二语习得引论 读书笔记 chapter 1-2
一．概论
Chapter 1. Introducing SLA
1.Second language acquisition (SLA)
2.Second language (L2)
（也可能是第三四五外语）also commonly called a target language (TL)
3.Basic questions:
1). What exactly does the L2 learner come to know?
2). How does the learner acquire this knowledge?
3). Why are some learners more successful than others?
4.
linguistic; psychological; social.
Only one (x) Combine (√)
Chapter 2. Foundations of SLA
Ⅰ. The world of second languages
1.Multi-; bi-; mono- lingualism
1)Multilingualism: the ability to use 2 or more languages. (bilingualism: 2
languages; multilingualism: >2)
2)Monolingualism: the ability to use only one language.
3)Multilingual competence (Vivian Cook, Multicompetence)
Refers to: the compound state of a mind with 2 or more grammars.
4)Monolingual competence (Vivian Cook, Monocompetence)
Refers to: knowledge of only one language.
2.People with multicompetence (a unique combination) ≠2 monolinguals
World demographic shows:
3.Acquisition
4.The number of L1 and L2 speakers of different languages can only be estimated.
1)Linguistic information is often not officially collected.
2)Answers to questions seeking linguistic information may not be reliable.
3) A lack of agreement on definition of terms and on criteria for identification.
Ⅱ. The nature of language learning
1.L1 acquisition
1). L1 acquisition was completed before you came to school and the
development normally takes place without any conscious effort.
2). Complex grammatical patterns continue to develop through the school years.
1) Refers to: Humans are born with an innate capacity to learn language.
2) Reasons:
♦Children began to learn L1 at the same age and in much the same way.
♦…master the basic phonological and grammatical operations in L1 at 5/ 6.
♦…can understand and create novel utterances; and are not limited to repeating what they have heard; the utterances they produce are often
systematically different from those of the adults around them.
♦There is a cut-off age for L1 acquisition.
♦L1 acquisition is not simply a facet of general intelligence.
3)The natural ability, in terms of innate capacity, is that part of language
structure is genetically “given” to every human child.
3. The role of social experience
1) A necessary condition for acquisition: appropriate social experience (including
L1 input and interaction) is
2) Intentional L1 teaching to children is not necessary and may have little effect.
3) Sources of L1 input and interaction vary for cultural and social factors.
4) Children get adequate L1 input and interaction→sources has little effect on
the rate and sequence of phonological and grammatical development.
The regional and social varieties (sources) of the input→pronunciation
Ⅲ. L1 vs. L2 learning
2.Understanding the states
Ⅳ. The logical problem of language learning
1.Noam Chomsky:
1)innate linguistic knowledge must underlie language acquisition
2)Universal Grammar
2.The theory of Universal Grammar:
Reasons:
1)Children’s knowledge of language > what could be learned from the input.
2)Constraints and principles cannot be learned.
3)Universal patterns of development cannot be explained by language-specific
input.
♦Children often say things that adults do not.
♦Children use language in accordance with general universal rules of language though they have not developed the cognitive ability to understand these rules. Not learned from deduction or imitation.
♦Patterns of children’s language development are not directly determined by the input they receive.。
二语习得读书笔记
一、Key issues in second language acquisition(二语习得的关键问题)调查SLA的框架：（1）situational factors（形势）（2）Input（输入）（3）Learner differences（学习者差异）（4）Learner processes（学习过程）（5）Linguistics output（语言输出）1.situational factors（形势）Linguistic environment：situational factors & Input根据语言环境的不同，两种类型的习得：（1）naturalistic SLA（自然二语习得）（2）Classroom SLA（课堂二语习得）2.linguistic input（语言输入）中心问题是：语言输入在多大的程度上决定了SLA的过程，是仅仅激发了学习过程，还是机构化SLA？本地话语者是其话语水平适应L2学习者，另一个问题是：这些话语调整在促进学习中起到什么作用。
