网络游戏商业模式外文翻译文献
O2O商业模式和团购网站外文文献翻译2014年译文3100字
O2O商业模式和团购网站外文文献翻译2014年译文3100字This article discusses the development of O2O (online-to-offline) business models and group purchasing。
O2O refers to the XXX。
Group purchasing。
on the other hand。
involves a group of XXX.XXX the rise of O2O business models in China。
which has been driven by the country's large n。
high。
n rate。
and increasing demand for convenience。
O2O platforms have emerged in us industries。
including food delivery。
XXX。
XXX.The article then goes on to explain how group purchasing has e a popular feature of many O2O platforms。
as it allows consumers to save money while also increasing the volume of sales for XXX。
Group purchasing also helps to build customer loyalty and generate word-of-mouth marketing.XXX O2O platforms and group purchasing face。
including XXX。
regulatory issues。
and the need to maintain high levels of customer XXX。
电子商务外文翻译文献
The Strategic Challenges of E-commerceIntroduction11th Century Europe saw the emergence of credit-based banking systemsand f i n ancial instruments such as bills of exchange. These concepts remain withus, in t heir modified form, to this day (Chown, 1994). They underpin all modernforms of commerce. The arrival of information technology (computers and telecommunications) has raised the prospect of radical change to this traditionalmodel.The rise of the Internet (electronic commerce), since the advent of the World Wide Web, has provided an easy to use communication channel for businesses tocontact current and potential customers. The emergence of the Internet as a general communication channel has also given rise to the possibility of widespread electronic commerce. Even though there is still much debate relating to electronic payment for commercial activities, this is clearly an area of growth.It is difficult to say how large the Internet is. Hoffman & Novak (1996) quotea number of surveys (O'Reilly, FIND/SVP , Times Mirror and CommerceNet) which suggest that there are at least 10 million Internet users in the United States alone.The number of computers (hosts) connected to the Internet topped 9.47 million (Network Wizards, 1996) as of January 1996. Note that a single host supportsanywhere from a single user to, in some cases, thousands of users.As of March 21, 1996, 24,347 firms were listed in Open Market's (1996) directory of "Commercial Services on the Net," and there were 54,800 entries inthe "Companies" directory of the Y ah o Guide to WWW (Y ah o , 1996), with thetotal number of Web sites doubling approximately every two months. Jim Clarke, the chairman of Netscape, estimated the Internet has 40 million users in 1995with growth at 8% per month (Clarke, 1995).The Internet is only one aspect of technology. Businesses require information and supporting systems (processes) to handle the data - over time these systems have become computerised (IT). Modern information technology can both support the processes and help capture useful information for the enterprise. These technologies include:anizational support systems, such as workflow and groupware - making businesses more efficient.2.Customer contact databases - helping capture information about customers and facilitate new methods of marketing.3.Electronic payment systems for g o ds and services - these are emerging, although the majority of payments are still based on relatively expensivetraditional cheque clearance.Collectively and individually, these areas will contribute to major changes inthe way a company conducts its business. Enix have coined the term Workware to describe the combination of these technologies.Figure 1 - The emergence of Electronic Commerce will be underpinned by three key c omponentsHowever, there is still widespread misunderstanding on the value of organisational support technology. A recent survey of 437 large enterprises by research company Xephon (1996) indicated that an astonishing proportion (44%) had no immediate intention of introducing modern information handling systems (Groupware was defined by Xephon as Lotus Notes, Microsoft Exchange and Novell GroupWise). Of these, 65% said they were unsure what these technologies could deliver. From these statistics, it is clear many organisations are still sceptical about the benefits of technology.The efficient collection, utilisation, handling, storage and dissemination of information is a vital component of corporate success in the modern business world. However, the gathering and use of information must take into account issues of privacy and security. A recent feature in the Financial Times (1996) notedthat " … in order to thrive in the 1990s, financial services organisations are as much in the business of managing and manipulating information as managing and making money." Furthermore, the interest shown in topics such as TQM andBPR has demonstrated the importance of processes as a fundamental building block.Inevitably a few savvy organizations in each sector will utilise all three components tochange their market or develop new markets. Those who do notadapt quickly to the new ways of working are likely to be disadvantaged as their strategies become redundant. All businesses should investigate the implicationsof these technologies for them and the markets within which they operate.MarketingChampy, Buday and Nohria (1996) argue that the rise of electronic commerce and the changing consumer processes brought about through electronic communities are likely to lead to a new wave of reengineering, mergers and acquisitions. Moreover, organizations may expand into new business areas, takingon roles unforeseen prior to the rise of the Web. For example: a magazinepublisher, Cond Naste, has moved into the travel business; Bill Gates is now an electronic real estate agent; and a recruitment advertising agency, Bernard Hodes, has now become an electronic recruitment company.The emergence of electronic commerce will significantly impact what we currently call‘m arke ting’.Cle arly,the appearance o f electronic communities (Armstrong and Hagel, 1996) implies that marketing professionals must expand their horizons as the advent of this technology will threaten existing channels of business. Those involved in marketing need to understand the full range o f products and services required b y the electronic community. They must learn totake advantage of the technology that allows customers to move seamlessly from information gathering to completion of a transaction, interacting with the various providers of products and services as necessary. A number of interesting questions are implied:1.What kind of information is available for collection? Is it appropriate to gather this information and for what should it be used?2.Are information systems equipped to capture customer information and transactions, making it available for later analysis?3.When dealing with electronic communities, do marketing profe s ionals comprehend the differences? One needs to engage t he customer as part of thetransaction rather than blindly mailing targets.This idea of community has been at the heart of the Internet since its origins as a defence and academic computer network although most communities arestill not particularly oriented toward commerce. However, the World Wide Webhas changed and broadened the nature of the Internet and the way in which commercial transactions are conducted. The CEO of Kodak is alleged to haverem arked that he co uld n’t tell if the Kod ak Web site was a m one y ma ker.But heknew it was important because it was the most personal way of selling since doorto d oo r sale sm e n,o n ly no w the custo m e rs we re kno ckin g o n Ko d ak’s d o o r.Armstrong and Hagel propose four types of non-exclusive electronic communities, those: interested in transactions; sharing common interests; indulging in fantasy games; and with a shared life experience. The busine s opportunity is for those who support and interact with these communities, building customer loyalty on an ongoing basis. By satisfying the requirements ofrelational marketing and transactions, companies may gain important insightsinto their customers’ nature and needs. For example, a baby products company could entice customers to order items from an associated on-line catalogue by providing bulletin boards for new parents.The desire to establish long-term customer relationships with increasingly sophisticated demands has led companies to seek new ways of acquiring,managing and utilising customer information (Peters and Fletcher, 1995).Furthermore, advances in information technology have fundamentally alteredthe channels through which companies and customers maintain their relationships. The capacity to obtain and apply customer information within processes has become a key strategic issue. This often places the company in the position of requiring sensitive personal information from customers.Gummesson (1987, 1994, 1995) views marketing as a set of relationships, networks and interactions and lists 30Rs (relationships) in contrast to McCarthy’s(1981) 4Ps (Product, Price, Place & Promotion). Gummesson highlights the fact that the electronic relationship is not discussed in the marketing literature even though it is practised widely by many businesses. Helinks relationship marketing to the imaginary (similar to a virtual or network) organisation. He argues that by increasingly applying IT, more relationships are established. They create a new type of bond to customers and between employees.The electronic relationship extends beyond the bounds of the organisationinto the market as seen in the example of airline, hotel and car rental reservation systems. Thecommunities established have a re-enforcing effect. These insightsforce us to re-examine traditional theories of economics, systems, organisations, marketing, competition