Exceptional Exporter Performance
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商务英语教材(外贸函电)课后练习答案.doc
第三课练习练习五：1.After a market investigation for about one year, we found your products to be very marketable inour local area・ And we hereby take the liberty of writing to you, hoping to co-operate with you. 2.We are much impressed by your KC-99-220 harvestor displayed at the Asian AgriculturalMachinery Fair held in Manila last 28th , and we hereby write to you to negotiate about the sales of this product on our local market.3.We learnt from the Brazilla in Brazil that you are the largest seller of auto clutch on the localmarket, and we are eager to establish a long standing business relationship with you.4.As for our credit standing in the business of car batteries, you may please refer to the Hiss or theUnited National Bank・5.We are the largest distriibtor of Motor Bike Spareparts in our local area, if we are luchy enough tobe your exclusive agent in this area, we are sure your sales will double at our promotion in the local area.6.The product has been tested by many users and have received a good evaluation from them. If youintend to introduce the product to your market, we will provide you with ten cases of samples by consignment.7.We are the largest stationery importer in our local area・ In the past five years we have imported alarge amount of pencils, pens and pencil box from Europe・ But now because of a rise in cost and etc., we hope to increase our import from China・8・ We learnt form the Pheonix TV ads that you are producing a new pattern of window curtains wholly made of velvet material. So we hereby write to you, hope to obtain some information about you and the details of your products・9.Our newly developed product appears to be quite the same with the previous KC・114, but on closeexamination you may find that they are very different in terms of their stuff, color and hardness.10・ We are very intersted in your air-con compressors and we hope to negotiate with you about its sales on our local market.笫四课练习练习三.1 • We have been in the market for first quality shirts with permanent press since last yea匚Andrecently we learnt from your commercial counsellor^ office that you are the special maker of this shirt. We would appreiate it very much if you can provide us ith some color samples and illustrated catalogue, stating the CIF price, discount rate and the earliest date of delivery of diffent shirts.2.We learnt from the ABC company that you are exporting all kinds of gloves, and we would bemuch obliged if you would send us details of your products, including the size, color, price and the discount rate when our order in beyond five gross, along with the samples made of differentmaterials. We are largest chains store in this area, and if your price is reasonable, we are sure your products will sell well here・3.Thank you for your letter of Sept. 15th・ Upon receipt of your letter, we contacted the Haida, who isthe largest stationery exporter in this area, and is very experienced in the sales of stationery・ They will contact you in three days・4.We deeply regret to tell you that as we are being heavily committed with orders, we can notentertain any fresh order for the time being, nor can we sign any contract with you now・ But the factory can accept new orders by the end of next month. We hope that we can be of service to you at that time.5・ We hereby send you under separate cover the catalogue and price list of our latest products. And we hope that their quality and price will be of satisfaction to you.