3.learner differences（学习者差异）潜在影响因素：年龄，个人能力水平（aptitude）和智力（intelligence），动机（motivation）和需求（needs），个性（personality）和认知方式（cognitive style）另一种差异：学习者的L1，要保证对比分析假说（contrastive analysis hypothesis）服从实验测试(empirical test)4.Learner processes（学习过程）学习过程包含认知学习过程（cognitive Learner processes）和语言学习过程（linguistic Learner processes）认知学习过程分为三个范畴：（1）学习战略（learning strategies）：内化新的L2知识（2）产生战略（production strategies）：学习者利用其现存的L2知识的方式（3）交流战略（communication strategies):用于当学习者缺乏L2资源导致交流受阻时用的战略。
二语习得引论-读书笔记-chapter-1-2
一．概论Chapter 1. Introducing SLA1.Second language acquisition (SLA)2.Second language (L2)（也可能是第三四五外语） also commonly called a target language (TL)3.Basic questions:1). What exactly does the L2 learner come to know?2). How does the learner acquire this knowledge?3). Why are some learners more successful than others?4.linguistic; psychological; social.Only one (x) Combine (√)Chapter 2. Foundations of SLAⅠ. The world of second languages1.Multi-; bi-; mono- lingualism1)Multilingualism: the ability to use 2 or more languages.(bilingualism: 2 languages; multilingualism: >2)2)Monolingualism: the ability to use only one language.3)Multilingual competence (Vivian Cook, Multicompetence)Refers to: the compound state of a mind with 2 or more grammars.4)Monolingual competence (Vivian Cook, Monocompetence)Refers to: knowledge of only one language.2.People with multicompetence (a unique combination) ≠ 2 monolingualsWorld demographic shows:3.Acquisition4.The number of L1 and L2 speakers of different languages can only beestimated.1)Linguistic information is often not officially collected.2)Answers to questions seeking linguistic information may not bereliable.3) A lack of agreement on definition of terms and on criteria foridentification.Ⅱ. The nature of language learning1.L1 acquisition1). L1 acquisition was completed before you came to school and thedevelopment normally takes place without any conscious effort.2). Complex grammatical patterns continue to develop through the1) Refers to: Humans are born with an innate capacity to learnlanguage.2) Reasons:♦Children began to learn L1 at the same age and in much the same way.♦…master the basic phonological and grammatical operations in L1 at 5/ 6.♦…can understand and create novel utterances; and are not limited to repeating what they have heard; the utterances they produce are often systematically different from those of the adults around them.♦There is a cut-off age for L1 acquisition.♦L1 acquisition is not simply a facet of general intelligence.3)The natural ability, in terms of innate capacity, is that part oflanguage structure is genetically “given” to every human child.3. The role of social experience1) A necessary condition for acquisition: appropriate socialexperience (including L1 input and interaction) is2) Intentional L1 teaching to children is not necessary and may havelittle effect.3) Sources of L1 input and interaction vary for cultural and socialfactors.4) Children get adequate L1 input and interaction→sources has littleeffect on the rate and sequence of phonological and grammatical development.The regional and social varieties (sources) of the input→pronunciationⅢ. L1 vs. L2 learningⅣ. The logical problem of language learning1.Noam Chomsky:1)innate linguistic knowledge must underlie language acquisition2)Universal Grammar2.The theory of Universal Grammar:Reasons:1)Children’s knowledge of language > what could be learned from theinput.2)Constraints and principles cannot be learned.3)Universal patterns of development cannot be explained bylanguage-specific input.Children often say things that adults do not.♦Children use language in accordance with general universal rules of language though they have not developed the cognitive ability to understand these rules. Not learned from deduction or imitation.♦Patterns of children’s language development are not directly determined by the input they receive.。
二语习得第二章
section one: Errors and error analysis
step1. Identifying errors step2. Describing errors step3. Expaining errors step4. Error evaluation
Identifying errors
the free variation
Variability constitutes an essential stage in the acquistion of grammatical structures.
