Discourse Analysis 话语分析
2012 Chapter 7 Discourse Analysis 语篇分析
2 Information Structure
❖How do language users arrange information within discourse?
❖2.1 Given and new information ❖Alice: Who ate the bread? ❖Tom : Mary ate the bread.
given/ comment
2.2 Topic and comment
❖Topics are not so important to the grammar of English.
❖There is only one grammatical structure which marks topics in English. ▪ As for me, I’m gonna go to bed.
❖Mark the topic ▪ Place topic in the initial position in English. ▪ A beautiful dress she did make.
2.2 Topic and comment
❖Topic is not necessarily a property of the sentence; it may be a property of the discourse context: ▪ Oh, look! ▪ (an unexpressed topic “the setting sun” or “the sky”)
❖Given information can be something closely related to the mentioned information (e.g. meronymy) ▪ Kent returned my car last night after borrowing it for the day. One of the wheels was about to fall off and the dashboard was missing.
口译中的话语分析与口译理解表达
话语分析
• 话语（discourse）的定义：大于句子的连续 语言单位。交传中的话语既可指发言人或 对话人的整个对话，也可指讲话停下来让 译员译成目的语的一个语段（segment）。
• 话语分析（discourse analysis）的定义：研 究句子如何组成段落、段落如何组成篇章、 运用了何种描述方法、如何安排主题句细 节等。 • 话语分析的目的：指导性
***自学商务口译的形式源自社会文化方法注重文化语境和社会内 容
注意发言人的语言特 性
社会文 化方法
关注讲话内容和表达方 式如何受到社会地位、 政治态度等因素的影响
关注句与句之间的依存 关系
• 口译中运用社会文化分析时译员应在了解口译题 材、场景基础上，充分理解发言人的真正意图、 态度立场和要传达的准确信息。 • 译员应特别关注话语标记（discourse marker）， 因为这些标记在句与句间起衔接、转义、提醒等 作用，同时也代表了句与句间的逻辑关系。
话语分析
《话语分析》第七章评述（Discourse Analysis）由Gillian Brown和George Yule共同编写，《话语分析》Gillian Brown是剑桥大学英语教授，George Yule为路易斯安那州立大学语言学教授。
它与之前的话语分析类著作的不同之处在于它全面地介绍了话语分析的不同理论与方法，系统地论述了语言是如何在实际生活中得到应用的，语料涉及谈话录音、通知、书信、小说、报刊文摘等。
本书分为七个章节。
第一章引言部分着重探讨语言的形式与功能，继而讨论了句子与语句；第二章介绍了语境的作用，着重分析了情景语境；第三章作者讨论了话题与话语内容的表现；第四章探讨视角与话语结构的表现；第五章主要讨论信息结构，讲述了信息是如何通过短语和小句层次的小结构单位而得到包装的；第六章的研究对象相对于上一章来说是大块语料的成构，讨论它们是怎样被解读而成为连贯的语篇的，重点仍然是话语的指称这一中心问题；第七章探讨了话语理解中的连贯。
本文主要对第七章进行讨论并作出简要评述。
第七章首先讨论了话语的连贯。
话语连贯是篇章语言学领域一个十分重要的概念。
多年来，众多学者就这一理论从不同角度展开一系列的探讨与研究，提出了多种修正意见与观点。
De Beaugrande和Dressler（1981）认为，连贯是篇章世界的组成部分，只有读者的先有世界知识与篇章所表现的概念关系结构相吻合时,篇章意义或意义连续体才能实现；胡壮麟（1994）认为，言语行为、合作原则等语用学知识有助于语篇连贯；张德禄认为语篇连贯的条件包括认知模式、情景模式、文化语境、心理思维语义联系等；而本书作者认为，人们在对语篇进行阐释时需要依赖一种假设，即，话语是连贯的。
在日常交际中，我们常常依靠句法结构和语言信息中的词项进行理解，但我们不能认为缺乏这些文字形式上的输入我们就达不到理解。
有时，我们可以从作家写出的语法十分规范的句子中得出其字面意义，但实际上我们并未全部理解它，因为我们还需要更多语言之外的信息。
多模态话语分析Multimodal_Discourse_Analysis__Systemic
多模态话语分析：系统功能语言学视角多模态话语分析（Multimodal Discourse Analysis）是近年来在话语分析领域兴起的一种跨学科研究方法。
它将传统的话语分析扩展到多模态符号系统，如文字、图像、声音、空间布局等，从而全面分析话语在各个符号系统中的互动和协同作用。
在系统功能语言学（Systemic Functional Linguistics）的视角下，多模态话语分析关注的是语言在实现社会功能过程中的多模态特征，以及这些特征如何通过不同符号系统之间的协同作用来构建和传达意义。
在系统功能语言学中，语言被视为一种社会符号系统，其功能在于实现人际交往、信息传递和构建社会现实。
多模态话语分析则进一步拓展了这一视角，认为除了语言符号外，其他符号系统也在人际交往中发挥着重要作用。
例如，在广告、电影、网络媒体等多模态文本中，图像、声音、文字等符号系统共同作用，构建了一个丰富的意义世界。
多模态话语分析强调符号系统之间的协同作用，认为意义并非单一符号系统所能独立表达，而是通过各个符号系统之间的互动和协同作用来实现的。
例如，在一张图片中，文字、图像、颜色等符号系统共同作用，传达出特定的意义。
这种协同作用不仅体现在单个符号系统内部，还体现在不同符号系统之间的互动关系上。
例如，在一场演讲中，演讲者的语言、肢体动作、面部表情等符号系统共同作用，传达出演讲者的意图和情感。
多模态话语分析的应用领域十分广泛，包括广告、电影、网络媒体、教育、医疗等多个领域。
通过对多模态话语的分析，我们可以更深入地理解各种文本的意义构建过程，以及这些文本如何通过符号系统之间的协同作用来影响受众。
同时，多模态话语分析也为语言教学、跨文化交流等领域提供了新的视角和方法。
多模态话语分析的理论基础与实践应用多模态话语分析的理论基础主要来源于系统功能语言学和符号学。
系统功能语言学强调语言的社会功能和语境对意义构建的影响，而符号学则关注符号系统及其意义的和解读。
话语分析
Discourse Analysis :An IntroductionChapter 1Introductory remarksWhy linguistic and discursive?●Perspectives (to propositional interpretations Ontological)EpistemologicalPragmaticHermeneutic LinguisticDiscursive●Example1:● D.T.: Will you marry me tomorrow?●Jolin:…●Example 2●In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth.●…●And God said, “Let there be light,” and there was light.●…●And God said, “Let there be a vault between the waters to separate water from water.”(Genesis 1 )●Example 3(mismatching of oral and written styles)●Xi Dada反“四风”:“照镜子，正衣冠，洗洗澡，治治病。