笫五课练习三.1.Thank you for your letter of this 20th, offering us 50 L/Ts of the captioned item at U.S.D.l 35 per L/TCFR Shanghai.Our reply is as follows: We are sorry that our users considered your price to be exceeding high, and out of line with the prevailing market. It is said that some Japanese commodities are being sold at the price of U.S.D.125 per L/T. Therefore, it will be difficult to advise our users to accept your price, when we can buy the same goods with better quality and lower price・ If you are willing to reduce your price by, say, 8%, we may come to terms.It is only in view of our long standi ng busi ness relations that we made the above counter offer. Price is falling. So please consider it carefully and cable your acceptance at an early date・2.We have carefully studied your letter of Oct. 12山・Considering our business relations for manyyears, we should in fact accept your proposal to lower the price or our underwears. But it is pretty difficult for us to do so. In the past few months, we have experienced a rapid rise in the cost of raw materials. If we reduce the price by 15% as you suggested, we will have to lower the standard of our quality. But this is not what we are willing to do.So we suggest that for all the orders valued over 3,000, price will be reduced by 8%, but not 15%. So the price reduction will not affect the quality.四.1.Thank you for your letter of June 14th, inquiring about the export price of our local garlic of thisyearns crop.2.We hereby enclose a sample of our existing stock. If you are satisfied with it, please inform us so thatwe can prepare the cargo.3・ After contacting our makers, we were informed that they have been heavily committed until the end of May. Therefore they cannot entertain your order for the time being.4.We learnt from your letter of May 15th that if we grant another 10% discount on the list price, youmay place an orde匚Such a big discount will be very exceptional. But considering the fact that it is the initial transaction between us, we decided to accept your conter offe匚5.The price is already very workable・ But in order to expand the business between us, we maygive you another 3% discount.6.If your order is over 2,000, we will make a special offer at $ 9.00 per set, i.e. a 3% discount.7.Our best price at present is the same with that we offered in our letter No. 456. If your actual order isover 7,500 yards, we may advise the maker to further reduce their price・&We hereby offer 200 M/T of Noth-east soybeans of 1999 crop at the price of RMB 1750 per M/T CIFEMP for December shipment・9.We deeply regret that we can not meet requirments for the time being owing to two many orders.10.The green beans are packed in ordinary second hand gunny bags, each with a net weight of 50 kgs.第六课练习1.We have received with thanks your letter of Feb. 15 along with the enclosed pattern sample and the price list. We selected three items and we hereby enclose our order No. 777. We are in urgent need of the cargo and please make shipment as soon as possible.Item No. Unit Price Quantity Date of ShipmentPacking: one doz・ in each case, and ten cases in each cartonInsurance: to be covered against FPA for 10% over the invoice amount.Payment: by inevocable L/C payable by sight draft・2.In reply to your letter of May 20th, we are much interested in your different sizes of children's clothes. After a creful study of your proposals, we decided to make the following trial order, on condition that you promise to deliver the cargo to the port of Melbourne before the end of next month. Beyond that date, we will reserve our right to cancel the order and reject the cargo. Please inform us if you agree to this term.3.We learned with great pleasure from your letter of May 15th that you intended to place a substantial order for many items, on the basis of our offer dated May 5l lAll the items are in stock, except for 50 dozens of pink bed sheets. The pink were all sold out after we sent out our offer, and the maker told us that fresh supply will be available only after four weeks.As you stated in your order that you are in urgent need of the cargo, we replaced the cargo with orange, which is totally the same with the pink in both the color and quality. It is beautiful and attractive, and is very popular among our customers・ We hope that you will be satisfied with it. Otherwise, please cable us