begin acquire other verb forms but initially they use these interchaneably with the simple form start to use the forms systematically
Learners vary in their use of L2 according to: the linguistic context the situation context the psycholinguistic context
the free variation
the linguistic context
paint(future,present and past time) painted(for past time)
painted(in planned discourse) paint (in unplanned discourse) elimainate non-target forms and painted(consistently use the target language form to to refer to past time) perform the same function as native speakers
语习得引论读书笔记
二．主要研究成果Chapter 3. The linguistics of SLAⅠ. The nature of languageⅡ. Early approaches to SLA1.Contrastive Analysis (CA)1). as a beginning of the survey:aspects of its procedures are still incorporated in more recentapproaches.It introduced the influence of L1 on L2 (Chomsky)2). CA: an approach to the study of SLA which involves predicting andexplaining learner problems based on a comparison of L1 and L2 to determine similarities and differences.(Based on idealized linguistic structures attributed to native speakers of L1 and L2)3). influenced by Structuralism and Behaviorism.4). Goal of CA was primarily pedagogical in nature: to increaseefficiency in L2 teaching and testing.5). Process:Describing L1 and L2 at different levelAnalyzing comparable segment of the language for elements that may Types of interference Examplessame form and meaning; different distribution la s paloma s blanca s (Spanish) the white dove ssame meaning; different form kittie s 小猫们same meaning;different form and distribution water (n. v.)水（名）different form;partial overlap in meaning leg腿，蹄，下肢similar form; different meaning asistir (Spanish “to attend”) assist (English “to help”)Cannot explain the logical problem of language learning (how learners know more than they’ve heard and been taught)Not always validated by evidence from actual learner errors. Stimulated the preparation of comparative grammarIts analytic procedures have been usefully applied to descriptive studies and to translation2.Error analysis (EA)1). EA: the first approach to the study of SLA which includes aninternal focus on learner’s creative ability to construct language.(based on the description and analysis of actual learner errors in L2)2). CA→EAPredictions by CA not always correct; many real learner errors are not transferred from L1Focus on surface-level forms and patterns→underlying rulesBehaviorism→mentalism (emphasis on the innate capacity)Teaching concerns as motivation↓3). Procedures for analyzing learner errors:Collection of a sample of learner languageIdentification of errorsDescription of errorsExplanation of errorsEvaluation of errors4). ShortcomingsAmbiguity in classificationLack of positive dataPotential for avoidance3.Interlanguage (IL)1). IL refers to the intermediate states (interim grammars) of alearner’s language as it moves toward the target L2.2). Characteristics:SystematicDynamicVariableReduced system, both in form and function3). Differences between SLA and L1 acquisition by childrenLanguage transfer from L1 to L2Transfer of training, or how the L2 is taughtStrategies of 2nd language learningOvergeneralization of the target language linguistic materials4). L1 as fossilization for L2 learners:Fossilization: the probability that they’ll cease their IL development in some respects before they reach target language norms, in spite of continuing L2 input and passage time.Relates to: the age of learning; social identity; communicative need.4.Morpheme order studies1). Refers to： an important Q in the study of SLA, whether there isa natural order (or universal sequence) in the grammaticaldevelopment of L2 learners.2). Inflection: it adds one or more units of meaning to the base formof a word, to give it a more specific meaning. (plural nouns, past tense etc.)3). The order of morpheme acquisition reported was similar in L1 and L2It supports an Identity Hypothesis (L1=L2): that processes involved in L1 and L2 acquisition are the same.4). The concept of natural order remains very important forunderstanding SLA. (both from linguistic and cognitive approaches) 5.Monitor model1). One of the last of the early approaches which has an internal focusin the Monitor Model.(Stephen Krashen)2). It explicitly and essentially adopts the notion of a languageacquisition device (LAD) (Chomsky used for children’s innate knowledge of language)3). Krashen’s approach: 5 hypotheses6.Consensus:1). What is being acquired in SLA is a “rule0governed” languagesystems2). How SLA take place involves creative mental processes.3). Why some learners are more (less) successful in SLA than othersrelates primarily to the age of the learner.Ⅲ. Universal Grammar (UG)1.UG (Chomsky): what all languages have in common.1). Two important conceptslinguistic competence (speaker-hearers’underlying knowledge of language) needs to be accounted for LAsuch knowledge of language > what could be learned from the input.