and transaction cost analysis. As the boundaries betweenfirms and markets dissolve, a characteristic of relationship marketing and network organisations, a new image of interaction and business is needed.The importance of information exchange in relationship marketing (particularly using an electronic channel) requires a clear understanding and recognition of the potential problems. Privacy is also an issue - what is private changes from one person to another as well as between different cultures. Those who use the Internet are likely to be better educated and less willing to give information, unless they trust the recipient. Companies need to realise that the only reason they hold information on a customer is because they have a relationship with that customer - something which is not transferable. Those using electronic channels to reach customers are likely to target better educatedand more affluent customers. They need, therefore, to ensure that their customer information systems are appropriate.An understanding of the trust building process is also required. Firms need tomake a feature of their trustworthiness (a unique selling point!). Trust is best developed through processes. Processes tend to be customer facing - within each customer interaction trust is built-up or eroded. Companies must be absolutely clear about the value and intended use of information. Collecting information because it is technically possible (and one day might be useful) is likely to weakentrust development.Hoffman and Novak (1996) assert that the Web heralds an evolution in marketing concepts. In order for marketing efforts to succeed in this new medium, a new business paradigm is required in which the marketing function is reconstructed to facilitate electronic commerce in the emerging electronic society underlying the Web.The "many or any" communication model of the Web (in fact many instancesof many-to-one) turns traditional principles of mass media advertising inside out (a one-to-many model) (Hoffman and Novak, 1994). The application of advertising approaches which assume a passive, captive consumer are redundant on the W eb.Surprisingly, as it is currently evolving, there is little activity aimed at including the consumer in the development of emerging media (Dennis & Pease, 1994). In order to adopt a market orientation, firms must understand their customers and engage in consumer research. Potential customers are most effectively engaged through new conversational marketing approaches.Anecdotal evidence suggests there are two types of customers -‘convenienc e shoppers’and‘explorers’(those str-e s e m tart consum ers whoare happy to surf the Web looking for the best deal or most appropriate product combination). Furthermore, the sheer size of the Web (trillions of documents and growing exponentially) means finding relevant information is becoming moreand more difficult - despite the best efforts of search engines such as Yahoo. Our research suggests that the large proportion of Web users would rather rely on an intermediary (community operator) to sift and select information on their behalf.Web sites not endorsed will require knowledge of the address (URL) and are unlikely to be accessed when similar information, products or services are readily available inside the community.Contributing to the rise of intermediaries are associated issues of privacy,trust andsecurity (Schell, 1996). Whilst there is much discussion on theissues ofInternet privacy and security, in the context of normal business activities, many millions of people trust others with their personal financial information. Examples include ordering over the telephone, passing a credit card to an unknown waiter, even signing direct debit mandates. If an error occurs in these types of transactions we trust the service provider to correct the error. So why is it that weexpect the Internet to support a level of trust and security which we do not observe in everyday life?There is no reason why similar trust relationships cannot be established in electronically mediated discussions. If anything, it becomes easier for an individual (or group of individuals) to seek retribution on those that break therules within an electronic c ommunity. Evidence of this can be found in the tendency to attack those that try to advertise on academic discussion groups(mail bombs) and community policing against pornographers in the Netherlands.Marketeers must reconstruct their advertising models for the interactive, consumer controlled medium. The traditional customer loyalty ladder (Suspect, Prospect, Customer, Client, Partner, Advocate) is still applicable, but now operatesin a different fashion. The first three stages are often instantaneous in electronic commerce. The transition from customer to advocate relies on loyalty earned through trust. The instantaneous nature of the Internet makes this more difficult.Communicating Across The Value ChainIt should be recognized that processes are not confined within one organization - they cross the value chain as demonstrated by the following example. Steinfield, et al (1995) describe a large, multinational, electrical appliance and consumer electronics manufacturer that used France Te le com’s Telnet system to support EDI-like c onnections to approximately 10,000 separateretailers and independent service engineers throughout France (accessed through Minitel terminals). The ubiquitous Telnet service and the commercial applications which emergedto exploit it, provide insights into the developmentof commerce on a world-wide Internet.The after-sales service subsidiary of this manufacturer provided replacement parts and training to its widely dispersed customer base. The Telnet system permitted electronic transactions, even with the smallest trading partners. Through the use of on-line ordering, coupled with courier service for rapiddelivery, the firm was able to eliminate regional parts warehouses and reduce the average repair time from two weeks to two days. In the past, service engineers waited until they had a sufficient need for parts before driving to a regional warehouse. Once the system was implemented, they used the Telnet based "just-in-time" stocking practice for replacement parts.Moving to a centralised warehouse reduced the need for replicated inventories and extra personnel around the country, creating substantial savings. Moreover, service engineers were further bound-in following the introductionofa revenue producing, expert system-based, training application. Technicians connected to the expert system which asked a series of questions designed to diagnose the fault and indicate the repairs needed.。
探寻互联网游戏服务的商业模式创新
《子夜吴歌·秋歌》原文及赏析《子夜吴歌·秋歌》原文及赏析《子夜吴歌·秋歌》原文及赏析1子夜吴歌·秋歌长安一片月，万户捣衣声。
秋风吹不尽，总是玉关情。
何日平胡虏，良人罢远征。
名句“秋风吹不尽，总是玉关情。
”作品赏析：全诗写征夫之妻秋夜怀思远征边陲的良人，希望早日结束战争，丈夫免于离家去远征。
虽未直写爱情，却字字渗透着真挚情意；虽没有高谈时局，却又不离时局。
情调用意，都没有脱离边塞诗的风韵。
月色如银的京城，表面上一片平静，但捣衣声中却蕴含着千家万户的痛苦；秋风不息，也寄托着对边关思念的深情。
读来让人怦然心动。
结句是闺妇的期待，也是征人的心声。
笼统而言，诗人的手法是先景语后情语，而情景始终交融。
“长安一片月”是写景，同时又是紧扣题面，写出了“秋月扬明辉”的季节特点。
而见月怀人是古典诗歌传统的表现方法，加之秋来是赶制征衣的季节，所以写月也有起兴的意义。
此外，月明如昼，正好捣衣，而那“玉户帘中卷不去，捣衣砧上拂还来”的月光，也容易勾起思妇的相思之情。
制衣的布帛须先置砧上，用杵捣平捣软，是谓“捣衣”。
这明朗的月夜，长安城就沉浸在一片此起彼落的砧杵声中，而这种特殊的“秋声”，对于思妇又是一种难耐的挑拨。
“一片”、“万户”，写光写声，似对非对，措辞天然而得咏叹味。
秋风，也是撩人愁绪的，“秋风入窗里，罗帐起飘扬”，便是对思妇的第三重挑拨。
月朗风清，风送砧声，声声都是怀念玉关征人的深情。
用“总是”二字，情思益见深长。
这里，秋月秋声与秋风织成浑成的境界，见境不见人，而人物却好像真的在，“玉关情”也很浓。
王夫之评价说：“前四句是天壤间生成好句，被太白拾得。
”（《唐诗评选》）此情之浓，不可遏止，于是有了末二句直表思妇的心声：“何日平胡虏，良人罢远征？”后世的某些人偏爱“含蓄”，如田同之就曾说：“余窃谓删去末二句作绝句，更觉浑含无尽。
”（《西圃诗说》）其实未必是这样。
“不知歌谣妙，声势出口心”（《大子夜歌》），慷慨天然，是民歌本色，原本不必故意使用那种吞吞吐吐的用语。
Overview-of-business model商业模式概述毕业论文外文文献翻译及原文
毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译文献、资料中文题目：商业模式概述文献、资料英文题目：Overview of business model 文献、资料来源：文献、资料发表（出版）日期：院（部）：专业：班级：姓名：学号：指导教师：翻译日期： 2017.02.14英文原文Overview of business modelA business mode l describes the rationale of how an organization creates, delivers, and captures value[1] (economic, social, or other forms of value). The process of business model construction is part of business strategy.In theory and practice the term business model is used for a broad range of informal and formal descriptions to represent core aspects of a business, including purpose, offerings, strategies, infrastructure, organizational structures, trading practices, and operational processes and policies. The literature has provided very diverse interpretations and definitions of a business model. A systematic review and analysis of manager responses to a survey defines business models as the design of organizational structures to enact a commercial opportunity[2]. Further extensions to this design logic emphasize the use of narrative or coherence in business model descriptions as mechanisms by which entrepreneurs create extraordinarily successful growth firms [3].Whenever a business is established, it either explicitly or implicitly employs a particular business model that describes the architecture of the value creation, delivery, and capture mechanisms employed by the business enterprise. The essence of a business model is that it defines the manner by which the business enterprise delivers value to customers, entices customers to pay for value, and converts those paymentsto profit: it thus reflects management’s hypothesis about what customers want, how they want it, and how an enterprise can organize to best meet those needs, get paid for doing so, and make a profit.[4]Business models are used to describe and classify businesses (especially in an entrepreneurial setting), but they are also used by managers inside companies to explore possibilities for future development. Also, well known business models operate as recipes for creative managers.