immediately・4.We learned from your letter of March 30 that you considered our captioned item to be on the high side. Thank you for your cooperation in telling us the daily price in your local market. But we are very sorry that it is impossible to reduce our price by 8% as you suggested・ By the way, we want to tell you that we have had many inquires from other customers, and it is likely that we can come to terms at about our level. Our price is very workable and can not accept your counter-offer at the moment. If later, you can see your way to raise your price, please inform us. Also, please inform us of the change of your market. We promise to give serious consideration to any of your inquiries.五•翻译1.What we quoted is our rock-bottom price, and we deeply regret that we cannot accept any further reduction.2.Our price is the best price we can offer now.3.It is impossible to conclude any business, unless you reduce your price by 15%.4.The factory has to decline any fresh orders due to a shortage of raw materials.5.Our products are better in quality than other suppliers・ If you take this into consideration, you maysee that our price is in fact better than others.6.In view fo the conditions of our present stock, it is likely that we can not accept any new orders until the end of next month.7. We are in receipt of your letter dated July 15 along with the enclosed order for 200 sets of drillers・We hereby enclose our sales confirmation No.236 in duplicate・ Please sign and return one copy for our file.& We have booked your order No. 45 for 100,000 yds of printed fabric item No. 10074. Please inform us of the colors and open the relevant L/C in our favor as stipulated in the contract.9.We are satisfied with the results of the negotiation in Kwangchou. We hereby enclose our order No.95 for 500 sets of alarm clock for a trial sale on our market.10.We hereby enclose our trial order for 200 sets of knitting machine・ If the quality proved to be satisfactory, many orders will follow・第七课练习七1 ・ In order to encourage your sales promotion of our products, we reached an agreement with you at afavourable price below the prevailing market level.2.Please make a contract on the basis of our agreed terms and send it to us for our counter-sign.3.As for the date and quantity of shipment, we have made it very clear in the sales confirmation: 5M/T for London in May, 10 M/T for Liverpool in June.4.We hereby enclose our sales confirmation No. KD-120 in triplicate for 20 M/T of ciitronella oil.Please sign and return one copy for our file.5.As for the details of the contract, please refer to the cables between us during April and May・6.We need to reconsider the details of the contract you worked out before we can sign it・7.We want to make a special statement that the contract must have definite stipulations about theinspection time after the cargo arrived at the port.& As this is a contract about the import of plant, so it has a lot of complications, and we need to consult our technicians about the details of the equipment parameters before we can determine them.9.Some patented technologies are included in the equipment. Therefore the contract must havedefinite stipulations about the use of such patents so as to avoid unnecessary subsequent disputes.10.Our general view of this contract is that it stipulated too much about the seller's rights but itsstipulations about the seller's obligations and the buyer's rights are too generalized. Therefore we cannot say that it is a contract balanced between rights and obligations. So we must re-consider the clauses of the contract before we can decide to sign it.