(the logic problem of language learning/ the poverty-of-the stimulus argument)2). The nature of speaker-hearers’competence in native language canbe explained only by innate knowledge that human genetically endowed with.3). The innate knowledge is in the language facultyLanguage faculty: a component of the human mind, physically represented in the brain and part of the biological endowment of the species.2.Principles and Parameters1). With Chomsky’s reconceptualization of UG in the Principles andParameters framework [often called the Government and Binding (GB) model] and the subsequent introduction of the Minimalist program, there came a new idea about the acquisition process.2). UG has been conceptualized as a set of principles which areproperties of all languages in the world.Some of these principles contain parameters3). What is acquired in L1 acquisition (not UG itself):LA includes a process of selecting among the limited parametric options in UG that match the settings which are encountered in linguistic input.4). How acquisition occurs for children:natural; instinctive; internal to the cognitive system5). Why some learners are more successful:Irrelevant with L1 acquisition, for all native speakers attain essentially the same final state. (For SLA, attitudes; motivation and social context matters)States UG SLAInitial state Make parametricchoices that areappropriate for L1(Guided by UG)L1 transferNature anddevelopment ofinterlanguageFinal state Native language;same Why more successful relevant to L2:The degree of access to UGRelationships betweenL1&L2 →differentialtransfer or interferenceL2 input qualityDegree of perceptionDegree of specificationfor lexical featuresⅣ. Functional approaches1.Functional approach1). Based on: the framework of Functionalism2). Characteristics of functional approaches to SLAFocus on the use of language in real situations (performance) and underlying knowledge (competence)Assumption: purpose of language is communication; LA and SLA require communicative useConcern about the sentence, discourse structure, how language is used in interaction; include aspects of communication beyond languageSystemic linguistics Systemic linguistics is a model for analyzing language in terms of the interrelated systems of choices that are available for expressing meaning.“language acquisition needs to be seen as the mastery of linguistic functions”2). What language learners acquire: meaning potential3). Process of acquisition:mastering certain basic functions of languagedeveloping a meaning potential for each4). pragmatic functions development in L1 acquisition:instrumental→regulatory→interactional→personal→heuristic→ imagination→ representational5). linguistic structures: directly reflections of the functions thatlanguage serves; related to the social and personal needs2.Functional Typology1). Based on: the comparative study of a wide range of the world’slanguage2). Goal: to describe patterns of similarities and differences amonglanguages; to determine which types and patterns occur more/less frequently or are universal in distribution.3). Application: why some L2 constructions are more/less difficultthan others for L2 learners to acquire; for the selectivety of crosslinguistic influence or transfer4). important concept: markedness (deals with whether any specificfeature of language is marked or unmarked)Feature in L2PredictionFeature inL1Marked Unmarked (common)L2 feature will be easy to learnL1 feature will not transfer toL2Unmarked Marked L1 feature will transfer to L2In SLA, unmarked elements are easier to master than marked ones.6). Compared with CA:Functional typology goes beyond the surface-level structural (CA) to more abstract patterns, principles and constraints;the Markedness Differential Hypothesis7). implications:some aspects of some languages are more difficultwhy some types and patterns of features are more/less frequent in native and 2nd language (factors: perceptual salience, ease of cognitive processing, physical constraints, communicative needs) 3.Function-to-form mapping1). Basic concept: L1 and L2 acquisition involves a process ofgrammaticalization.2). Grammaticalization: a grammatical function is first conveyed byshared extralinguistic knowledge and inferencing based on the context of discourse, then by a lexical word, and only later by a grammatical marker.Driven by: communicative need and use.Related to : the development of more efficient cognitive process3). Pragmatic mode: a style of expressing meaning which relies more on context.Syntactic mode: a style which relies more on formal grammatical element4). According to function-to-mapping approach, LA importantlyinvolves developing linguistic forms to fulfill semantic or pragmatic functions.rmation organization1). Focus on: utterance structure (the way learners put their wordstogether.)2). Includes:describing the structures of interlanguage (learner varieties)discovering what organizational principles guide learners’production at various stages of developmentanalyzing how these principles interact with one another.3). European Science Foundation (ESF) projectdevelopmental levels: in this study, no matter what their L1 and L2, the learners go through a remarkably similar sequence of development in their interlanguage.organizing principles:*there is a limited set of principles (phrasal constraints;semantic constraints; pragmatic constraints) which learnersmake use of for organizing information.*Individual variation: how the principles apply in their L1 and influence the interlanguage use.。