[5] Business models are also referred to in some instances within the context of accounting for purposes of public reporting.Over the years, business models have become much more sophisticated. The bait and hook business model (also referred to as the "razor and blades business model" or the"tied products business model") was introduced in the early 20th century. This involves offering a basic product at a very low cost, often at a loss (the "bait"), then charging compensatory recurring amounts for refills or associated products or services (the "hook"). Examples include: razor (bait) and blades (hook); cell phones (bait) and air time (hook); computer printers (bait) and ink cartridge refills (hook); and cameras (bait) and prints (hook). An interesting variant of this model is Adobe, a software developer that gives away its document reader free of charge but charges several hundred dollars for its document writer.In the 1950s, new business models came from McDonald's Restaurants and Toyota. In the 1960s, the innovators were Wal-Mart and Hypermarkets. The 1970s saw new business models from FedEx and Toys R Us; the 1980s from Blockbuster, Home Depot, Intel, and Dell Computer; the 1990s from Southwest Airlines, Netflix, eBay, , and Starbucks.Today, the type of business models might depend on how technology is used. For example, entrepreneurs on the internet have also created entirely new models that depend entirely on existing or emergent technology. Using technology, businesses can reach a large number of customers with minimal costs.Business model frameworksThere are various ways to define and conceptualize business models. In the following some of these conceptualizations are introduced.Business model canvasBusiness Model Canvas: Nine business model building blocks, Osterwalder, Pigneur, & al. 2010[1]Osterwalder's work [1][6] propose a single reference model, called Business Model Canvas based on the similarities of a wide range of business model conceptualizations. It is nowadays one of the most used frameworks for describing the elements of business models.With this business model design template, an enterprise can easily describe their business model. Aspects of the template are Infrastructure, Offering, Customers, Finances, etc.Other approaches•Business reference modelBusiness reference model is a reference model, concentrating on the architectural aspects of the core business of an enterprise, service organization or government agency.•Component business modelTechnique developed by IBM to model and analyze an enterprise. It is a logical representation or map of business components or "building blocks" and can be depicted on a single page. It can be used to analyze the alignment of enterprise strategy with the organization's capabilities and investments, identify redundant or overlapping business capabilities, etc.Although Webvan failed in its goal of disintermediating the North American supermarket industry, several supermarket chains (like Safeway Inc.) have launched their own delivery services to target the niche market to which Webvan catered.•Industrialization of services business modelBusiness model used in strategic management and services marketing that treats service provision as an industrial process, subject to industrial optimization proceduresBusiness ModellingBusiness Modelling is an important tool to capture, design, innovate and transform the business.[7] However, in order to transform ones organization and align them to ones business model, a business model should not be seen separately, but in connection with[8]:A step-by-step roadmap that describes the synergy and context between BusinessModel and alignment of Strategy Map, Scorecards, etc. into the organization.•The main business goals of the organization, e.g. strategic business objectives, critical success factors and key performance indicators, which a holisticbusiness model approach should include.•The main business Issues/pain points and thereby organizational weakness, which a holistic business model approach should include for they represent the threat to the company’s business model.• A clear cause and effect linkages between the competencies, desired outcomes and performance measurements e.g. scorecards.•An emphasis on business model management and thereby a continuous improvement and governance approach to the business model.•The business maturity level, in order to develop the organizationrepresentation of core differentiated and core competitive competencies[linked to strategy], which is a basis for building a business model as they therepresent some of the most important sources of uniqueness. These are thethings that a company can do uniquely well, and that no-one else can copyquickly enough to affect competition.•Linkages among competences and competency development.•The possible value creation and realization of the organization.•The information flow, and thereby information need for effective and efficient decision making.Such a holistic approach would help clarify both intent and sources of synergy and disconnect between business model, strategy, scorecards, information, innovation, processes and IT systems. This includes architectural alignment as well as business transformation and value and performance views. Such dialogues allow Executives to use the business model with their business alignment.Theoretical and empirical insights to business modelsDesign Logic and Narrative CoherenceDesign logic views the business model as an outcome of creating new organizational structures or changing existing structures to pursue a new opportunity. Gerry George and Adam Bock (2011) conducted a comprehensive literature review and surveyedmanagers to understand how they perceived the components of a business model. In that analysis, these authors show that there is a design logic behind how entrepreneurs and managers perceive and explain their business model. In further extensions to the design logic, George and Bock (2012) use case studies and the IBM survey data on business models in large companies to describe how CEOs and entrepreneurs create narratives or stories in a coherent manner to move the business from one opportunity to another. They also show that when the narrative is incoherent or the components of the story are misaligned that these businesses tend to fail. They recommend ways in which the entrepreneur or CEO can create strong narratives for change.Business Model 2.0Chen (2009) pointed out that the business model in the twenty-first century has to take into account the capabilities of Web 2.0, such as collective intelligence, network effects, user generated content, and the possibility of self-improving systems. He suggested that the service industry such as the airline, traffic, transportation, hotel, restaurant, Information and Communications Technology and Online gaming industries will be able to benefit in adopting business models that take into account the characteristics of Web 2.0. He also emphasized that Business Model 2.0 has to take into account not just the technology effect of Web 2.0 but also the networking effect. He gave the example of the success story of Amazon in making huge profits each year by developing a full blown open platform that supports a large and thriving community of companies that re-use Amazon’s On Demand commerce services.[9]Complementarities of business models between partnering firmsStudying collaborative research and the accessing of external sources of technology, Hummel et al. (2010) found that in deciding on business partners, it is important to make sure that both parties’ business models are complementary[10]. For example, they found that it was important to identify the value drivers of potential partners by analyzing their business models, and that it is beneficial to find partner firms that understand key aspects of our own firm’s business model.[11]ApplicationsMalone et al.[12] at MIT found that some business models, as defined by them, indeed performed better than others in a dataset consisting of the largest U.S. firms, in the period 1998 through 2002, while they did not prove whether the existence of a business model mattered.The concept of a business model has been incorporated into certain accounting standards. For example, the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) utilizes an "entity's business model for managing the financial assets" as a criterion for determining whether such assets should be measured at amortized cost or at fair value in its financial instruments accounting standard, IFRS 9.[13][14][15][16] At least two members of the U.S. based Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) have expressed the position that the business model of an entity should be used as a criterion for the classification of financial liabilities.[17] The concept of business model has also been introduced into the accounting of deferred taxes under International Financial Reporting Standards with 2010 amendments to IAS 12 addressing deferred taxes related to investment property.[18][19][20]Both IASB and FASB have proposed using the concept of business model in the context of reporting a lessor's lease income and lease expense within their joint project on accounting for leases.[21][22] The concept has also been proposed as an approach for determining the measurement and classification when accounting for insurance contracts.[23][24] As a result of the increasing prominence the concept of business model has received in the context of financial reporting, the European Financial Reporting Advisory Group (EFRAG), which advises the European Union on endorsement of financial reporting standards, commenced a project on the "Role of the Business Model in Financial Reporting" in 2011.[25]Examples of Business modelsIn the early history of business models it was very typical to define business model types such as bricks-and-mortar or e-broker. However, these types usually describe only one aspect of the business (most often revenue model). Therefore, more recent literature on business models concentrates on describing business model as a whole instead of one most visible aspect. Following examples provide an overview for various business model types that have been in discussion since the invent of term business model:中文译文商业模式概述商业模式业务模型描述了如何创建组织的理由，提供和捕捉价值（经济，社会，或其他形式的价值）。