第八课：练习八翻译1・ We are awaiting the amendment cable of the validity and shipment date of the relevant L/C・2.because direct steamers are very few, we have to request you to amend the relevant clauses in yourL/C to "transshipment via Hongkong allowed”3.Because of the late arrival of your L/C and the congestion of the cargo, we failed to abtain thenecessary space・4.As the s.s. Victoria filed to rech the shceduled port of shipment before July 15, and there are noother vessles available, we will have to ask you to extend the date of shipment and the validity of the L/C to August 5 and 20 respectively.5.Referring to the 2,000 dozs of shirts under our sales confirmation No. KC-215, the date of shipmentis approaching, please expedite the establishment of your L/C and cable us of the opening bank, the number and date of the L/C.6.D/A will be too risky for us, so we only accept D/P at sight.7.Referring to the peanut kernels under our sames confiimation HK/7021, we have booked a space onthe s.s. Dorris sailing directly for Marseille on June 25. Please advise your bank to airmail theoriginal L/C No. HS-231 as soon as possible.& We are in receipt of the L/C No. 9845 opened by the H.S. Bank of Singapore. The said L/C covers 120 M/Ts of F.A.Q. peanuts kernels of 1999 crop under our sales contract HJ402.9.The cargo has been ready for shipment for quite a long time・ But we failed to make shimpentbecause your L/C is yet to arrive.10."Banking commisions and charges are for the befeficiary5s account" must be deleted from your L/C.Because such fees are for the buyer's accout as stipulated in the agreement.练习九1.Through our joint efforts and cooperation, we have reachen an agreement on the sales of 31 M/Tsof bar steel on the Guangzhou Trade Fair. We sincerely hope that this initial business will promote the trade and friendly relations between us. As for the terms of payment, we have noted in thenegotiation that the pound is experiencing a depreciation and we insist on opening your L/C interms of U.S.$ so as to guarantee the real value of the our amount. Obviously you agreed to us and that is why we signed the agreement. But in your letter of April 15 you said you find it difficult to open in dollars. We are surprised to hear that. Many customers in your area didn't find anydiffuculties in opening in dollars・ We have started the man ufacture of your order as con traded and shipment can be made upon receipt of your L/C ・ Please open your L/C at once ascontracted・2.Upon receipt of your notice of May 10 that the export lisence had been issued, we, as usual, hadopened our L/C by cable for an amount of U.S.D. 25,000・Please make sure that delivery to be made within this month・ Delivery on time is very important on our local market・Please paint the drum with a remarkable shipping mark of “DKKso as to facilitate our taking delivery.Please try to load the cargo on board the vessel s.s. "KOREAN", which is due to sail off on the 24 of this month.3.Three discrepancies with the contract were found in your L/C:First, Certificate of Manufactures was required in your L/C, but no such clause can be found in the contract. In fact the contracted item is a kind of farm product, and it is impossible to obtainCertificate of Manufactures.Secondly, the total CIF amount was stipulated to be 5,000 dollars in your L/C, but it is 5,500dollars in the contract・Thirdly, the contract number should be 82/1245 but not 82/1254.The cargo is ready for shipment and please amend your L/C by cabel as soon as possible・第九课：练习九1.We will do our best to arrange the first shipment on time so that you can catch the season.2.The cargo has been ready for shipment for as long as one month, but up to now, your L/C is yet toarrive・3.The cargo under our S/C No. DM-41 has been ready for shipment. Please hasten to establish yourL/C through your bank.. Otherwise it will be difficult for us to obtain necessary containers and space・4.We want to make it clear. If there is any further delay in your L/C, we will be unable to guaranteeour shipment within the contracted time.5.As transshipment is required in transportation, we packed the cargo with special care to avoid anypossible damage during the transit.6.As our stock is not up to the requirements in your L/C, we hope you would amend your L/Cthrough the opening bank so that we can make delivery within the contracted time.7.The cargo has been ready for shipment for over 30 days・ But you have not remitted 50% of thevalue as downpayment to our designated account just as we agreed in the contract.