第二语言习得导论 (笔记)
第二语言习得：是指人们在获得母语的基础上习得另一种或几种语言的过程。
母语：第一语言，通常是指学习者所属种族，社团使用的语言，因而也称作“本族语”。
就语言获得的方式而言，习得是指非正式的语言获得，儿童大都是通过这种方式来获得母语的，学习是指正式的语言获得，即通过课堂教学的方式来获得第二语言。
就语言获得的心理过程而言，习得是指在下意识状态下获得的语言，而学习一般是指有意识的语言获得。
心理学者一般称前者为内隐学习，后者为外显学习。
习得是通过无意识或者下意识的方式来获得语言知识。
学习则是在有意识的状态下，通过规则学习来获得语言知识。
就语言获得的知识类型而言，通过习得方式获得的是隐性语言知识，通过学习获得的是显性语言知识，所以，学者们通常用“picking up a language”来描述习得，就像儿童那样下意识的，毫不费力的获得一种语言。
而学习，学者们认为knowing about a language，即学习一种显性语言知识，而不是language learning，即获得一种语言。
SLA的发端：20世纪60年代末。
1、在《中介语》中首次提出SLA的研究对象：学习者的语言系统（学习者在目的语学习的过程中产生的语言）。
2、把学习者的语言系统作为与其母语和目的语系统相对应的，独立的语言系统。
汉语作为SLA的研究起点：《中介语理论与外国人学习汉语的语音偏误分析》鲁健骥，1984。
乔姆斯基对“刺激——反应”模式的批判1、语言最重要的特点之一是移置型，行为主义无法表达这种特性。
2、句子结构的重要特征之一是成分结构和表层结构的不吻合性。
3、合乎语法的句子不一定有意义。
4、行为主义无法合理解释语言习得。
行为主义对语言本质的看法：1、语言是一套习惯，语言习得是此习惯的养成。
2、揭示语言行为的模式是刺激反应理论。
3、人们的话语就是对其环境或他人的语言，行为所做的一系列反应。
4、把语言行为加以强化，便形成了语言习惯。
5、语言行为则是语言习惯的总和。
二语习得第一,二章笔记
Chapter 1. Introducing Second Language AcquisitionI. What id SLA?1. The definition of SLASLA, that is Second Language Acquisition. It refers both to the study of individual and groups who are learning a language subsequent to learning their first one as young children, and to the process of learning that language. The additional language is called a second language or target language.2.The scope of SLAIt includes informal L2 learning and formal L2 learning.Informal L2 learning take place in naturalistic context, formal L2 learning takes place in classrooms.3.Three basic questionsIn trying to understand the process of second language acquisition, we are seeking to answer three basic questions:(1)What exactly does the L2 learner come to know?(2)How does the learner acquire this knowledge?(3)Why are some learners more successful than others?There are probably no answers that all second language researches would agree on completely. This is because SLA is highly complex in nature, and in part because scholars studying SLA come from academic disciplines which differ greatly in theory and research methods.II. What is a second Language?A second language is typically an official or societally dominant language needed for education, employment, and other basic purposes.A foreign language is one not widely used in the learners' immediate social context which might be used for further travel or other cross-cultural communication situations, or studied as a curricular requirement or elective in school, but with no immediate or necessary practical application.A library language is one which functions primarily as a tool for further learning through reading, especially when books or journals in a desired field of study are not commonly published in the learners' native tongue.An auxiliary language is one which learners need to know for some official functions in their immediate political setting, or will need for purposes of wider communication, although their first language serves most other needs in their lives.III. What is a first language?Acquisition of more than one language during early childhood is called simultaneous multilingualism.Sequential multilingualism: learning additional languages after L1.IV. Diversity in learning and learnersWhat is learned in acquiring a second language, as well as how it islearned is often influenced by whether the situation involves informal exposure to speakers of other languages, immersion in a setting where one needs a new language to meet basic needs, or formal instruction in school, and these learning conditions are often profoundly influenced by powerful social, cultural, and economic factors affecting the status of both languages and learners.Chapter 2 Foundations of Second Language AcquisitionI. The world of second languageNot only is bilingualism worldwide, it is a phenomenon that has existed since the beginning of language in human history. It is probably true that no language group has ever existed in isolation from other language groups. There are many more bilingual or multilingual individuals in the world than there are monolingual.Multilingualism refers to the ability to use two or more languages.Monolingualism refers to the ability to use only one.Those who grow up in a multilingual environment acquire multilingual competence in the natural course of using two or more languages from childhood with the people around them, and tend to regard it as perfectly normal to do so. Adding second languages at an older age often takes considerable effort, however, and thus requires motivation. This motivation may arise from a variety of conditions, including the following:(1)invasion or conquest of one's country by speakers of another language;(2)A need or desire to contact speakers of other languages in economic or other specific domains;(3)Immigration to a country where use of a language other than one's another language;(4)Adoption of religious beliefs and practices which involve use of another language.