝的下游坡每隔10至30米设置一条马道。当坝的坡度自上到下有变化时，马道则设在变坡处。马道的宽度视其用途而定，但其最小宽度不得小于1.5到2.0米。马道上设置排水沟以汇集雨水防止冲刷，还可用于观测、检修和交通。
护坡
土石坝的上、下游坝面一般都要设置护坡。上游护坡的作用是为防止波浪淘刷、冰层和漂浮物的损害、顺坝水流冲刷等危害；均质坝下游护坡的作用是防止雨水冲刷，风浪、冰层和水流作用，动物、冻胀干裂等对
slopes are steeper than those of core dams. for homogeneous dams of sandy loam and loam, their slopes are slower than those of dams made of sand and gravels. slopes of homogeneous dams made of cohesive soil have something to do with dam height. The higher the dam is, the slower the slope is. however, gradients of dam slopes made of sand or gravel have little to do with dam height.Generally, there is a road on downstream slope every 10 to 30 meters. When gradients changes, the road will be at the changing line. the road width is determined by its purposes, but never less than 1.5 to 2.0 meters. drainage ditches are built on road for collecting rainwater, resisting wash, observing, repairing, and traffic. Slope protection
For earth and rock dams, there must be protection upstream and downstream. For upstream, damages caused by wave scouring, damwise?stream scouring,?ice, and floater must be avoided. For downstream of homogeneous dams, damages caused by rain scouring, storm, ice,stream, animal, swelling, and mud crack must be avoided.?If there are rocks, cobbles, and gravels downstream, no more protection is needed. Revetments must be sturdy and durable, able to resist damages caused by various factors. Their undercourse must not be scoured. Materials should be used as local as possible to lower the cost. Simple construction and convenient repairing should be guaranteed. Rocks, stonework, concrete, reinforced concrete, and asphalt concrete are used for building revetments upstream, and stonework, rocks, gravels, and turfs are used for those downstream. Revetments protect the space from dam crest to the line a certain distance, normally?2.5m, under the minimum water level of the dam 坝坡的破坏。如下游坡由堆石、卵石、碎石砌成，可不设护坡。对上下游护坡的要求是坚固耐久，能抵抗各种因素的破坏作用，并保证底层不受淘刷。尽可能就地取材，以降低造价。施工简单，维修方便。上游护坡的型式有：堆石护坡、砌石护坡、混凝土或钢筋混凝土护坡、沥青混凝土护坡；下游护坡的型式有：砌石、堆石、碎石和草皮护坡。护坡覆盖的范围，上游由坝顶护至水库最低水位以下一定距离，一般在最低水位以下2.5米。下游面则由坝顶护至排水棱体，无排水棱体时则护至坝脚。
upstream. For those downstream, they protect the space from dam crest to draining prism or to dam heel in event of no prism.
毕业论文外文翻译模版
吉林化工学院理学院 毕业论文外文翻译English Title（Times New Roman ，三号） 学生学号：08810219 学生姓名：袁庚文 专业班级：信息与计算科学0802 指导教师：赵瑛 职称副教授 起止日期：2012.2.27～2012.3.14 吉林化工学院 Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology
1 外文翻译的基本内容 应选择与本课题密切相关的外文文献（学术期刊网上的），译成中文，与原文装订在一起并独立成册。在毕业答辩前，同论文一起上交。译文字数不应少于3000个汉字。 2 书写规范 2.1 外文翻译的正文格式 正文版心设置为：上边距：3.5厘米，下边距：2.5厘米，左边距：3.5厘米，右边距：2厘米，页眉：2.5厘米，页脚：2厘米。 中文部分正文选用模板中的样式所定义的“正文”，每段落首行缩进2字；或者手动设置成每段落首行缩进2字，字体：宋体，字号：小四，行距：多倍行距1.3，间距：前段、后段均为0行。 这部分工作模板中已经自动设置为缺省值。 2.2标题格式 特别注意：各级标题的具体形式可参照外文原文确定。 1．第一级标题（如：第1章绪论）选用模板中的样式所定义的“标题1”，居左；或者手动设置成字体：黑体，居左，字号：三号，1.5倍行距，段后11磅，段前为11磅。 2．第二级标题（如：1.2 摘要与关键词）选用模板中的样式所定义的“标题2”，居左；或者手动设置成字体：黑体，居左，字号：四号，1.5倍行距，段后为0，段前0.5行。 3．第三级标题（如：1.2.1 摘要）选用模板中的样式所定义的“标题3”，居左；或者手动设置成字体：黑体，居左，字号：小四，1.5倍行距，段后为0，段前0.5行。 标题和后面文字之间空一格（半角）。 3 图表及公式等的格式说明 图表、公式、参考文献等的格式详见《吉林化工学院本科学生毕业设计说明书（论文）撰写规范及标准模版》中相关的说明。