商业模式创新外文文献翻译
文献信息：文献标题：Business Model Innovation: It’s Not Just about Technology Anymore（商业模式创新：超越技术问题）国外作者：Henry Chesbrough文献出处：Strategy & Leadership, 2007(6) Vol.35:12-17字数统计：英文1764单词，9111字符；中文2436汉字外文文献：Business Model Innovation: It’s Not Just about Techno logyAnymoreWhat is a business model?Every company has a business model, whether they articulate it or not. At its heart, a business model performs two important functions: value creation and value capture. First, it defines a series of activities, from procuring raw materials to satisfying the final consumer, which will yield a new product or service in such a way that there is net value created throughout the various activities. This is crucial, because if there is no net creation of value, the other companies involved in the set of activities won’t participate. Second, a business model captures value from a portion of those activities for the firm developing and operating it. This is equally critical, for a company that cannot earn a profit from some portion of its activities cannot sustain those activities over time.There can be real tensions between the aspects of a business model that create value and those that help to capture a portion of that value. A high-value proprietary technology, for example, easily earns a profit for the firm, if alternatives offer lesser value. But in many circumstances customers are reluctant to buy such products (because of price, limited availability, or delivery or service issues).Yet making thetechnology more open, which makes it more appealing to customers, makes it harder to capture value from the offering. So these offsetting factors must be balanced. How to define a business model? The term ‘‘business model’’ is often used, but not often clearly defined. Richard S. Rosenbloom, Professor Emeritus of Harvard, and I have developed a specific working definition (see Exhibit 1).A better business model often will beat a better idea or technology.One benefit of this working definition is that each of its six parameters identifies where innovation might generate new value in an industry.Value proposition. The GE Aircraft engines unit crafted an innovative value proposition when they shifted from selling airlines jet engines to selling them flight hours. This shifted the risk of downtime from the airline customer to GE, and enabled GE to establish a very profitable service operation.Target market. Ryanair, a growing European discount airline, innovated a different target market by going after leisure travelers, instead of the usual business travelers.Value chain. Wal-Mart (which targeted an innovative market by going after underserved rural communities in its early days) is celebrated for its management of its supply chain.Revenue mechanism(s). Xerox got its start in the copier business by leasing its copiers, instead of selling them. Air Products gets paid for the delivery of its industrialgases right to the manufacturing station inside the plant, instead of by the box car.Value network or ecosystem. Ryanair again innovated here, by striking novel arrangements with underutilized regional airports. Ryanair gets a percentage of concession sales at these airports, and in some circumstances even gets paid for landing passengers at the airports.Competitive strategy. One interesting aspect of business models is how difficult it is for others to imitate them. Many airlines have tried to emulate Southwest’s low cost approach. Most of their attempts have not fared well. Copying the Southwest model apparently creates too many co nflicts with the airlines’ established business model.Thus this working definition points the way to certain improvements that can be made to a business model. But more can be done to improve a specific business model if managers think of stages of business model advancement. The Business Model Framework (BMF) is a model that sequences possible business models from very basic (and not very valuable) models to far more advanced (and very valuable) models. Using the BMF, companies can assess where their current business model stands in relation to its potential and then define appropriate next steps for the further advancement of that model.The Business Model FrameworkType 1 – Company has an undifferentiated business modelThe vast majority of companies operating today do not articulate a distinct business model, and lack a process for managing it. These companies are operating with Type 1 business models. A business using the undifferentiated model competes on price and availability, and serves customers who buy on those criteria. In a word, firms utilizing Type 1 business models are selling commodities, and are doing so in ways that are no different from many, many other firms. They often are caught in the ‘‘commodity trap’’. Think of restaurants and barbe r shops as examples of this commodity model.Type 2 – Company has some differentiation in its business modelIn companies using Type 2 business models, the company has created some degree of differentiation in its products or services. This differentiation can also lead to a different business model from that of the Type 1 company, allowing the company to target a customer other than those that buy simply upon price and availability (such as a performance-oriented customer). This allows the Type 2 company to serve a different and less congested market segment from that served by its Type 1 counterpart.The Type 2 company may lack the resources and staying power to invest in the supporting innovations to sustain its differentiated position. This gives rise to the pattern of so-called ‘‘one hit wonders’’, where a company or inventor has a successful first product, but is unable to follow up this success with additional products of similar success. Many technology startup companies fall into this type.Type 3 – Company develops a segmented business modelThe company now can compete in different segments simultaneously. More of the market is thus served, and more profit is extracted from the market as well. The price sensitive segment provides the volume base for high volume, low cost production. The performance segment supplies high margins for the business. Other niches can now be addressed, creating a stronger presence in the distribution channels. The firm’s business model now is more distinctive and profitab le, which supports the firm’s ability to plan for its future via product and technology roadmaps.While its greater level of planning helps the Type 3 company avert the one-hit wonder syndrome, problems still remain. The Type 3 firm remains vulnerable to any major new technical shift beyond the scope of their current business and innovation activities, and also to major shifts in the market. Think of a mature, vertically integrated industrial company, as an example of this kind of model. Or in the IT space, think of an ERP system that is deeply connected to business processes, but has few ways to link in other software on top of its own code.Type 4 – Company has an externally aware business modelIn this business model, the company has started to open itself to external ideas and technologies in the development and execution of the business. This unlocks asignificantly greater set of resources available to such a company.The roadmaps of the Type 4 firm provide a shopping list of needs within the firm for external ideas and technologies. Relationships with outsiders help identify external projects that fulfill some of these needs. This reduces the cost of serving the business, reduces the time it takes to get new offerings to market, and shares the risks of new products and processes with external parties.Internal roadmaps are now shared with suppliers and customers on a frequent basis. This enables the firm to make much more systematic use of innovative ideas from suppliers and from customers. It also allows suppliers and customers to plan their own activities in concert with the innovative activities of the firm. Companies that make it a practice to share real-time information with their suppliers exemplify this approach.Type 5 – Company integrates its innovation process with its business model In a Type 5 model, the company’s business model now plays a key integrative role within the company. Suppliers and customers now enjoy formalized institutional access to the firm’s innovation process, and this access is now reciprocated by the suppliers and customers. Customers and suppliers now share their own roadmaps with the company, giving the company much better visibility into the customers’ future requirements.In this stage, companies begin to experiment more directly with the business model itself. Type 5 companies now take the time to understand the supply chain all the way back to the basic raw materials, as they look for major technical shifts or cost reduction opportunities. Type 5 companies also invest substantial resources to study ‘‘the customer’s customer’’ to learn about the deeper unmet needs and opportunities in the market. Some experimentation is conducted on alternative distribution channels, and indeed, upon alternative configurations of the business model. Companies that are moving from offering products to offering services, and are bringing in external technologies to support this new approach are examples of Type 5 models.Type 6 –Company’s business model is an adaptive platformThe Type 6 business model is an even more open and adaptive model than types4 or 5. This ability