”●Common linguistic featurescognitive semiotic semanticsyntactic textualsocial/political culturalDiscursive CommonalitiesD.T. v.s. Jolin Cai Agent/AffectedThe God IdentityXi DadaStatusDiscourse V.S. discourse●discourse (n.)l ate 14c., "process of understanding, reasoning, thought," from French discours, from Latin discursus "a running about," in Late Latin "conversation," from past participle stem of discurrere "run about," from dis- "apart" (see dis-) + currere "to run" (see current (adj.)). Sense of "formal speech or writing" is first recorded 1580s----------. Language in use.●Discourse:“Discourse” with a capital “D”, …(referred to as) different ways in which we humans integrate language with non-language “stuff”,such as different ways of thinking, acting, interacting, valuing, feeling, believing, and using symbols, tools, and objects in the right places and at the right times so as to enact and recognize different identities and activities, to give the material world certain meanings, distribute social goods in a certain way, make certain sort of meaningful connections in our experience, and privilege certain symbol systems and ways of knowing over others.●(Gee, James Paul, An Introduction to Discourse Analysis: Theory and Method.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press; London: Routledge, 2000 ,p12)Conversation with a capital “C”…(referred to as ) long-running and important themes and motifs ("theme, predominant feature," 1848, from French motif "dominant idea, theme" )that have been the focus of a variety of different texts and interactions (in different social languages and Discourses) through a significant stretch of time and across an array of institutions(Gee, James Paul, An Introduction to Discourse Analysis: Theory and Method.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press; London: Routledge, 2000,p13 ) 关谷：亲爱的，我们今天吃什么？小雪：随便。
语言学-话语分析术语解释
Discourse Analysis话语分析Discourse is “language above the sentence or above the clause”Discourse analysis is the study of how sentences in spoken or written language form larger meaningful units such as paragraphs, conversations, interviews, etc.Given information the information that the addresser believes is known to the addresseeNew information the information that the addresser believes is not known to the addresseeTopic话题: what the utterance is about.Topic is the element of a sentence that functions as the center of attention. In English, it is marked by being placed in the initial position and is usually the subject, noun phrase.Comment述题: what is said about the topic.Contrast refers to the language phenomenon where a noun phrase occurs in opposition to another noun phrase in the discourse.Cohesion衔接the network of lexical, grammatical and other relations that link various parts of a textReference参照/照应is a relation on semantic levelSubstitution 代替refers the process or result of replacing one word by another at a particular position in a structureSubstitution is a relation on the lexico-grammatical level, a relationbetween words and constructions, and they have same functionEllipsis省略Leaving out a construction of a sentence for reasons