& We have repeatedly noted in our order that the cargo must be carried in containers. Otherwise the insurance company will refuse to bear whole responsibilities for the damage or shortage therefrom.9.We hereby inform you that 300 M/Ts of Coconut oil uner your order No. 99-KM412 has beenloaded onto the vessel s.s. “Pearl”. T he said vessel is scheduled to reach the Port of Antwerp at the beginning of April.10.After shipment, we have prepared the full set of shipping documents presented them to the localbank for negotiation・练习十1.It is stipulated in the contract No. CT865 concluded in Dec. 20, 1996 that 5,000 M/Ts of steel plateare to be delivered in March 1997. But so far we have not heard any news from you about this. Our user is in urgent need of the cargo and we intend to despatch the s.s. Dongfeng to take load. The vessel will reach your port around the end of April. Please cable us if you agree to this・ Otherwise please tell us when the cargo cam be ready・The delay in shipemnt has caused us much troubles. If you cannot make shipment in April, we will have to claim against you and reserve our right to cancel the order.2.Thank you for your letter of November 15 inquiring about the sales of our costumes. We herebyenclose our catalog and price list as requested, along with other conditions and terms of payment.We carefully studied your proposals to guarantee a minimum order in exchange for a special discount. But we think it to be better to grant you a special discount on the following progressive terms:Total Annual Purchase Discount RateWe hope that the above arrangement will be more satisfactory to both of us.We look forward to your early acceptance of our proposal and your usual sales confirmation, so that we can make an immediate delivery.第十课练习三.1・ Our insurance for the fertilizer is for 120% of the total invoice value up to the port of desti natio n.2. Please note that insurance covers only FPA and the risk of breakage .If additional insurance isrequired, the extra premium will be for your own account.3・ Insumnce isto be covered at 110% of our CIF value. If any additional insurance is required, plese inform the seller beforehand and such additional fees will be borne by the buyer.4.As for the insura nee of the cargo, it was definitely stipulated in the contract that insurance coversonly against W.A. including T.P.N.D. (W/W clause) and War Risks. Please make it clear when you open your L/C.5.Please see to it that insurance covers only W.A. including warehouse to warehouse clause valid for15 days.6.You made your offer on the basis of CFRC4%, so you are to cover insura nee. But we can coverinsurance for your account if you request. In this case, you should inform us of the amount and risks to be covered 15 days before the date of shipment.7・ Under the present weather conditions, the insurance company will face more risks. And therefore they may raise their premium nite.8.As for your claims for the shortage due to the breakage of 14 cases, we, as the insurer, can not giveyou any reply at the moment, because no investigations about the causes of the damage have been made. But we promise you that a reply will be sent to you from our agen within one week.9.Coverage of risks should be determined in accordance with the specifics of the cargo. Otherwise theinsurance may either fail to provide effective protection to the cargo or the premium may beunnecessarily too high・10・ If you do not pack the cargo in wooden cases, the insurance company may reject any claims for compensation. Because this packing is not the customary packing of this cargo.