to adapt requires a commitment to experimentation with one or more business model variants. This experimentation can take a number of different forms. Some companies utilize corporate venture capital as a means to explore alternative business models in small startup companies. Some utilize spin-offs and joint ventures as means to commercialize technologies outside of their own current business model. Some have created internal incubators to cultivate promising ideas that are not yet ready for high volume commercialization.In Type 6 firms, key suppliers and customers become business partners, entering into relationships in which both technical and business risk may be shared. The business models of suppliers are now integrated into the planning processes of the company. The company in turn has integrated its business model into the business model of its key customers. Intel, Microsoft and Wal-Mart are examples here.One important capability that enables this integration of business models throughout a value chain is the ability of the company to establish its technologies as the basis for a platform of innovation for that value chain. In this way, the company can attract other companies to invest their resources, expanding the value of the platform without consuming extra investment by the platform maker. For example, anyone making software for PCs, accessories for iPods, or games for cell phones is indirectly contributing to the value of each of these platforms.中文译文：商业模式创新：超越技术问题商业模式的定义每个公司都有其商业模式，无论他们是否能清楚地表明。
网络游戏选择外文翻译文献
文献信息：文献标题：Interpersonal influence on online game choices（人际关系对网络游戏选择的影响）国外作者：Sang Yup Lee文献出处：《Computers in Human Behavior》,2015,45:129–136字数统计：英文2580单词，12686字符；中文4087汉字外文文献：Interpersonal influence on online game choices Abstract Several theories stress the importance of interpersonal influence on an individual’s adoption of a product or service. However, there has been little research that empirically examined how online friends infl uence an individual’s online product choices. This study examines the effect of a game player’s online friends who adopted a game earlier than the player on the likelihood that the player adopts the game. Two main factors considered in this study are: (1) the number of online friends who adopted a game earlier and (2) t he strength of ties between the player and the player’s online friends who adopted the game earlier. Using a hazard model with data on 1,668 game players’ gaming activities and relational connections, we find (1) the likelihood that a player adopts a particular game increases the more her online friends adopted the game earlier, and (2) the influence of the prior adopter friends on the likelihood that a player adopts the game varies with the strength of ties between the player and her prior adopter friends.Key words: Interpersonal influence; Online product choices; Online casual games; Hazard model1.IntroductionThere is no established definition of an online causal game, yet online casual games usually refer to online video games developed for mass consumption even forthose who would not normally regard themselves as a ‘gamer’(International Game Developers Association (IGDA), 2009). Online casual games possess certain characteristics in common: they are easy to learn; they require a small amount of time to be played; and online casual game players play casual games mainly for fun and relaxation (IGDA, 2009). Online casual games are offered to game players through several different types of platforms such as web browsers on PCs (e.g., via online casual games portal sites and social networking sites), consoles, smartphones, and tablet PCs. This study focuses on online casual games portal sites because (1) online casual game portal sites provide a suitable context in which online friends’influence on game choices can be well examined, (2) they constitute one of the most commonly used platforms for accessing online casual games (Liew, 2013), and (3) it is easier to collect the data required for this study from online casual games portal sites than from other platforms that host online casual games.A typical online casual game portal site has several social features. On an online casual games portal site, game players can be friends with other players. In this study, a game player’s friends on a game portal site are defined as other players whom the player is directly connected to on the portal site. Game players are motivated to become friends with other game players and interact with them, because there are many games that encourage collaboration among game players and competing (or playing) with others can be more fun, and becoming friends with other players makes it easy for a player to collaborate and interact with them. Once a game player has become friends with another player, the player can have chats with the friend via a dedicated communication channel between them. Furthermore, the player can observe what her friends have done and are doing on the site. Thus, it is possible that a player’s gaming behavior is influenced by her friends on an online casual games portal site.These social features of online casual games portal sites and the accessibility on these portal sites of critical data on game players’relationships and interactions with others, their game choices, and their gaming behaviors make it possible to examine the influence of interpersonal interaction on players’game choices.For this study, we look at a particular online casual games portal site,. Kongregate started its service in 2006 and it is one of the most visited online casual game portal sites in the U.S. With its growth, Kongregate was acquired by Gamestop (an American video game retailer) in 2010. Kongregate provides online game players with a variety of casual games, which are developed by either professional game developers or other players who use Kongregate. As of Feb, 2014, there were 80,747 games on the site and the number of registered users on the site was 6,970,697 as of Jab, 2012.This paper studies how a player’s Kongregate friends influence the player’s game choices on Kongregate. In this study, game players with whom a player has direct connections on Kongregate are referred to as the player’s Kongregate friends. On Kongregate, a player can directly connect with another player by clicking a ‘friend’button linked to that person.This study specifically examines the effect of the number of a player’s Kongregate friends who adopted a particular game earlier on the likelihood that the player will adopt2 the game. According to Rogers’diffusion of innovations theory (2003), the number of an individual’s friends who adopted a product or service earlier can influence the person’s decision whether or not to adopt the product or service, because interpersonal interactions can be an important source of information about a product and a person’s attitude toward a product may be influenced by interpersonal interactions. But only few studies have empirically examined this topic (e.g., Bandiera & Rasul, 2006). Even among those studies that have examined interpersonal influence on an individual’s product adoption in offline settings, few looked at how the number of friends or acquaintances who adopted a product earlier influenced a person’s decision to adopt it. This is mainly because, in offline settings, it is difficult to collect data on how many of a person’s friends or acquaintances have adopted a particular product and when they adopted the product. However, individual level data on game adoption can be collected on Kongregate, which makes it possible to examine whether a player’s adoption of a game can be predicted by the number of the player’s Kongregate friends who adopted the game earlier.In addition to the number of Kongregate friends who adopted a game earlier, wealso consider the closeness of the relationships on Kongregate between a player and her Kongregate friends who adopted the game earlier, because it is possible that the influence of a Kongregate friend on a player’s game adoption decision can vary with the relational closeness between the player and her friend. In other studies (e.g., Bakshy, Hofman, Mason, & Watts, 2011; Christakis & Fowler, 2007) it was found that the extent to which an individual’s behavior is influenced by others varies with the person’s relational closeness with those others. In this study, the closeness of a relationship between two players is referred to the strength of the tie between them. The strength of a tie between two people is a function of the amount of time, the emotional intensity, the intimacy, and the reciprocal services which characterize the tie between those two people (Granovetter, 1973, p. 1361). In the social network literature, the strength of a tie between two people is usually measured by degree of communication reciprocity, the number of mutual friends, and interaction frequency (Gilbert & Karahalios, 2009). For this study, the strength of a tie between two players is measured by whether the tie is reciprocal.In this study, we focus on game players who have registered on Kongregate, because only for registered players can information about gaming behavior, game adoptions, and Kongregate friends be collected. Furthermore, because only a registered player can make connections with other Kongregate players, unregistered players are not suitable for studying influences of Kongregate friends on game choices. That registered players are examined in this study also means that the results of this study cannot be generalized to game players who are not registered on Kongregate because there may be differences between registered and unregistered game players. For example, registered players may to be more serious about their casual games and play more games more frequently than unregistered