土木工程外文文献及翻译
本科毕业设计 外文文献及译文 文献、资料题目：Designing Against Fire Of Building 文献、资料来源：国道数据库 文献、资料发表（出版）日期：2008.3.25 院（部）：土木工程学院 专业：土木工程 班级：土木辅修091 姓名：武建伟 学号：2008121008 指导教师：周学军、李相云 翻译日期： 20012.6.1
外文文献: Designing Against Fire Of Buliding John Lynch ABSTRACT: This paper considers the design of buildings for fire safety. It is found that fire and the associ- ated effects on buildings is significantly different to other forms of loading such as gravity live loads, wind and earthquakes and their respective effects on the building structure. Fire events are derived from the human activities within buildings or from the malfunction of mechanical and electrical equipment provided within buildings to achieve a serviceable environment. It is therefore possible to directly influence the rate of fire starts within buildings by changing human behaviour, improved maintenance and improved design of mechanical and electrical systems. Furthermore, should a fire develops, it is possible to directly influence the resulting fire severity by the incorporation of fire safety systems such as sprinklers and to provide measures within the building to enable safer egress from the building. The ability to influence the rate of fire starts and the resulting fire severity is unique to the consideration of fire within buildings since other loads such as wind and earthquakes are directly a function of nature. The possible approaches for designing a building for fire safety are presented using an example of a multi-storey building constructed over a railway line. The design of both the transfer structure supporting the building over the railway and the levels above the transfer structure are considered in the context of current regulatory requirements. The principles and assumptions associ- ated with various approaches are discussed. 1 INTRODUCTION Other papers presented in this series consider the design of buildings for gravity loads, wind and earthquakes.The design of buildings against such load effects is to a large extent covered by engineering based standards referenced by the building regulations. This is not the case, to nearly the same extent, in the
毕业论文(英文翻译)排版格式
英文翻译说明 1. 英文翻译文章输成word，5号新罗马（New Times Roman）字体，1.5倍行间距，将来方便打印和一起装订；英文中的图表要重新画，禁止截图。 2. 整篇论文1.5倍行间距，打印时，用B5纸，版面上空2.5cm，下空2cm，左空2.5cm，右空2cm（左装订）。 3. 论文翻译后的摘要用五号宋体，正文小四号宋体、英文和数字用新罗马（New Times Roman）12、参考文献的内容用五号字体。图和表头用五号字体加粗并居中，图和表中的内容用五号字体。论文翻译的作者用五号字体加粗。 论文大标题………小三号黑体、加黑、居中 第二层次的题序和标题………小四号黑体、加黑、居中 第三层次的题序和标题………小四号宋体、加黑、居中 正文……………………………小四号宋体、英文用新罗马12 页码……………………………小五号居中，页码两边不加修饰符 4. 论文中参考文献严格按照下述排版。 专著格式：序号.编著者.书名[M].出版地: 出版社, 年代, 起止页码 期刊论文格式：序号.作者.论文名称[J]. 期刊名称, 年度, 卷(期): 起止页码 学位论文格式：序号.作者.学位论文名称[D]. 发表地: 学位授予单位, 年度 例子: (1).胡千庭, 邹银辉, 文光才等. 瓦斯含量法预测突出危险新技术[J]. 煤炭学报, 2007.32(3): 276-280. (2). 胡千庭. 煤与瓦斯突出的力学作用机理及应用研究[D]. 北京: 中国矿业大学(北京), 2007. (3). 程伟. 煤与瓦斯突出危险性预测及防治技术[M]. 徐州: 中国矿业大学出版社, 2003.