(5)A need or desire to pursue educational experience s where access requires proficiency in another language;(6)A desire for occupational or social advancement which is furthered by knowledge of another language;(7)An interest in knowing more about peoples of other cultures and having access to their technologies or literatures.II. Reasons for uncertainty in reporting language data include some which have social and political significance, and some which merely reflect imprecise or ambiguous terminology, for example:1.Linguistic information is often not officially collected2.Answers to questions seeking linguistic information may not be reliable3.There is lack of agreement on definition of terms and on criteria for identificationIII. The nature of language learningBy the age of six months an infant has produced all of the vowel sounds and most of the consonant sounds of any language in the world.On average children have mastered most of the distinctive sounds of their first language before they are three years old, and an awareness of basic discourse patterns such as conversational turn-taking appear at aneven earlier age. Children control most of the basic L1 grammatical patterns before they are five or six, although complex grammatical patterns continue to develop through the school years.The understanding of how children accomplish the early mastery of L1has changed radically in the past fifty years or so. (1). It was suggested that first language acquisition is in larger part the result of children's natural desire to please their doting parents. (2). Others argued that children's language acquisition is purposive, that they develop language because of their urge to communicate their wants and needs to the people who take care of them. (3). The most widely held view by the middle of the twentieth century was that children learn language by imitation .IV. The role of natural abilityHumans are born with a natural ability or innate capacity to learn language. In viewing the natural ability to acquire language in terms of innate capacity, we are saying that part of language structure is genetically "given" to every human child. If a child had to consciously learn the set of abstract principles that indicate which sequences of words are possible sentences in their language as opposed to those that are not, only the smartest would learn to talk, and it would take them many more years than it actually does.V. The role of social experienceEven if the universal properties of language are preprogrammed inchildren, they must learn all of those features which distinguish their L1 from all other possible human languages. Appropriate social experience , including L1 input and interaction, is thus a necessary condition for acquisition.Sources of L1 input and interaction vary depending on cultural and social factors. Mother's talk is often assumed to be the most important source of early language input to children. The relative importance of input from other young children also varies in different cultures, as does the importance of social institutions such as nursery schools.When young children's social experience includes people around them using two or more languages, they have the same innate capacity to learn both or all of them.VI. L1 versus L2 learningThis brief comparison of L1 and L2 learning is divided into three phases. The first is the initial state, which many linguists ans psychologists believe includes the underlying knowledge about language structures and principles that is in learner's heads at the very start of L1or L2 acquisition. The second phase, the intermediate states, covers all stages of basic language development. The third phase is the final state, which is the outcome of L1and L2 learning.(1). Initial stateSome linguists and psychologists believe that the genetic predispositionwhich children have from birth to learn language remains with them throughout life, and that differences in the final outcomes of L1and L2 learning are attributable to other factors. Others believe that some aspects of the innate capacity which children have for L1 remain in force for acquisition of subsequent languages, but that some aspects of this natural ability are lost with advancing age.There is complete agreement , however, that since L2 acquisition follows L1 acquisition , a major component of the initial state for L2 learning must be prior knowledge of L1.(2).Intermediate statesThere is similarity in that the development of both L1and L2 is largely systematic, including predictable sequencing of many phenomena within each and some similarity of sequencing across languages, and in the fact that L1and L2 learners both play a creative role in their own language development and do not mimic what they have heard or been taught. ·processes·necessary conditions·facilitating conditions(3)final stateThe final state is the outcome of L1or L2 learning . The final state of L1development is native linguistic competence. While vocabulary learning and cultivation of specialized registers may continue intoadulthood,the basic phonological and grammatical systems of whatever languages children hear around them re essentially established by the age of about five or six years , along with vocabulary knowledge and interaction skills that are adequate for fulfilling communicative functions. VII. The logical problem of language learningThe "problem" as it has been formulated by linguists relates most importantly to syntactic phenomena. As noted in the preceding section, most linguists ans psychologist