players.2.Statisticalmodeland data2.1.Hazard modelIn this study, we use the proportional hazard model introduced by Cox in 1972 to study the effect of the number of a player’s Kongregate friends who adopted a gamebefore day t on the likelihood that the player adopts the game on that day. We also ask how the effect of a Kongregate friend who adopted a game earlier on the likelihood that the player adopts the game varies with the strength of the tie between the player and that friend. For this, we include the number of a player’s prior adopter friends who have a reciprocal tie w ith the player and the number of the player’s prior adopter friends who do not have reciprocal ties as the main independent variables.As mentioned above, we also include other independent variables; (1) the frequency with which the player adopts new games,(2) how often the player plays games on Kongregate, and (3) whether the genre of the game is the player’s favoritegenre. Finally, in order to control for factors unique to a game that can influence its adoption, we include a game fixed effect variable, which might reflect the game’s genre, popularity, quality, and dif ficulty.Our model includes both fixed and time-varying independent variables. Fixed variables are those whose values do not change during the 5 days following a player’s first visit to the site since a game’s release, whereas time-varying variables are those whose values change during these 5 days.2.2.DataFor this study, we used data for randomly selected registered game players on Kongregate because information such as games played and listings of Kongregatefriendscanonlybe collected for registered players. We downloaded a list of registered game players who were playing games on Kongregate at least twice a day during the week of 3/24 (Sun) to 3/30 (Mon), 2013. The original dataset had 17,858 game players. Because this size of dataset is too big to be handled by social network analysis statistical packages in a timely manner and collecting data on the gaming behavior and game adoptions of all the 17,858 players and their Kongregate friends (the averagenumberofKongregatefriends for the players in sample was about 60) would have been extremely time-consuming, werandomlychose2,000playersfrom the 17,858usingarandomnumbergenerator.Among those 2,000 players, only the 1,668 who made their personal information publicly available and who had at least one friend were selected for the study. The average number of Kongregate friends for theplayersin the finalsample was 61.We collected data on game adoptions for those 1,668 game players and their Kongregate friends for two games, (1) Mystery IQ Test, and (2) Live Puzzle as in Table 1. The genre of ‘Live Puzzle’ is puzzle and that of ‘Mystery IQ Test’ is brain. A puzzle game is a game that requires a player to put pieces together in a way that meets the goal of the game. A brain game is a game in which a player uses logic to accomplish the tasks. A puzzle game can be a sort of a brain game. ‘Mystery IQ Test’incorporates several other types of tasks in addition to puzzle type tasks including verbal quizzes and math questions.Table 1 Information about games examined in this studyGame title Kongregate release date Genre RatingLivepuzzle4/29/2013Puzzle 3.9/5MysteryIQtest5/5/2013Brain 3.7/5For a game to be included in this study, the game had to provide at least one task right after its release so that players could earn points by accomplishing the task. Among all the games released on Kongregate during a month-period, from 4/9/2013 to 5/8/ 2013, only the two games above met this requirement.For players in the sample, we first checked whether a game player played any games on Kongregate during the 7 days after each game’s release. For those who played games during the 7 days, we collected information about when they first visited the site since each game’s release and whether they adopted each of the games in Table 1 during the 5 days following their first visits. Then, we collected the data on game adoptions for their Kongregate friends.3.Summary and conclusionIn this study, we examined the effect of the number of a player’s Kongregate friends who adopted a game earlier on the likelihood that the player adopts the game. In addition to the effect of the number of a player’s Kongregate friends who adopted a game earlier, we also asked how the strength of the ties between a player and her Kongregate friends who adopted a game earlier was associated with the likelihoodthat the player adopts the game.We found that the effect of the number of Kongregate friends who adopted a game earlier on a player’s adoption of the game was positive, but statistically insignificant whether those prior adopter friends had a reciprocal tie with the player. This finding suggests that the importance of interpersonal influence on product choice posited by several theories such as diffusion of innovations theory (Rogers, 2003) and theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991) is not strongly supported in online casual game contexts.In this study, we only considered the effect of the number of Kongregate friends who adopted a game earlier on a player’s game adoption. As found in other studies (e.g., Ugander et al., 2012), however, other characteristics of a player’s personal network composed of her prior adopter Kongregate friends such as the number of clusters, may exert more influences on the player’s game adoption than the number of the player’s friends. Thus, in the future studies, other characteristics of a player’s personal network than the number of friends should be examined. We also found that other factors such as genre preference, when a player first visited the site after a game’s release, and unique characteristics of a game played important roles in predicting a player’s adoption of the game.This study has some limitations. First, genres of the games examined in this study were brain and puzzle. It is possible that the influence of Kongregate friends on a player’s adoption of a game varies with the genre of the game. Second, the two games examined in this study were both single player games. The statistically insignificant influences of Kongregate friends on a player’s adoption of those two games might be because those games are single player games. Thus, in the future studies, it is recommended that multiplayer games be examined.The research questions were examined in the context of online casual games. But it is likely that interpersonal influence on an individual’s game adoption decision is different from interpersonal influence on an individual’s adoption decisions for other online products. Thus, in future studies, in order to extend our understandings abouthow an individual’s online product choices or adoptions are influenced by her online friends, the research questions asked in this study should also examined in other online contexts.中文译文：人际关系对网络游戏选择的影响摘要一些理论强调人际影响对个人选择产品或服务的重要性。
网络游戏外文翻译文献
网络游戏外文翻译文献(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译)译文：中国网络游戏产业的商业模式和运作问题摘要：互联网越来越的广泛使用使得网络社区如雨后春笋般发展起来。
其中特别有趣的现象之一就是网络游戏的出现。
本文就虚拟世界的开发者在其探索切实可行的商业模式途中将面临的困难进行论述。
本文作为探索性课题是一个对中国虚拟世界的开发者和用户进行研究的个别案例，来确定在这种商业模式下存在的问题。
本文讨论宽带和网络游戏以及诸如文化，历史，外挂，私服，虚拟财产贸易，开发商控制，管理和调控此类的反馈效果。
尽管大部分中国虚拟世界的运营商都具有盈利能力，但通过密切观察发现即使最成功的中国虚拟世界运营商仍然处于商业模式的早期阶段。
关键词：虚拟世界，中国，商业模式，网络1. 简介随着MacInnes(2004a)创造出来的互联网在全球范围内的拓展,网络对于交流变得至关重要。
随之而来的结果就是不同形式，为各种目的而发展起来的网络社区为人们提供了工作，社交以及娱乐上的便利。
在不同形式的网络社区中最吸引人眼球的就是虚拟世界，但是何为虚拟世界呢？就是人们在一个持续的合成的环境中通过虚拟角色（通常是一个头像）来相互交流。
虚拟世界属于网络游戏的一种，在这个虚拟世界中成千上万的人们可以同时参与相互影响。
这种在中国最受欢迎的网络游戏就是虚拟世界。
MacInnes(2004a)对虚拟世界这一现象提出了概观。
这一概念的提出对于现如今我们通过案例研究来完善这项工作起到了重要作用。
我们以一个别案例开始研究中国网络游戏产业，是因为随着宽带的大范围使用，中国的网络游戏为虚拟世界带来的市场的发展速度比许多国家都快。
这一点比其他因素更有说服力。
本文将从商业形式的前景方面讨论社会，法律，以及一些其他环境方面的问题。
现今中国虚拟世界产业所面临的挑战和机遇并不仅仅只在我们国家存在。
同样的问题很可能在虚拟世界市场欠发达的北美，欧洲等地区也一样存在。
从这一案例中吸取的教训同样可以被那些以网络为根基的产业使用动态商业模式框架来促进技术革新的所使用。
探索互联网游戏服务的新商业模式
探索互联网游戏服务的新商业模式Exploring New Business Models for Internet Game Services。
With the rapid development of the internet, the gaming industry has experienced significant growth in recent years. As a result, there is a need to explore new business models for internet game services. In this essay, we will discuss the importance of finding innovative approaches to monetizing online games and the potential benefits it can bring to both the gaming industry and players.Traditionally, the gaming industry relied on upfront game purchases or subscription fees to generate revenue. However, with the rise of free-to-play games and microtransactions, the landscape has changed. Many game developers have shifted towards a freemium model, where the game is initially free to play but offers in-game purchases to enhance the gaming experience. This approach has proven to be highly profitable, as players are more likely to spend money on in-game items or additional content if they are already invested in the game.One innovative business model that has gained popularity in recent years is the concept of loot boxes. Loot boxes are virtual containers that contain a random assortment of in-game items, such as weapons, skins, or character accessories. Players can purchase these loot boxes using real or in-game currency, with the hope of obtaining rare or valuable items. This model creates a sense of excitement and anticipation for players, as they never know what they will get from each box. However, it has also sparked controversy due to concerns about gambling-like mechanics and the potential for exploitation.Another emerging trend in the gaming industry is the integration of in-game advertising. By partnering with brands and advertisers, game developers can generate revenue by displaying ads within the game environment. This approach allows for more targeted advertising, as game developers can tailor ads to specific player demographics or interests. However, it is important to strike a balance between generating revenue andmaintaining a positive player experience. Intrusive or excessive ads can negativelyimpact gameplay and drive players away.Furthermore, the rise of esports has opened up new opportunities for monetizing internet game services. Esports refers to competitive gaming at a professional level, with players competing in tournaments for cash prizes. This has led to the emergence of sponsorship deals, brand endorsements, and live streaming platforms, all of which contribute to the monetization of esports. As esports continues to grow in popularity, it presents a lucrative avenue for game developers to explore.In conclusion, the internet gaming industry is constantly evolving, and it is crucial to explore new business models to adapt to changing consumer preferences and technological advancements. The freemium model, loot boxes, in-game advertising, and the rise of esports are all examples of innovative approaches to monetizing internet game services. By embracing these new models, game developers can not only increase revenue but also enhance the gaming experience for players. It is essential to strike a balance between generating profit and maintaining player satisfaction to ensure the long-term success of the industry.探索互联网游戏服务的新商业模式。