毕业论文外文翻译模板
农村社会养老保险的现状、问题与对策研究社会保障对国家安定和经济发展具有重要作用，“城乡二元经济”现象日益凸现，农村社会保障问题客观上成为社会保障体系中极为重要的部分。建立和完善农村社会保障制度关系到农村乃至整个社会的经济发展，并且对我国和谐社会的构建至关重要。我国农村社会保障制度尚不完善，因此有必要加强对农村独立社会保障制度的构建，尤其对农村养老制度的改革，建立健全我国社会保障体系。从户籍制度上看，我国居民养老问题可分为城市居民养老和农村居民养老两部分。对于城市居民我国政府已有比较充足的政策与资金投人，使他们在物质和精神方面都能得到较好地照顾，基本实现了社会化养老。而农村居民的养老问题却日益突出，成为摆在我国政府面前的一个紧迫而又棘手的问题。 一、我国农村社会养老保险的现状 关于农村养老，许多地区还没有建立农村社会养老体系，已建立的地区也存在很多缺陷，运行中出现了很多问题，所以完善农村社会养老保险体系的必要性与紧迫性日益体现出来。 （一）人口老龄化加快 随着城市化步伐的加快和农村劳动力的输出，越来越多的农村青壮年人口进入城市，年龄结构出现“两头大，中间小”的局面。中国农村进入老龄社会的步伐日渐加快。第五次人口普查显示：中国65岁以上的人中农村为5938万，占老龄总人口的67.4%.在这种严峻的现实面前，农村社会养老保险的徘徊显得极其不协调。 （二）农村社会养老保险覆盖面太小 中国拥有世界上数量最多的老年人口，且大多在农村。据统计，未纳入社会保障的农村人口还很多，截止2000年底，全国7400多万农村居民参加了保险，占全部农村居民的11.18%，占成年农村居民的11.59%.另外，据国家统计局统计，我国进城务工者已从改革开放之初的不到200万人增加到2003年的1.14亿人。而基本方案中没有体现出对留在农村的农民和进城务工的农民给予区别对待。进城务工的农民既没被纳入到农村养老保险体系中，也没被纳入到城市养老保险体系中，处于法律保护的空白地带。所以很有必要考虑这个特殊群体的养老保险问题。
java毕业论文外文文献翻译
Advantages of Managed Code Microsoft intermediate language shares with Java byte code the idea that it is a low-level language witha simple syntax , which can be very quickly translated intonative machine code. Having this well-defined universal syntax for code has significant advantages. Platform independence First, it means that the same file containing byte code instructions can be placed on any platform; atruntime the final stage of compilation can then be easily accomplished so that the code will run on thatparticular platform. In other words, by compiling to IL we obtain platform independence for .NET, inmuch the same way as compiling to Java byte code gives Java platform independence. Performance improvement IL is actually a bit more ambitious than Java bytecode. IL is always Just-In-Time compiled (known as JIT), whereas Java byte code was ofteninterpreted. One of the disadvantages of Java was that, on execution, the process of translating from Javabyte code to native executable resulted in a loss of performance. Instead of compiling the entire application in one go (which could lead to a slow start-up time), the JITcompiler simply compiles each portion of code as it is called (just-in-time). When code has been compiled.once, the resultant native executable is stored until the application exits, so that it does not need to berecompiled the next time that portion of code is run. Microsoft argues that this process is more efficientthan compiling the entire application code at the start, because of the likelihood that large portions of anyapplication code will not actually be executed in any given run. Using the JIT compiler, such code willnever be compiled.
毕业论文 外文翻译#(精选.)
毕业论文（设计）外文翻译 题目：中国上市公司偏好股权融资：非制度性因素 系部名称：经济管理系专业班级:会计082班 学生姓名：任民学号： 200880444228 指导教师：冯银波教师职称:讲师 年月日
译文： 中国上市公司偏好股权融资：非制度性因素 国际商业管理杂志 2009.10 摘要：本文把重点集中于中国上市公司的融资活动，运用西方融资理论，从非制度性因素方面，如融资成本、企业资产类型和质量、盈利能力、行业因素、股权结构因素、财务管理水平和社会文化，分析了中国上市公司倾向于股权融资的原因，并得出结论，股权融资偏好是上市公司根据中国融资环境的一种合理的选择。最后，针对公司的股权融资偏好提出了一些简明的建议。 关键词：股权融资，非制度性因素，融资成本 一、前言 中国上市公司偏好于股权融资，根据中国证券报的数据显示，1997年上市公司在资本市场的融资金额为95.87亿美元，其中股票融资的比例是72.5％，，在1998年和1999年比例分别为72.6％和72.3％，另一方面，债券融资的比例分别是17.8％，24.9％和25.1％。在这三年，股票融资的比例，在比中国发达的资本市场中却在下跌。以美国为例，当美国企业需要的资金在资本市场上，于股权融资相比他们宁愿选择债券融资。统计数据显示，从1970年到1985年，美日企业债券融资占了境外融资的91.7％，比股权融资高很多。阎达五等发现，大约中国3/4的上市公司偏好于股权融资。许多研究的学者认为，上市公司按以下顺序进行外部融资：第一个是股票基金，第二个是可转换债券，三是短期债务，最后一个是长期负债。许多研究人员通常分析我国上市公司偏好股权是由于我们国家的经济改革所带来的制度性因素。他们认为，上市公司的融资活动违背了西方古典融资理论只是因为那些制度性原因。例如，优序融资理论认为，当企业需要资金时，他们首先应该转向内部资金（折旧和留存收益），然后再进行债权融资，最后的选择是股票融资。在这篇文章中，笔者认为，这是因为具体的金融环境激活了企业的这种偏好，并结合了非制度性因素和西方金融理论，尝试解释股权融资偏好的原因。
土木工程外文文献翻译