of economy, emphasis or style, and the omitted parts can only be recovered by the reader from the previous discourse.Conjunction连词An item or a process whose primary function is to connect words or other construction.Lexical cohesion词汇衔接It refers to the repetition of the same words, or general nouns, or other words sharing the majority of semantic features Coherence连贯refers to the relationships which link the meanings of utterances in a discourse or of sentences in a text.Discourse markers (DM): expressions that are commonly used in the initial position of an utterance and are syntactically detachable from a sentence.Conversational Analysis会话分析the analysis of natural conversation in order to discover the linguistic characteristics and usage of conversation.Adjacency pairs (AP):相邻语对/邻近对a sequence of two related utterances by two different speakersPresequences 前序列the opening sequences that are used to set up some specific potential actions.Critical discourse analysis (CDA)批评话语分析is a perspective which studies the relationship between discourse events and sociopolitical andcultural factors, esp. the way discourse is ideologically influenced by, and can itself influence power relations in society.。
语言学-discourse-analysis
06 话语分析的挑战与未来发 展
数据收集与处理问题
1 2 3
数据来源的多样性
话语分析需要收集各种类型的数据，包括口语、 书面语、多媒体等，如何有效地从各种来源收集 数据是一个挑战。
数据处理的复杂性
对于大规模的话语数据，如何进行有效的处理和 分析，提取有用的信息，需要借助自然语言处理 等技术手段。
话语功能理论
话语的交际功能
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话语是交际的基本单位，具有表达思想、传递信息、建立联系
等交际功能。
话语的语境适应性
02
话语需要根据不同的交际语境进行调整和变化，以适应不同的
交际需求。
话语的语体特征
03
不同类型的话语具有不同的语体特征，如口语和书面语、正式
和非正式等。
话语认知理论
话语的心理过程
话语的理解和生成涉及复杂的心 理过程，包括感知、记忆、思维、 情感等。
揭示语言与社会 的密切关系
话语分析能够揭示语言使用 与社会文化、政治经济等方 面的密切关系，有助于我们 深入理解语言的社会功能。
促进跨文化交流
通过话语分析，我们可以了 解不同文化背景下的语言使 用习惯和交际规则，从而促 进跨文化交流的顺利进行。
提高语言教学效 果
话语分析可以帮助教师了解 学生的实际语言需求和交际 能力，从而有针对性地设计 教学内容和方法，提高语言 教学效果。
数据质量的控制
在数据收集和处理过程中，如何保证数据的质量 和代表性，避免数据的偏见和误导，是一个需要 关注的问题。
理论框架的完善与创新
现有理论框架的局限性
目前的话语分析理论框架在某些方面存在局限性，如对话语结构的描述、对话语意义的解释等，需要进一步完善和创 新。
《批判话语分析》(专业选修课)教学大纲
话语分析教学大纲【课程英文名称】Discourse Analysis【课程代码】21221.3.181.0025.01【课程类型】专业选修课【适用专业】语言学【授课语言】汉语【开课学期】第4学期【先修课程】无【总学时数】36【总学分数】2【执笔人】【编写日期】：2021年7月6日一、课程教学目标批判话语分析属于语言与社会研究的新兴交叉学科领域，自20世纪末提出批判话语分析的学术理念与研究范式以来，产生了众多理论流派和研究方法。
本课程是上海外国语大学语言学专业（本科）选修课程，旨在使学习者了解批判话语分析的基本理论流派和研究方法。
批判话语分析学者认为话语是一种社会行动，关注语言与社会之间的深层互动，研究语言影响社会以及被社会形塑的过程。
本课程涵盖了批判话语分析诸分析方法中最为基要的谱系学考辩、公共话语市场化分析、文本与社会实践分析、话语间性与预设分析、社会事件表征分析等。
同时，本课程还将介绍适用于语言政策与语言教育研究的CDA方法与相关案例，鼓励学习者用CDA的视角分析现实生活文本。
二、先修课的要求无三、教学环节、内容及学时分配第一部分引论01批判话语分析的研究理念与学科起源学时：4学时主要内容：介绍批判话语分析的起源、研究理念、研究对象、学术流派、中外研究概况。
重点难点：批判话语分析与语言学、社会学的交叉理论第二部分谱系学考辩02谱系学的概念学时：2学时主要内容：通过共读福柯的《尼采、谱系学、历史》一文，理解谱系学与历史学的关系与区别，讨论知识与权力的关系。
重点难点：词语溯源的方法03谱系学的应用学时：2学时主要内容：讲解吴宗杰的论文《外语学科知识谱系学考辨》中将中国外语作为一种知识对象、学科与认知对象的产生过程。
重点难点：谱系学的历史研究方法第三部分CDA分析理论与实践04批判话语分析与公共话语的市场化学时：4学时主要内容：基于Fairclough教授的经典论文讲解话语的社会属性，理解话语秩序、三维分析框架及其内涵重点难点：公共话语市场化案例的具体分析05文本与社会实践学时：2学时主要内容：基于Fairclough（2003）的第2章，讲解行动、表征、认同的意义类型，区分体裁、话语与文体、学会识别文本链、体裁混杂、话语间性的分析重点难点：话语间性的分析06互文与预设（第八、九讲）学时：4学时主要内容：基于Fairclough(2003)第3章，首先讲解日常生活中的互文性，理解互文性与引语的关系，学会识别预设和隐含意义，理解文本的对话性。
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⒈What is discourse analysis? ⒉Functions of language ⒊Classification of language ⒋Data ⒌Approach to DA ⒍Discourse and context
A man of seventy? A young man in his thirties? A young woman in his thirties?
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15
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Spoken vs. written language