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网络游戏商业模式外文翻译文献(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译)译文：中国网络游戏产业的商业模式和运作问题摘要：互联网越来越的广泛使用使得网络社区如雨后春笋般发展起来。
其中特别有趣的现象之一就是网络游戏的出现。
本文就虚拟世界的开发者在其探索切实可行的商业模式途中将面临的困难进行论述。
本文作为探索性课题是一个对中国虚拟世界的开发者和用户进行研究的个别案例，来确定在这种商业模式下存在的问题。
本文讨论宽带和网络游戏以及诸如文化，历史，外挂，私服，虚拟财产贸易，开发商控制，管理和调控此类的反馈效果。
尽管大部分中国虚拟世界的运营商都具有盈利能力，但通过密切观察发现即使最成功的中国虚拟世界运营商仍然处于商业模式的早期阶段。
关键词：虚拟世界，中国，商业模式，网络1. 简介随着MacInnes(2004a)创造出来的互联网在全球范围内的拓展,网络对于交流变得至关重要。
随之而来的结果就是不同形式，为各种目的而发展起来的网络社区为人们提供了工作，社交以及娱乐上的便利。
在不同形式的网络社区中最吸引人眼球的就是虚拟世界，但是何为虚拟世界呢？就是人们在一个持续的合成的环境中通过虚拟角色（通常是一个头像）来相互交流。
虚拟世界属于网络游戏的一种，在这个虚拟世界中成千上万的人们可以同时参与相互影响。
这种在中国最受欢迎的网络游戏就是虚拟世界。
MacInnes(2004a)对虚拟世界这一现象提出了概观。
这一概念的提出对于现如今我们通过案例研究来完善这项工作起到了重要作用。
我们以一个别案例开始研究中国网络游戏产业，是因为随着宽带的大范围使用，中国的网络游戏为虚拟世界带来的市场的发展速度比许多国家都快。
这一点比其他因素更有说服力。
本文将从商业形式的前景方面讨论社会，法律，以及一些其他环境方面的问题。
现今中国虚拟世界产业所面临的挑战和机遇并不仅仅只在我们国家存在。
同样的问题很可能在虚拟世界市场欠发达的北美，欧洲等地区也一样存在。
从这一案例中吸取的教训同样可以被那些以网络为根基的产业使用动态商业模式框架来促进技术革新的所使用。
作为探索性课题，这是一个对中国虚拟世界的开发者和使用者进行研究的个别案例，来确定在这种商业模式下存在的问题。
本文引用了许多人们对其提出的疑问。
比如，中国网络游戏的运营者面对日益增加的竞争问题该采取什么样的策略？中国的网络游戏公司会在他们的价值链中趋于上游吗？宽带在产业发展中扮演了怎样的角色？中国社会对于这一新的娱乐方式会有如何反应？为什么中国的网络游戏相对于单机游戏发展地更好？2. 理论背景互联网的蓬勃发展促使了许多新网络社区的出现。
商业虚拟社区面临的一个重要问题是如何找到一个有利可获的商业模式同时兼顾着促使这些社区由最初的小规模向大规模发展。
早期的虚拟社区大多都是十分科学的但近期越来越多的发展成果刺激人们在虚拟空间里共享各自的兴趣爱好。
虚拟世界不仅为虚拟社区丰富多彩的图形支持，也带来了复杂的市场活动。
在因特网发展的早期，它着重于汇聚研究人员。
但一旦大学之间通过网络相互联系了，基于个人爱好的网络社区就开始发展起来了。
这些社区往往讨论兴趣还好，娱乐方式等Rheingold(1993）。
那时大多使用电子邮件，群发，后来发展为BBS，MUDs,人们就在那里开始创造一个奇妙的世界Castronova(2002）。
这些都是现今图形化了的虚拟世界的先驱。
对于网络社区的研究已经改进了。
学者已经证明了虚拟社区的使用能改善公民的行为Blanchard and Horan(1998)，促进社会抵制运动的发展De(2003)。
虚拟社区同样可以用来创造，集结，组织，运用知识([Bruynseels and Vos,2000], [Daniel et al., 2002], [Jansen et al., 2000] and [Schubert and Koch, 2002])。
他们也作为一种管理工具被用于组织中。
营销部门发现人们对于产品和服务的迷恋能帮助一家公司发展与顾客的关系，使他们产生对其的忠诚度( [Kardaras and Karakostas, 2000] and [Schubert and Koch, 2002]).。
然而这些社区常常会招致公司的批评(Lueg, 2001)。
虚拟社区可以根据活动，会籍的不同种类进行分类。
例如，Hagel and Armstrong (1996)把网络社区分为四类：交易社区，兴趣社区，幻想社区，关系社区。
相似地，Klang and Olsson (1999)把它们分为社区网络，专业协会，个人社团，“第三位置”（人们会见新老朋友的地方）。
Klang and Olsson (1999)确定四种社区类型：论坛，商店，俱乐部，集市。
这里的市场就是买卖实品，或者虚拟商品的地方。
这种活动正变得越来越流行。
以上四位作者都已承认这些社区不仅具有娱乐价值也同样具有商业价值。
本文我们将着重陈述虚拟社区具有的娱乐方面的价值，目的是来理解这个产业的商业模式动态。
很多使用者都愿意为这些社区付钱，比如互联网国际象棋俱乐部(Ginsburg and Weisband, 2003).。
更有甚者在结构化的游戏中，会员们会引进一种叫“chekels”用来当筹码，然后用来换成现金。
一些社区的社会方面正在迅速为使用者带来商业上的基于这并不是骇人听闻的。
社区的设计假想通常可以决定开发者是否能为使用带来利益。
缺少公司控制能造成困难。
尽管世上有成千上万的人活跃于这些虚拟世界中，但学者们只是最近才开始认识到这些社区的发展动态。
因为这些虚拟世界如今已能产生盈利，本研究着重于那些社区的商业模式方面。
在过去5年里商业模式文献数量已经有了增长地飞快，对于虚拟世界开发者与使用者在试图开发基于虚拟财产的有利可图商业的道路上遇到的困难将带来帮助。
学者在研究商业模式上做的贡献可分为三个领域：研究单个因素来突出他们的重要性，研究证明能使一种商业模式成功的几个条件，研究证明商业模式的组成成分。
我们把重点放在这个产业的商业模式方面的其中的一个原因是它所具有的巨大经济潜力。
即使在应用率较低的中国，这个产业正在产生巨大的经济收入。
我们因此需要去理解这个产业是怎样发展起来的，将来会朝着哪个方面发展。
这些商业模式的文献数量已经相当丰富了，甚至有点过头了。
在很多方面，学者往往过分单独强调许多模式已经参与了成分的静态分析，而笔者认为这是影响了公司的经济发展的。
这些静态商业模式在一定程度是无效的，我们分析一个新兴产业，往往开发商在找到切实可行的商业模式之前他们必然会经历很多困难。
MacInnes (2004a)考虑到发展中产业的动态因素提出了一个四阶段动态商业模式框架的理论。
这一理论特别是为比如中国网络游戏市场一类的新兴产业所设计的。
2.1. 动态商业模式框架动态商业模式框架是用来观察商业发展经历，来更好地了解他们的产业。
这对于虚拟世界游戏开发商，运营商刚成立的业务分部来说尤其适用。
这一模式由四个相互关联的阶段组成。
如下图：图1：动态商业模式影响一个公司商业模式在其早期阶段与成熟阶段的因素是不同的。
第一阶段技术问题是最为重要的；第二阶段环境问题，例如应该注重法律；第三阶段开发商可以结合传统收入模式；第四阶段应着重于支撑商业的因素。
虚拟社区的企业和用户模式开始出现，公司仍有许多事情要去解决。
这一部分引用了其他学者已确定的四个阶段的成功商业模式。
基于这些因素，在开发虚拟世界的不同阶段将面临的问题都有可能解决。
2.1.1.第一阶段：技术因素在技术开发的早期阶段，技术因素对于商业成功起着至关重要的作用。
这些技术因素是那些正在销售的产品或服务所固有的。
我们应当注意的是在信息领域许多商业是从技术革新发展起来的。
因此我们需要找到一种商业模式使他们的产品朝着努力的方向商业化。
不幸的是技术有时候并不完全被商业化所适用，这些问题需要在公司进行营利模式之前就被解决。
在虚拟世界产业中，技术因素可以摧毁一家公司因为人们在虚拟世界中创造的财产拥有相当大的价值。
如果这些财产因为技术问题或者安全漏洞问题丢失的话，那么开发者将会失去信誉，破产，或者因为不赔偿用户而被起诉。
因此，在虚拟世界中人们拥有客观的财产，公司服务器的安全问题必须放在首要位置。
Duh et al. (2001)发现市场的安全性和完整性因素是至关重要的，我们必须把他们放在首要位置，因为只有这样会员才会信任虚拟世界的开发者。
2.1.2.第二阶段：环境因素商业模式的第一阶段的技术问题已经解决了。
虚拟世界现在进入第二阶段要来克服环境因素所带来的问题。
环境因素包括法律，社会，一般的经济限制。
这一阶段通常被所忽略，因为直到技术商业化后人们才可能意识到技术为社会带来的问题。
许多商业化的技术如录像机，对等网络等由于法律问题或者对社会，经济有着不良影响，受到了人们的质疑。
Vasilopoulou et al. (2002)提出政策和规则对于商业模式的成功的起着至关重要的作用。
相似地，Schroeder et al. (2001)认为缺乏安全保障，组织和法律问题是公司从传统商业模式过渡到电子商务过程中最难克服的问题。
在目前对于这一商业的法律机制尚未成熟的情况下这些论文中所提到的法律问题也将起着一定的作用。
例如，谁拥有虚拟世界的财产，或者是虚拟货币的兑换是否赋予虚拟银行功能。
随着虚拟世界平行于现实世界，当出现违法事件的时候政府可能会出面干预，或遇通货膨胀时会去保护财产。
2.1.3.第三阶段：收入模式问题商业模式发展的第三阶段主要是传统的问题，例如收入来源，顾客价值，成本和基础设施管理。
从笔者已研究的单独因素上看，瓦斯尼和海德强调使用增加转换成本来作为维持顾客忠诚度的这一策略。
或在这种商业模式内从一网站上创建和维护社区来支持，促进经济活动。
随着时间的推移作为参与者发展的属性和角色的结果虚拟世界拥有高转化成本。
他们会发现换到另一个虚拟世界，或者重新开始一个角色，发展新的关系这会需要很高成本。
瓦斯尼和海德也暗示开发互补产品。
一些公司运营网络游戏卖真实产品用来换成数码产品。
相似地，Amit和Zott说网络游戏公司在这一阶段也会考虑到其他传统因素，包括：1.降低交易成本形式下的效率问题。
2.技术，活动和产品之间的互补。
3.锁定网络外部性和高转换成本。
4.新结构，内容，参与者带来的新奇问题。
虚拟世界为玩家提供新奇的内容。
但它们可以无限制地虚拟因为用户可以添加内容，有着丰富多彩的体验。
在所有令开发虚拟世界的公司感到最棘手的问题包括人员发展，社区发展以及资产管理。
随着一些用户发展他们自己的商业，开发商渐渐失去了控制。
Business models and operational issues in the Chineseonline game industryAbstract：The rapid growth of Internet usage has enabled many new online communities to develop. A particularly interesting phenomenon that has arisen through Internet communities is the virtual world (VW) style of online game. This paper identifies the challenges that developers of VWs will face in their efforts to find viable business models. This is a single case study of China as an exploratory project to determine the issues surrounding business models for virtual world developers and users. The paper discusses the feedback effects between broadband adoption and online games as well as issues such as culture, history, Waigua, private servers, virtual property trade, developer control, governance, and regulation. In spite of the profitability of major Chinese VW operators, close observation of the Chinese case suggests that even the most successful VW operators are still in the early stages of their business model development.Key words：Virtual world China Business model Online game1.IntroductionAs the Internet continues to grow worldwide, Internet-based channels have become increasingly important for communication. As a result, online communities of many forms and for various purposes have developed and have enabled people to work, socialize and entertain themselves. Among the many types examples of online communities, a particularly interesting phenomenon is the virtual world (VW), a persistent synthetic environment where people communicate with each other using a virtual persona, often called an avatar. VWs are a type of online game that can have thousands of people involved and potentially interacting at the same time. The vast majority of popular online games in China are VWs.MacInnes (2004a) provided an overview and framework for understanding the VW phenomenon. It is now important to supplement this work through case studies. We chose to begin with a single case study of the Chinese online game industry because its marketfor VWs is growing more quickly than in many other countries due to the rapid adoption of broadband among other factors. Social, legal and other environmental issues are discussed in this paper from the perspective of business models. The challenges and opportunities facing the current Chinese VW industry are not merely country specific. The same issues are likely to play out as less developed VW markets in North America and Europe grow. The lessons from this case can also be compared to other Internet based industries using the dynamic business model framework for emerging technologies (MacInnes, 2004a).This is a single case study of China as an exploratory project to determine the issues surrounding business models for virtual world developers and users. The paper addresses a number of questions. What alternative strategies are available to Chinese online game operators who are facing an increasingly competitive market? Will Chinese online game companies move upstream in their value chain? What is the role of broadband in the development of the industry? How is Chinese society reacting to this new form of entertainment? Why has the online game industry achieved greater success in China than stand-alone computer games?2.Theoretical contextThe growth of the Internet has enabled many new virtual communities to be established. One of the key issues facing a commercial virtual community is finding a profitable business model that also fosters the initial growth of the community toward critical mass. Early virtual communities were mainly scientific but more recent developments have motivated people to congregate in a virtual space to share personal interests. Virtual worlds provide a new level of graphical richness to virtual communities while also supporting complex market activities.The early years of the Internet emphasized bringing together researchers but once many universities were connected, communities based on personal interests developed. These often