专业资料 学院： 专业：土木工程 姓名： 学号： 外文出处：Structural Systems to resist (用外文写) Lateral loads 附件：1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文 抗侧向荷载的结构体系 常用的结构体系 若已测出荷载量达数千万磅重，那么在高层建筑设计中就没有多少可以进行极其复杂的构思余地了。确实，较好的高层建筑普遍具有构思简单、表现明晰的特点。 这并不是说没有进行宏观构思的余地。实际上，正是因为有了这种宏观的构思，新奇的高层建筑体系才得以发展，可能更重要的是：几年以前才出现的一些新概念在今天的技术中已经变得平常了。 如果忽略一些与建筑材料密切相关的概念不谈，高层建筑里最为常用的结构体系便可分为如下几类： 1.抗弯矩框架。 2.支撑框架，包括偏心支撑框架。 3.剪力墙，包括钢板剪力墙。 4.筒中框架。 5.筒中筒结构。 6.核心交互结构。 7. 框格体系或束筒体系。 特别是由于最近趋向于更复杂的建筑形式，同时也需要增加刚度以抵抗几力和地震力，大多数高层建筑都具有由框架、支撑构架、剪力墙和相关体系相结合而构成的体系。而且，就较高的建筑物而言，大多数都是由交互式构件组成三维陈列。 将这些构件结合起来的方法正是高层建筑设计方法的本质。其结合方式需要在考虑环境、功能和费用后再发展，以便提供促使建筑发展达到新高度的有效结构。这并
不是说富于想象力的结构设计就能够创造出伟大建筑。正相反，有许多例优美的建筑仅得到结构工程师适当的支持就被创造出来了，然而，如果没有天赋甚厚的建筑师的创造力的指导，那么，得以发展的就只能是好的结构，并非是伟大的建筑。无论如何，要想创造出高层建筑真正非凡的设计，两者都需要最好的。 虽然在文献中通常可以见到有关这七种体系的全面性讨论，但是在这里还值得进一步讨论。设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论。设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论中。 抗弯矩框架 抗弯矩框架也许是低，中高度的建筑中常用的体系，它具有线性水平构件和垂直构件在接头处基本刚接之特点。这种框架用作独立的体系，或者和其他体系结合起来使用，以便提供所需要水平荷载抵抗力。对于较高的高层建筑，可能会发现该本系不宜作为独立体系，这是因为在侧向力的作用下难以调动足够的刚度。 我们可以利用STRESS，STRUDL 或者其他大量合适的计算机程序进行结构分析。所谓的门架法分析或悬臂法分析在当今的技术中无一席之地，由于柱梁节点固有柔性，并且由于初步设计应该力求突出体系的弱点，所以在初析中使用框架的中心距尺寸设计是司空惯的。当然，在设计的后期阶段，实际地评价结点的变形很有必要。 支撑框架 支撑框架实际上刚度比抗弯矩框架强，在高层建筑中也得到更广泛的应用。这种体系以其结点处铰接或则接的线性水平构件、垂直构件和斜撑构件而具特色，它通常与其他体系共同用于较高的建筑，并且作为一种独立的体系用在低、中高度的建筑中。
毕业论文英文文献翻译 之 中文翻译
译文 学院：土建学院专业：土木工程学号：064&&&&&&&姓名：&&&&&& 指导教师： &&&&&&教授
江苏科技大学 2010年 03 月 28 日 均布荷载作用下挡土墙上的土压力 G. I. Shvetsov UDC 624.131.531.2 在前一篇文章中，我们确定了在只考虑填土自重的试验条件下，作用在挡土墙上的压力。这篇文章是第一篇文章的延续，致力于探索填土在外界均布荷载作用下，在挡土墙上产生的荷载问题，当在使用到先前得到的岩土平衡微分方程时，我们仅仅只改变边界条件，因为在这种情况下我们使用了与初始解决方案相同的原理。我们只提取那些与附加土压力有关的新成果，以及仅定义那些第一次出现的新符号。 在设计中，我们通常把作用在挡土墙上的土压力看作是呈三角形分布的，应力也被假设为是沿着墙体均匀连续分布的，但是实验结果并没有证实这一理论，试验表明表面
的附加应力随墙的高度变化并不均匀，而是从回填土顶部的最大值开始一直减小到其底部的最小值。因而，在M.C.瓦尔跟实验图的纵坐标的最大值超出理论计算值近两倍，最小值达到理论计算值的0.65倍，因为土压力的增加主要是在墙的上部，由此所得出的作用点比计算所得出的要高很多。 F.M.shikhiev 的理论里包含了关于挡土墙均布荷载作用下的二维应力折减问题，但是， 附加应力的分布对挡土墙受超荷载作用的效果问题的影响，并没有经过合适的理论研究。 虽然，不同研究人员所做的无数次试验已经确定，侧壁的扭曲效应更大，随着表面的粗糙程度而变大，随挡土墙的宽度和高度之比。在这篇文章里，我们将尽可能的填补这方面的空白。 在边界条件0q 0,y x ==的基础上，我们可以确定试验中作用在有侧向限制的填土上没有超荷的垂直应力。如果一个外附加应力作用在楔块表面上的强度为x σ，则在这种情况下，我们可以从已知条件得出，当y=0时，x q = x σ，既可以得出方程 ()()1 1 1/2/k x x w w h y h A q f m h A λσξ+-=+ （1） 其中 ，荷载分配的不均匀系数A 1和土的深度有关： ()() 111/1/k k A y h y h -= --- （2） 方程一是通用的，因为对于任意一种荷载分布x σ它都可以计算出任意土层中某一点的应力，因此便足以表明应力在X 轴方向的分布规律。当0=x σ时，方程便简化成相应的没有附加应力的形式，并且，当0=w f 而且0>x σ时，它反映了在考虑了附加应力条件时的二维问题，即： 11k x x h y q A h γσ?? =+- ??? （3） 满布在滑动楔上的均布荷载对我们已经知道的设计系数k ，n,和ξw 的值并没有影响，所以，计算作用在挡土墙上的正应力，切应力和总应力的表达式如下：
大学毕业论文---软件专业外文文献中英文翻译
软件专业毕业论文外文文献中英文翻译 Object landscapes and lifetimes Tech nically, OOP is just about abstract data typing, in herita nee, and polymorphism, but other issues can be at least as importa nt. The rema in der of this sect ion will cover these issues. One of the most importa nt factors is the way objects are created and destroyed. Where is the data for an object and how is the lifetime of the object con trolled? There are differe nt philosophies at work here. C++ takes the approach that con trol of efficie ncy is the most importa nt issue, so it gives the programmer a choice. For maximum run-time speed, the storage and lifetime can be determined while the program is being written, by placing the objects on the stack (these are sometimes called automatic or scoped variables) or in the static storage area. This places a priority on the speed of storage allocatio n and release, and con trol of these can be very valuable in some situati ons. However, you sacrifice flexibility because you must know the exact qua ntity, lifetime, and type of objects while you're writing the program. If you are trying to solve a more general problem such as computer-aided desig n, warehouse man ageme nt, or