assume this achievement must be attributed to innate and spontaneous language-learning construct and/or process. The notion that innate linguistic knowledge must underline language acquisition. This view has been supported by arguments such as the following:1.Children's knowledge of language goes beyond what could be learned from the input they receiveThis is essentially the poverty -of- the- stimulus argument. According to this argument, children often hear incomplete or ungrammatical utterances along with grammatical input,and yet they are somehow able to filter the language they hear so that the ungrammatical input is not incorporated into their L1 system.2.Constrains and principles cannot be learnedConstrains ans principles cannot be learned in part because children acquire a first language at an age when such abstractions are beyond theircomprehension; Constrains ans principles are thus outside the realm of learning processes which are related to general intelligence.3.Universal patterns of development cannot be explained by language-specific inputThe extent of this similarity suggests that language universals are not only constructs derived from sophisticated theories and analyses by linguists, but also innate representations in every young child's mind. The logical problem of language learningFirst of all, children often say things that adults do not.Next, children use language in accordance with general universal rules of language even though they have not yet developed the cognitive ability necessary to understand these rules.Finally, patterns of children's language development are not directly determined by the input they receive.VIII. Frameworks for SLAFrameworks for study of SLATimeline linguistic psychological social195os and before structuralism behaviorism sociocultural theory 1960s TGG neurolinguistics information processing ethnography of communication variation theory1970s functionalism humanistic models acculturation theroy1980s principles and parameters model connectionism social psychology1990s minimalist program processabilityThis view is still influential in SLA approaches which are concerned with the role of input and interaction.1.linguisticThere have been two foci for the study fo SLA from a linguistic perspective since 1960:internal and external. The internal focus has been based primarily on the work of Noam Chomsky and his followers. It sets the goal of study as accounting for speakers' internalized, underlying knowledge of language rather than the description of surface forms as in earlier Structuralism. The external focus for the study of SLA has emphasized language use, including the functions of language which are realized in learners' production at different stages of development.2.PsychologicalThere have been three foci in the study of SLA from a psychological perspective: languages and the brain, learning processes and learner differences.Language and the brainThe location and representation of language in the brain has been of interest to biologists and psychologists since the nineteenth century. And the expanding field of Neurolinguistics was one of the first to influencecognitive perspectives on SLA when systematic study began in th e1960s.Learning processesThe focus on learning processes has been heavily influenced by computer-based Information Processing(IP) models of learning, which were established in cognitive psychology by the 1960s. Explanations of SLA phenomena based on this framework involve assumptions that L2 is a highly complex skill, and that learning L2 is not essentially unlike learning other highly complex skills.Learner differencesThe focus on learner differences in SLA has been most concerned with the question of why some learners are more successful than others. This framework calls for consideration of emotional involvement in learning, such as affective factors of attitude, motivation, and anxiety level.SocialThere are two foci for the study of SLA from this perspective:micro-social and macro-social.Micro-social focusThe concerns within the micro-social focus relate to language acquisition and use in immediate social contexts of production, interpretation and interaction.Macro-social focusThe concerns fo the macro-social focus relate language acquisition and use to broader ecological contexts, including cultural, political and educational settings.。
《二语习得引论》(第二章)翻译报告
L1speakers(in millions)L2speakers(in millions) Chinese1,20015
English427950
Spanish266350
a second or a later-acquired language,at least
portion of their formal education,than there are children educated exclusively via the first language.(1999:1)
Given the size and widespread distribution of multilingual populations,it is somewhat surprising that an overwhelming proportion of the scientific attention which has been paid to language acquisition relates only to monolingual conditions and to first language acquisition.While there are interesting similarities between L1and L2 acquisition,the processes cannot be equated,nor can multilingualism be assumed to involve simply the same knowledge and skills as monolingualism except in more than one language.This point is made most cogently by Vivian Cook,who introduced the concept of multilingual competence(his term is“multicompetence”)to refer to‘'the compound state of a mind with two【or more]grammars”(1991:112).This is distinguished from monolingual competence(or“monocompetence”in Cook’S terminology),which refers to knowledge of only one language.