第十一课练习四1.As the cargo arrived 15 days later than the contracted date, our clients refused to take the cargo, andso we will have to refect the cargo and claim against you.2.We deeply regret to tell you that the cargo under contract KM-944 loaded on the S.S. "Victoria^arrived and upon inspection we found that 5 cases were severely deformed, 4 cases with half of the contents missing, and 7 cases lost their iron bands with conditions of their contents unknown.3.When we checked the cargo we found that the cargo were severely damaged・ So we will have towithhold the payment until we have the official inspection certificate・4.When checking the cargo we found that over half of the goods were covered with mould, and this isapparently due to inappropriate packing・5・The outer packing of the cargo were in good conditions but there was a serious shortage in the contents. Therefore we will have to take it as something already existed when you packedyour goods in your factory.6.We are deeply sorry for the delay of the cargo and for the inconveniences it might have brought toyou. And we want to point out that the delay was due to a provisional breakdown of the carrying vessel which failed to sail off on time.7.If you can provide qualified certificates evidencing that the deteriorated part of the cargo is morethan 5% of the whole lot, we will try to contact the insurance company for compensatio n.8.We are sure that this consignment has a great quality discrepancy with the samples you gave usbefore the conclusion of the contract. Therefore you must bear responsibilities therefrom・9.When we seriously consider the problem of claims, we will contact the makers and press them toimprove their carton packing immediately, so that the cargo can be protected from any possible damage by rough handling・10.When checking the number of the goods, we found that their actual number isdifferent from thenumber stated in the invoice and bill of lading・。
第八讲 反倾销规则.
The export price may be constructed on the basis of the price at which the imported products are first resold to an independent buyer, or if the products are not resold to an independent buyer, or not resold in the condition as imported, on such reasonable basis as the authorities may determine.
(2)Export price
Export price generally refers to the actual price which the importer has paid or should pay to the exporter.
If there is no export price or the price is unreliable, we choose constructed export price.
新编国际商务英语函电课后习题句子翻译
（五）：1、As you will see in our price list,we have offered very competitive prices,supplying you our best quality goods.We solicit that you will favor us with your orders,which shall always have our best attention.贵公司将会从我方价格表中看到，我方向贵公司提供了价廉物美的商品。
敬请贵公司向我方订货，我方会精心关照。
2、We should very much like to help you in thismatter,but we have already cut our prices down to the absolute minimum.We think you will find that our competitors are offering a product of cousiderably lower quality in order to compete at this price.我们很乐意帮助你们，但是我们已将价格降到最低限度。
你们将会发现：本公司的竞争者是在以大幅度降低产品质量的方式来压低价格。
3.谢谢你方3月10日来函。
从信中我们获悉你方希望得到我方梅林牌罐头食品的报盘。
Thank you for your letter of March 10,form which we have learned that you hope to receive our offer for “Meiling”brand canned goods.4..我们从贵公司8月20日来函中得知你放打算向我方订购二万公吨化肥 我们很高兴的报价如下。
We have learned form your letter dated August 20 that you are going to place an order with us for 20000 metric tons of chemical fertilizers.We are pleased to quote asfollows..5.兹复你方7月8日函 我们现向你方作如下报盘 以我方最后确认为准。
外贸函电
1.a sales letter 销售信2. expand business 拓展业务3 arouse interest 引发兴趣4. create desire 造成欲望5. carry conviction 有说服力6. induce action 导致行动7. acquire new customers 得到新客户8.follow-up letters 随访信9. refer to the customer’s inquiry 提及顾客询价10. express regret or surprise 表达后悔或惊讶11.discreetly inquire into the reason12.look through one’s record细查我方记录13.note with regret 遗憾的注意到14.a large quantity of typewriters15.do not have the pleasure of an order from you 未有幸从你方得到订单16.have a residue stock of something 有剩余库存17.buy in substantial quantity 大量购买18.allow youa generous discount 给予你方丰厚折扣19.subject to your reply reaching here on or