air-traffic con trol, this is too restrictive. The sec ond approach is to create objects dyn amically in a pool of memory called the heap. In this approach, you don't know un til run-time how many objects you n eed, what their lifetime is, or what their exact type is. Those are determined at the spur of the moment while the program is runnin g. If you n eed a new object, you simply make it on the heap at the point that you n eed it. Because the storage is man aged dyn amically, at run-time, the amount of time required to allocate storage on the heap is sig ni fica ntly Ion ger tha n the time to create storage on the stack. (Creat ing storage on the stack is ofte n a si ngle assembly in structio n to move the stack poin ter dow n, and ano ther to move it back up.) The dyn amic approach makes the gen erally logical assumpti on that objects tend to be complicated, so the extra overhead of finding storage and releas ing that storage will not have an importa nt impact on the creati on of an object .In additi on, the greater flexibility is esse ntial to solve the gen eral program ming problem. Java uses the sec ond approach, exclusive". Every time you want to create an object, you use the new keyword to build a dyn amic in sta nee of that object. There's ano ther issue, however, and that's the lifetime of an object. With Ian guages that allow objects to be created on the stack, the compiler determines how long the object lasts and can automatically destroy it. However, if you create it on the heap the compiler has no kno wledge of its lifetime. In a Ianguage like C++, you must determine programmatically when to destroy the
毕业论文5000字英文文献翻译
英文翻译 英语原文： . Introducing Classes The only remaining feature we need to understand before solving our bookstore problem is how to write a data structure to represent our transaction data. In C++ we define our own data structure by defining a class. The class mechanism is one of the most important features in C++. In fact, a primary focus of the design of C++ is to make it possible to define class types that behave as naturally as the built-in types themselves. The library types that we've seen already, such as istream and ostream, are all defined as classesthat is,they are not strictly speaking part of the language. Complete understanding of the class mechanism requires mastering a lot of information. Fortunately, it is possible to use a class that someone else has written without knowing how to define a class ourselves. In this section, we'll describe a simple class that we canuse in solving our bookstore problem. We'll implement this class in the subsequent chapters as we learn more about types,expressions, statements, and functionsall of which are used in defining classes. To use a class we need to know three things: What is its name? Where is it defined? What operations does it support? For our bookstore problem, we'll assume that the class is named Sales_item and that it is defined in a header named Sales_item.h. The Sales_item Class The purpose of the Sales_item class is to store an ISBN and keep track of the number of copies sold, the revenue, and average sales price for that book. How these data are stored or computed is not our concern. To use a class, we need not know anything about how it is implemented. Instead, what we need to know is what operations the class provides. As we've seen, when we use library facilities such as IO, we must include the associated headers. Similarly, for our own classes, we must make the definitions associated with the class available to the compiler. We do so in much the same