语言学概论 名词解释

1. Design features of language:(1)Arbitrariness (任意性):there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with.（声音和意思无直接联系）eg: why English should use the sounds /dog/ to refer to the animal dog, the relationship between the sounds and their meaning is quite accidental.（2）Duality(双重性)：the way meaningless elements of language at one level(sounds and letters)combine to form meaningful units at another level. That is, sounds such as d, g, f, o, mean nothing separately. They normally take on meaning only when they are combined in certain ways, as in dog, fog, and god. 2．Descriptive grammars(描写性语法): attempt to tell what is in the language(语言第一，语法第二，语法是为语言服务)Prescriptive grammars（规定性语法）：tell people what should be in the language.3．Phonetics(语音学): the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they ate produced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties.It can be divided into 3main branches:(1) articulatory phonetics(有音节的), which is the study of how speech sounds are produced(2)acoustic phonetics（有关声音的）,which deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air(3)auditory phonetics(听觉的)，which deals with how speech sounds are perceived by the listener.4.Assimilation(同化): a phonological process whereby a sound becomes phonetically similar to a neighboring sound ,eg: a vowel becomes whenfollowed by a consonant.5．Phonology(音系学): the study of the abstract systems underlying the sounds of language.6．Minimal pairs（最小对立体）: a pair of words that differ by only a single sound in the same position, e.g. look/ took, spill/still and keep/coop Minimal set（最小对立体集）: when a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme(always in the same position)eg: a minimal set based on the vowel phonemes of English would include feat, fit, fate, fat, fought, foot, and one based on consonants could have big, pig, and wig.7．Syllable（音节）: these units which are often longer than one should and smaller than a whole word. 1. phonetically, syllables are usually described as consisting of a center which has little or no airflow and which sounds comparatively loud.2.phonologically, syllables are defined by the way in which vowels and consonants combine to form various sequences.8．Stress (重音): the prominence given to certain sounds in speech. 9．Morphology (形态学)：the study of the structure of words.10．Root（词根）: the morpheme that remains when all affixes are strippes froma complex word. eg: system from un- +system + atic +ally11.Derivational morphemes（派生词缀）可能会改变词性: a morpheme that serves to derive a word of one class or meaning from a word of another class or meaning. eg: -ment derives the noun from the verb establish; re- changes themeaning of the verb paint to "paint again".Inflectional morphemes（屈折词缀）不改变词性: which are not used to produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical function of a word.12.Allomorphs(语素变体): a phonetic form in which a morpheme is realized,e.g. -s, -es, and all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.plementary distribution(互补分布):allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution for they never occur in the same contest. Eg: the unaspirated /p/ always occurs after /s/ while the aspirated one always occurs in other places.14.types of word formation:(1)compounding(合成构词法):words like typewriter, workshop, tractor-driver are formed by putting two words together. Two free morphemes are combined to form a compound.(2)Derivation（派生构词法）：derivation is done by adding affixes to other words or morphemes. A derivational word consists of at least a free morpheme and a bound morpheme. For example, by adding affixes un-, mis-, -ful, -less, -ism, we can get words like unhappy, misunderstand, careful, careless.(3)Blending(混成构词法): a process a single new word can also be formed by combining two separate forms. Typically, blending is finished by taking only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of another word. eg: the English word brunch is made from breakfast and lunch.(4)Acronym（首字母拼音词）：some new words are formed from the first letters of a series of words. They are pronounced as single words, as in NATO(North Atlantic Treaty Organization)15.Syntax(句法学): used to refer to the structure of sentences and to the study of sentence structure.(1)Immediate constituent analysis(直接成分分析法)：also called IC Analysis, in linguistics, a system of grammatical analysis that divides sentences into successive layers, or constituents, until, in the final layer, each constituent consists of only a word or meaningful part of a word. (A constituent is any word or construction that enters into some larger construction.) eg. In the sentence “The old man ran away,” the first division into immediate constituents would be between “the old man” and “ran away.” The immediate constituents of “the old man” are “the” and “old man.” At the next level “old man” is divided into “old” and “man.” It was introduced by the United States linguist Leonard Bloomfield in 1933.(2)Recursion（递归性）:the feature of recursion permits a grammar of a finite number of rules to generate an infinite number of sentences. For example: This is the house that jack built. /This is the cat that lived in the house that jack built.16.Semantics（语义学）：the study of linguistic meaning.(1)Sense(意义)语言之间的关系：the inherent part of an expression’s meaning which, together with context, determines its referent. It is also called intension. Eg: knowing the sense of a noun phrase such as the president of the UnitedStates in 2004 allows one to determine that George W. Bush is the referent. (2)Reference(指称，参照)：the relationship between words and the things, actions ,events, and qualities they stand for. An example in English is the relationship between the word tree and the object "tree" in the real world.17、Pragmatics(语用学)：a branch of linguistics that studies language in use.(1)Anaphora(回指):the process where a word or phrase refers back to another word or phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation.(2)Cohesion(衔接): the grammatical and/or lexical relationships between the different elements of a discourse. This may be the relationship between different sentences or between different parts of a sentence.Coherence(连贯): :the relationships which link the meanings of utterances in a discourse of the sentences in a text.18、Iconicity(象似性)：the major types of iconicity in language which have frequently been proposed are those of order, distance, and complexity.(1)Iconicity of order(顺序象似性)：refers to the similarity between temporal events and the linear arrangement of elements in a linguistic of construction. (e.g. Caesar’s historic words “veni, vidi, vici”-I came, I saw, I conquered.) iconicity of order reflects the consistency of language with human cognition and the objective world.(2)Iconicity of distance（距离象似性）：accounts for the fact that things which belong together conceptually tend to be put together linguistically, and things that do not belong together are put at a distance. That is, elements which have a close relationship must be placed close together.(3)Iconicity of complexity(复杂象似性):accounts for our tendency toassociate more form with more meaning and, conversely ,less form with less meaning.19.The prototype theory（原形理论）：what members of a particular community think of as the best example of a lexical category. eg: For some English speakers "cabbage" might be the prototypical vegetable.20.Lexical gap(词汇空缺) : the absence of a word in a particular place in a semantic field of a language is called lexical gap. For instance, in English there is no singular noun that covers both cow and bull as horse covers stallion and mare.21.Associative meaning（联想意义）：connotative(内涵), social, affective（情感）, reflective（反射）, and collocative（搭配）meanings are called associative meaning.Reflective meaning(反射意义):is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meanings, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.22.Allophone(音位变体)：a phonetic form in which a phoneme is realized.23.Diacritics（变音符号）：is a set of symbols which can be added to the letter-symbols to make finer distinctions than the letters alone make possible.。