involved hobbies and entertainment (Rheingold, 1993). In these early days the most common technologies were e-mail and listservs that later evolved into bulletin boards and MUDs where people began to create fantasy worlds (Castronova, 2002). These were forerunners of today’s graphical virtual worlds.Research about online communities has evolved. Scholars have documented theeffectiveness and use of virtual communities in society to foster, for example, civic behavior (Blanchard and Horan, 1998) and social resistance movements (De, 2003). Virtual communities can also be used to create, gather, organize, and manage knowledge ( [Bruynseels and V os, 2000], [Daniel et al., 2002], [Jansen et al., 2000] and [Schubert and Koch, 2002]). They have also been used as a management tool in organizations. Marketing de partments have found that people’s fascination with the product or service can help a company develop relationships with customers to generate loyalty ( [Kardaras and Karakostas, 2000] and [Schubert and Koch, 2002]). These communities often result in criticism of companies, however (Lueg, 2001).Virtual communities can be classified according to types of activities and membership. For example Hagel and Armstrong (1996) identified four categories of online communities: communities of transactions, communities of interest, communities of fantasy, and communities of relationship. Similarly Klang and Olsson (1999) divide them into community networks, professional societies, personal societies and the “third place,” where people go to meet with new and old friends. Klang and Olsson (1999) identify four types of communities: the forum, the shop, the club, and the bazaar. The bazaar involves activities where the members themselves are buying and selling physical and now virtual products as well. This type of activity is becoming more and more prevalent. These authors have recognized the entertainment as well as the commercial value that communities have. In this paper we focus primarily on the entertainment segment of virtual communities and aim to understand the business model dynamic of this industry.Many users are willing to pay for communities such as the Internet Chess Club Even in a structured game such as chess, members introduced “chekels,” a monetary unit that could be exchanged for dollars. It is thus not surprising to see that the social aspects of these communities are rapidly transforming into commercial opportunities for users as well. Design assumptions of the community will often determine whether developers want to encourage or discourage the profit motives of users. Lack of company control can cause difficulties. Even though there are millions of people around the world who are active in these virtual worlds, scholars have only recently begun to understand the dynamics of these communities.Because of the revenue streams that virtual worlds are now able to generate, this studyfocuses on the business model aspects of those communities. Business model literature has grown rapidly over the past five years and is helpful in understanding the challenges that VW developers and users are likely to face in their attempts to develop profitable businesses based on virtual property. Contributions from scholars in business models can be divided into three areas: studies that focus on single factors to highlight their importance, studies that identify several elements that make a business model successful, and studies that identify business model components.One of the reasons why we want to focus on the business model aspects of this industry is because of its large economic potential. Even with its relatively low adoption percentage in China, the industry is already generating large revenues. We thus want to understand how the industry has evolved and how it will be able to generate further growth. The business model literature is quite rich and sometimes overwhelming. In many instances scholars have tended to emphasize some aspects over others and many of their models have involved static analysis of the components that the authors believe affect the economic success of companies. These static models are, to a certain extent ineffective when we are analyzing an emerging industry, as they have to go through many challenges before they have a viable business model. MacInnes (2004a) provides a four stage dynamic business model framework that takes into consideration the dynamic aspects of an evolving industry. The model was designed specifically for emerging industries such as the Chinese online game market.2.1. The dynamic business model frameworkThe dynamic business model framework was designed to take into consideration the evolution that businesses experience as they become more knowledgeable about their industry. This is particularly true for business segments that are just emerging as is the case with virtual world game developers/operators. The model is composed of four interrelated stages. Fig. 1 shows the different stages.Fig1 Dynamic business model framework for emerging technologies.The factors that affect the success of a company’s b usiness model at its early stages are different from those affecting the business at a more mature stage. In the first stage technical issues are of greatest importance. In the second stage environmental factors such as law and adoption should be considered. In the third stage developers can begin to incorporate traditional revenue model factors. The fourth stage focuses on factors that will sustain the business.Corporate and user models around virtual communities are beginning to emerge and companies still have many elements to work out. This section addresses the factors that other scholars have identified in each of the four stages that contribute to the success of a business model. Based on these factors it is possible to specify the challenges that these virtual worlds will face as they move through different stages of development.2.1.1. First stage: technological factorsIn the early stages of technological advance, technical factors are crucial to the success of the business. These technical factors are those that are inherent to the product or service being sold. It should be noted that in the information field many businesses emerge from technical innovations. Thus finding a business model that allows them to commercialize such products is the natural progression to their efforts. Unfortunately sometimes the technology is not entirely ready to be launched commercially and these issues need to be dealt with before the firm can concentrate on revenue models.2.1.2. Second stage: environmental factorsMany of the technical aspects faced in the first stage of business models have been overcome. VWs are now in the second stage where they have to overcome environmental factors. Environmental factors include legal, societal, and general economic limitations.This is a stage that is generally overlooked because it is not until a technology has been commercialized that people might realize the problems that the technology could pose for society in general. A number of commercialized technologies, such as the VCR and some peer-to-peer networks, have had their survival challenged because of a legal problem or another negative impact on society or the economy. Vasilopoulou et al. (2002) point out that issues of regulation and policy are critical to the success of a business model. Similarly Schroeder et al. (2001) determined that lack of security, organizational, and legal issues are the most difficult to overcome when companies make the transition from a traditional business model to one centered on electronic commerce. The legal issues that both of these papers identify will also play a role in these businesses as it is not yet clear in a legal sense, for example, who owns property in VWs or whether the convertibility of virtual currencies gives VWs banking functions. As VWs appear to parallel the real world, governments may want to intervene when illegal activities occur or to protect assets if there is inflation.2.1.3. Third stage: revenue model concernsThe third stage of business model development focuses on traditional concerns such as revenue sources, customer value, costs, and infrastructure management. From the authors that have looked at single factors Wathne and Heide (2001) emphasize the use of strategies that increase switching costs as a way of maintaining customer loyalty, or look at a way of creating and maintaining communities within the context of the business as a way of supporting and enhancing the economic activity from a website. VWs have high switching costs as a result of the property and persona that a participant in such a community develops over time. They may find it costly to switch to another VW and have to begin another persona and develop new relationships. Wathne and Heide also suggest developing complementary products. Some companies running online games offer physical products that can be exchanged for their digital versions. Similarly other traditional factors that companies in the online game industry can consider at this stage, according to Amit and Zott (2001), include: (1) efficiency in the form of reduced transaction costs; (2) complementarities between technologies, activities and products; (3) lock-in through network externalities and high switching costs; and (4) novelty through new structures, content and participants. VWs provide novel features for their players and they are virtually limitless as users can add content, improving the richness of the experience. Among the most challenging factors that companies developing virtual worlds face are member development, community development, and asset management (Williams andCothrel, 2000). With some users developing their own businesses, developers lose some control.谢谢下载！。