way. Typically, we put the class definition into a file. Any program that wants to use our class must include that file. Conventionally, class types are stored in a file with a name that, like the name of a program source file, has two parts: a file name and a file suffix. Usually the file name is the same as the class defined in the header. The suffix usually is .h, but some programmers use .H, .hpp, or .hxx. Compilers usually aren't picky about header file names, but IDEs sometimes are. We'll assume that our class is defined in a file named Sales_item.h. Operations on Sales_item Objects
土木工程类专业英文文献及翻译
PA VEMENT PROBLEMS CAUSED BY COLLAPSIBLE SUBGRADES By Sandra L. Houston,1 Associate Member, ASCE (Reviewed by the Highway Division) ABSTRACT: Problem subgrade materials consisting of collapsible soils are com- mon in arid environments, which have climatic conditions and depositional and weathering processes favorable to their formation. Included herein is a discussion of predictive techniques that use commonly available laboratory equipment and testing methods for obtaining reliable estimates of the volume change for these problem soils. A method for predicting relevant stresses and corresponding collapse strains for typical pavement subgrades is presented. Relatively simple methods of evaluating potential volume change, based on results of familiar laboratory tests, are used. INTRODUCTION When a soil is given free access to water, it may decrease in volume, increase in volume, or do nothing. A soil that increases in volume is called a swelling or expansive soil, and a soil that decreases in volume is called a collapsible soil. The amount of volume change that occurs depends on the soil type and structure, the initial soil density, the imposed stress state, and the degree and extent of wetting. Subgrade materials comprised of soils that change volume upon wetting have caused distress to highways since the be- ginning of the professional practice and have cost many millions of dollars in roadway repairs. The prediction of the volume changes that may occur in the field is the first step in making an economic decision for dealing with these problem subgrade materials. Each project will have different design considerations, economic con- straints, and risk factors that will have to be taken into account. However, with a reliable method for making volume change predictions, the best design relative to the subgrade soils becomes a matter of economic comparison, and a much more rational design approach may be made. For example, typical techniques for dealing with expansive clays include: (1) In situ treatments with substances such as lime, cement, or fly-ash; (2) seepage barriers and/ or drainage systems; or (3) a computing of the serviceability loss and a mod- ification of the design to "accept" the anticipated expansion. In order to make the most economical decision, the amount of volume change (especially non- uniform volume change) must be accurately estimated, and the degree of road roughness evaluated from these data. Similarly, alternative design techniques are available for any roadway problem. The emphasis here will be placed on presenting economical and simple methods for: (1) Determining whether the subgrade materials are collapsible; and (2) estimating the amount of volume change that is likely to occur in the 'Asst. Prof., Ctr. for Advanced Res. in Transp., Arizona State Univ., Tempe, AZ 85287. Note. Discussion open until April 1, 1989. To extend the closing date one month,
大学毕业论文英文翻译及原文
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