before 20th June 以你方在20日或之前回复为准20.take advantage of this exceptional offer 抓住这次的特殊报价21.household electric appliances家用电器mand ready sales 获得畅销23.make you offers upon receipt of your detailed requirements一旦收到你方具体要求我们将向你方发盘24. conclude some satisfactory transactions with you和你方达成交易25.with a view to supporting your sales为了支持你方销售26.by virtue of its superior quality由于品质优良27.meet with a warm reception收到欢迎28.deem it to your advantage to buy something考虑到购买此商品对你方有利29.in view of the large demand for this commodity考虑到你方对此商品的大量需求30. be not available for supply at present目前无法供货31.avail yourselves of our offer in your interest为了自己的利益不要错过此次报盘1.printed acknowledgements印制好的确认书2.article numbers 货号3.mode of packing 包装方式4. port of destination 目的港5. time of shipment 装运期6.the terms of payment 付款方式7. in preliminary negotiations 初期洽谈8.subject to certain penalties 可以处以某种罚款9.fulfil the contracted terms 履行合同规定条款10.honor their agreement履行协议11.not legally binding 不受法律约束ply with the terms of the order符合订单条款13.the seller’s obligations 卖方义务14.faulty goods15.demand a reduction in price要求降价16.claim on the sellers for the losses thus sustained向卖方要求由此造成的损失赔款17. patterns of cotton prints印花布款式18.on the understanding that条件是19.be supplied from current stock可供现货20.cash against documents凭单付现21.make inquiries concerning our financial standing了解财务状况22.a confirmed and irrevocable letter of credit保兑且不可撤销信用证23.payable by draft at sight凭即期汇票付款24.upon presentation of shipping documents在出示装运单证时25.arrange for despatch by the first available steamer用即期可订得仓位的首班货轮装运26.deal in a wide range of goods27. make/effect delivery at an early date尽早交货28.establish a letter of credit in our favor covering the above-mentioned goods开立以我方为受益人的信用证29 in order to avoid subsequent amendments以免今后修改30.have no alternative but to decline your order我方别无他法，只能拒绝你方订单31. give priority or preference to yours首先或优先考虑你方订货1.irrevocable documentary credit不可撤销跟单信用证2.a standby credit备用信用证3.a back-to-back credit撤销信用证4.the issuing banK 开证行5.the advising bank 通知行6.the confirming bank保兑行7.the nominated paying bank/negotiating bank/accepting bank提名付款行议付行承兑行8. the beneficiary受益人9.irrevocably commit itself to honour the exporter’s draft不可撤销地承诺承付出口商的汇票ply with all the stipulations of the credit符合信用证的一切条款11.give the beneficiary double assurance of payment给受益人付款的双重保证12. under the terms of documents against payment(D/P) or documents against acceptance(D/A)按付款交单或承兑交单的方式13.D/P at sight D/P after sight14.a full set of shipped Bill of Lading已装船的全套清洁提单15 .draw a 60 days’draft on our bank against this credit向你方开出见票后60天付款的信用证16. draw on you at 60 days’ sight/at 60d/s17.Certificate of Origin in duplicate原产地证明一式两份18. Insurance Policy in duplicate covering WPA & War for full invoice value plus 10 %保单一式两份外加10%投保水渍险战争险19. subject to the Uniform Customs & Practice for Documentary Credits (2007 Revision) International Chamber of Commerce Publication No.600并以跟单信用证统一惯例，2007年修订本，国际商会第600号出版物为准20.UCP600信用证统一惯例21. available by draft at sight用即期汇票支付available by draft at 60 days’sight用见票后60天付款的汇票支付22.make an exception to our rules破例23.not regard something as a precedent下不为例24.contrary to our usual practice违反我们的惯例25.Payment is to be made against sight draft draw under a confirmed, irrevocable letter of credit without recourse for the full amount of purchase.全部货款按保兑的不可撤销的无追索权的信用证，凭即期汇票支付。
商务英语翻译
商务英语的homework1. You must be aware that an irrevocable L/C gives the exporter the additional protection of banker's guarantee. 你必须意识到不可撤消信用证给出口商除了银行担保以外的保护。
2. For payment we require 100% value, irrevocable L/C in our favor with partial shipment allowed clause available by draft at sight.对于付款，我方要求开立按照允许分批装运条款的即期汇票的100%价值的对我方有利的不可撤销的信用证。
3. What do you say to 50% by L/C and the balance by D/P?你说的是信用证的50%以及付款交单余额？4. The Barclays Bank in London is in a position to open letters of credit in Renminbi against our sales confirmation or contract.巴克来银行可以凭借我们的销售确认书或合同开立人民币信用证。
5. Your refusal to amend the L/C is equivalent to cancellation of the order.你方拒绝修改信用证就等于取消订单。