Spoken language: the speech of those who have not spent many years exposed to written language. Written language: highly literate written language.
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features
Spoken language: incomplete sentences, phrases, active voice , “well, er, I think, you know, I mean”, pause, repetition. Written language: metalingual markers, such as, “besides, moreover, however, in spite of”.
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Context of situation
Addressor: speaker or writer who produces the utterance. Addressee: hearer or reader who is the recipient of the utterance. Besides, there are some other aspects to be taken into account in DA according to Hymes:
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Transactional: content
Functions
Ideational (Halliday) Interactional: relation Interpersonal (Halliday)
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Transactional language: used to convey “factual or propositional information”. It is important that the recipient receives the information detail correctly. e.g. doctor-patient. Interactional language: used to establish and maintain social relationships in our daily life. e.g. talking to a stranger about weather
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Topic: what is being talked about
Setting: time and place
Channel: by speech, writing
Code: what language or dialect
Message-form: chat, debate, sermon, poem
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Writer: ①pause, check and rewrite ②no pressure ③only imagine the reader’s reaction.
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Data
The analysis of discourse is typically based on the linguistic output of someone other than the analyst. The discourse analyst’s data is taken from written texts or tape-recordings. It is rarely in the form of a single sentence. This type of linguistic material is sometimes called “performance-data”, and may contain features such ad hesitations, slips, and non-standard forms.
Event: sermon-part of service
Key: evaluation
Purpose: result
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Example： A: are you often here B: quite often+ about once a month+ actually++ I come up to see my children
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Pragmatic approach
The discourse analyst has to take account of the context in which a piece of discourse occurs. Some of the most obvious linguistic elements which require contextual information for their interpretation are the deictic forms such as here, now, I, you, this, that. So it is necessary to know who the speaker and hearer are, and the time and place of the production of the discourse.
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Terms “discourse” and “ discourse analysis” have different meanings to scholars in different fields. For many, particularly linguists, “discourse” has generally been defined as anything “beyond the sentence.” For others (for example Fasold 1990: 65), the study of discourse is the study of language use.
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Different demands for speakers and writers. Speaker: ①Paralanguage: facial expression, gesture… ② Observe his interlocutor and modify what he is saying to make it more acceptable to his hearer. ③ Monitor what he said and plan what to say next at the same time. No permanent record of what he said earlier. ④Keep on talking. React immediately.