二语习得引论-读书笔记-chapter-1-2
一．概论Chapter 1. Introducing SLA1.Second language acquisition (SLA)2.Second language (L2)（也可能是第三四五外语） also commonly called a target language (TL)3.Basic questions:1). What exactly does the L2 learner come to know?2). How does the learner acquire this knowledge?3). Why are some learners more successful than others?4.linguistic; psychological; social.Only one (x) Combine (√)Chapter 2. Foundations of SLAⅠ. The world of second languages1.Multi-; bi-; mono- lingualism1)Multilingualism: the ability to use 2 or more languages.(bilingualism: 2 languages; multilingualism: >2)2)Monolingualism: the ability to use only one language.3)Multilingual competence (Vivian Cook, Multicompetence)Refers to: the compound state of a mind with 2 or more grammars.4)Monolingual competence (Vivian Cook, Monocompetence)Refers to: knowledge of only one language.2.People with multicompetence (a unique combination) ≠ 2 monolingualsWorld demographic shows:3.Acquisition4.The number of L1 and L2 speakers of different languages can only beestimated.1)Linguistic information is often not officially collected.2)Answers to questions seeking linguistic information may not bereliable.3) A lack of agreement on definition of terms and on criteria foridentification.Ⅱ. The nature of language learning1.L1 acquisition1). L1 acquisition was completed before you came to school and thedevelopment normally takes place without any conscious effort.2). Complex grammatical patterns continue to develop through the1) Refers to: Humans are born with an innate capacity to learnlanguage.2) Reasons:♦Children began to learn L1 at the same age and in much the same way.♦…master the basic phonological and grammatical operations in L1 at 5/ 6.♦…can understand and create novel utterances; and are not limited to repeating what they have heard; the utterances they produce are often systematically different from those of the adults around them.♦There is a cut-off age for L1 acquisition.♦L1 acquisition is not simply a facet of general intelligence.3)The natural ability, in terms of innate capacity, is that part oflanguage structure is genetically “given” to every human child.3. The role of social experience1) A necessary condition for acquisition: appropriate socialexperience (including L1 input and interaction) is2) Intentional L1 teaching to children is not necessary and may havelittle effect.3) Sources of L1 input and interaction vary for cultural and socialfactors.4) Children get adequate L1 input and interaction→sources has littleeffect on the rate and sequence of phonological and grammatical development.The regional and social varieties (sources) of the input→pronunciationⅢ. L1 vs. L2 learningⅣ. The logical problem of language learning1.Noam Chomsky:1)innate linguistic knowledge must underlie language acquisition2)Universal Grammar2.The theory of Universal Grammar:Reasons:1)Children’s knowledge of language > what could be learned from theinput.2)Constraints and principles cannot be learned.3)Universal patterns of development cannot be explained bylanguage-specific input.Children often say things that adults do not.♦Children use language in accordance with general universal rules of language though they have not developed the cognitive ability to understand these rules. Not learned from deduction or imitation.♦Patterns of children’s language development are not directly determined by the input they receive.。
第二语言习得阅读笔记
《第二语言习得》阅读笔记:习得笔记一1 外向型的学习者善谈和善于反映有利于获得更多的输入和实践机会，但他们往往不注重语言的形式。
内向型的学习者更长于利用他们沉静的性格对输入与规则进行深入细致的分析，对语料进行对比观察，因而在注重形式与规则的教学环境下更有优势。
（评：因而对于不同性格场学员要有不同的教学策略与教学方法）2 动机和态度是决定不同学习者达到不同程度水平的主要因素。
动机可以分为情景性动机，工具性动机，社会性动机（综合性动机）（评：因而刺激并加强学习者学习动机促使其主动学习是外语教学的必要策略。
）3 理想的外语学习者特点 a 可以适应团体的活力与语言的交际特性，克服焦虑 b 积极寻找机会使用目的语，并练习倾听指向他的言语，作出反应 c 通过学习规则掌握交际的多样形式，并可以创造性使用 d 在进入少年阶段，应该积极主动地学习基础的语言概念与规则（语法）d. 主动地区分、储存并监测目的语的特征，并可以在过程中持续纠正。
e 具备外语学习强烈的综合动机与工具性动机习得笔记二1 通过偏误分析发现，只有25%的语言偏误由于母语的负迁移导致，其他往往由于过分应用一般认知手段，如类比及概括等产生。
（评：学习者过度自信对于语言学习有害。
教学者在讲解规律时，除了一般性规律，一定不可以特殊的现象）2 对待偏误的态度行为主义观点：错误是刺激反应过程中的偏差，需要新的正确的刺激强化加以矫正。
认知主义观点：错误恰恰说明学习者是灵活积极的，有辨别能力的，不需特别的加以矫正，错误会随着对目的语了解的深入自然消失。
3 因而教师对待偏误的态度：a 规则无知引起的理解性错误，指出并讲解，b 表达性错误，初期—接触正确言语，促使其意识并逐步理解纠正中后期—指出并强化正确言语（刺激—反应）（评：偏误分析的最大价值为改变了教师对于偏误本质的认识）习得笔记三1 一般而言，词汇错误比语法错误更影响交流，语音错误除非十分严重，否则影响最小。
二语习得理论第1讲、第2讲2013
苏淳的升华
穿是一种生活必须或者是礼仪必备。 戴是一种锦上添花。
语音、语法、汉字
*这些鲜花是被他送的。 *发现了田里的苗都被死了。
为什么不成立？ 汉字：笔画教学 部件-结构教学法
2.了解中华文化、不同国家的文化差异、时事 。
法国女生：假如台湾人不希望统一，那么中国政府为什么 一定要统一呢？ 教师： 那法国的科西嘉岛要独立，法国政府同意吗？ 法国女生：同意，只要人民投票决定。 (因为她觉得这些地方对她的国家来说没什么意义。) 教师：那为什么法国还占领着别国的领土，占领着殖民地？ 法国女生：那是以前的事，在60年代法国已经允许殖民地独 立了。 这时，班里的两个非洲学生，一个是塞拉利昂的，一个赞 比亚的一齐冲她喊：谁说的？你们还占领着圭亚纳，并且 用来进行核武器试验。 这个女生此后再也不就台湾、西藏这样的问题进行“挑衅” 了。
习得
一部分学者认为习得=学习。 还有一部分学者认为习得≠学习。 “习得”(acquisition)：非正式的、自然状 态下、下意识的语言获得，比如儿童母语 的获得方式；“ 学习”(learning)：正式的、有意识的获得 语言知识，比如通过课堂教学的方式来获 得第二语言。
二语习得环境
课堂环境 自然环境 二语环境 外语环境
你能结合自己学习英语的经历举出 一些正迁移或负迁移的例子吗？
？
对比分析假说
奠基人查尔斯﹒福莱斯的两句名言： “外语教学就是把特定的外语教给具有特定 母语背景的学生。” “在对目的语和学习者的母语进行科学描写 和认真比较的基础上编写出的教材，是最 有效的教材”。
美国语言学家罗伯特﹒拉多1957年提出了 “对比分析假说”。
语言迁移理论 原有的习惯
影响
新习惯