6. Our Price terms are CIF Shanghai. If you require FOB London price terms, please let us know immediately, enabling us to requote to you.我方提供上海到岸价目表。
高级口译复习30篇之英译汉
高级口译复习30篇之英译汉（上）Passage 1Australia is a land of exceptional beauty. It is the world's smallest continent and largest island, and a relatively young nation established in an ancient land. A series of geological and historical accidents has made Australia one of the world's most attractive counties from the tourist's viewpoint. This country has a land area of 7,686, 850 square kilometers and its coastline is 36,735 kilometers.// The vast movements of the earth's crust created a vast land of Australia, isolated it and positioned it across the tropical and temperate climatic zones. This land has a small population, which left enormous areas unspoiled. Here you witness an astonishing variety of environments, from desert to rain forest, tropical beach to white snowfield, from big, sophisticated cities to vast uninhabited areas.//澳大利亚是一个异常美丽的国家。
思维导图在高一英语词汇教学中有效应用
- 127 -校园英语 / 基础教育思维导图在高一英语词汇教学中有效应用福建省宁德市高级中学/范小红【摘要】如何在高中的第一年就能让学生有效地记忆词汇，自如地应用一直是高中教师研究的课题。
思维导图能把脑袋里面混乱的、琐碎的记忆贯穿起来，最终以作品的形式完整的体现出来，对高中英语单词记忆帮助很大。
【关键词】词根词缀 组合词 形近意异词 意近词 同性异词 同类别词从教20年，听到最多的就是学生对英语单词的抱怨：难记、难忆。
思维导图是可视化具有放射性思维的方法。
我在高中词汇教学采取如下导图方法：一、词根词缀按照词根词缀记忆一直是英语学习者的有效记忆单词方法之一。
思维导图更加直观地归纳并呈现系统的知识。
例如：1.表示相反意思的前缀有：im, in, dis, un, anti, non, mis, ir, il, de, un, counter, ab.2.表示相反意思的后缀有：less, ary,在归纳的同时让学生在导图中回忆尽可能多的所学过的相关单词，做到恰如其分地融合，提升知识信息的紧密度。
二、组合词高一词汇里出现了好几个以out 为首的词汇： output, outcome, outspoken, outstanding,简单的几个单词在导图的作用下，学生的思维得到完美地拓展，记忆得到充分巩固。
首先把单词分解成词组：output —put out, outcome —come out, outspoken —speak out, outstanding —stand out, 词组的中文也预示着单词的意思。
其次让学生回忆相关单词：outdoors, outgoing, outlook, outbreak, outline 等。
同时老师可以添加单词：outflow ，outlet,帮助学生进行创造性思维，起到一举两得的效果。
学生的联想力是不可估量的，在原有的基础上，教师进一步引导学生联想到以往学过的和out 有关的副词词组：out of date (breath, place, question, sight, reach 等)及一系列动词词组：work (give, come, hand, help, put 等)out 。
翻译的引申
英汉翻译中词义的引申（体验英语3---Unit 1）1. 逻辑引申—几种情况1. 具体---抽象某些表示具体事物的词在翻译时可以进行抽象化引申Every life has its roses and thorns.每个人的生活都有甜有苦。
（译文中对rose,thorns进行了抽象化引申。
）抽象---具体具体化引申：有些代表抽象概念的词翻译时可以将词义进行具体化引申。
例:The administration was free from corruption. 政府没有腐败现象。
（句中corruption译为"腐败现象"更符合汉语习惯。
这届转变视角（逻辑引申逻辑引申- 根据逻辑关系意译）It is all very well, again, to have a tiger in the tank, but to have one in the driver's seat is another matter altogether.当然油箱里装满优质汽油倒是好事，当然油箱里装满优质汽油倒是好事，但是驾驶室里要是坐着横冲直撞的司机就完全是另一回事了。
本句中tiger原义为"老虎"，但在此处意指"标号高的优质汽油"；本文是讲司机在马路上开车时的行为举止，故第二个不定式中的one (tiger)，从上下文的逻辑意思看，无疑是指"横冲直撞的司机"，相当于英语中的a reckless driver。
It is all very well (for sb. to do sth.)，but ...意为"……当然可以……但……"，例如：It's all very well for you to suggest a holiday in Italy, but how am I to find the money? (你提议去意大利度假的确很好，但我怎么去筹划这笔钱呢?)2. 抽象化引申1.Here the exporter’s assets (the money due from the overseas buyer) will always match his liability (his foreign currency borrowings). 这样，出口商的资产（应收海外买方的款项）和自己的债务（海外借款）之间总是保持平衡的。
elasticsearch exporter 告警规则
elasticsearch exporter 告警规则
Elasticsearch Exporter是一个用于监控Elasticsearch集群的软件，可以将Elasticsearch的指标数据导出到Prometheus，以便进行
监控和告警。
下面是一些常见的Elasticsearch Exporter的告警规则：
1. 索引过期：当某个索引的过期时间已经达到或超过了设定的阈值，触发告警。
2. 客户端错误率过高：当Elasticsearch集群接收到的客户端请
求错误率超过了设定的阈值，触发告警。
3. 副本不足：当某个索引的副本数少于设定的阈值，表示索引的冗余备份不足，触发告警。
4. 慢查询：当Elasticsearch集群中某个查询或索引操作的响应
时间超过设定的阈值，触发告警。
5. 集群健康状态：当Elasticsearch集群的健康状态为红色或黄色，表示集群出现了严重问题或警告，触发告警。
6. 磁盘使用率过高：当集群节点上的磁盘使用率超过设定的阈值，表示磁盘空间不足，触发告警。
这些只是一些常见的告警规则，根据实际需求和业务情况，可
以对Elasticsearch Exporter进行定制化，设置适合自己的告警规则。
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Exceptional Exporter Performance?Evidence fromChinese Manufacturing FirmsDan LuUniversity of ChicagoJob Market PaperNov2010I am grateful to Samuel Kortum,Thomas Chaney,Robert Lucas,and Nancy Stokey for their continuous advice and extremely helpful comments.I also thank Fernando Alvarez,Costas Arkolakis,Lorenzo Caliendo, Pedro Gete,Chang-Tai Hsieh,Priscilla Man,Asier Mariscal,Ezra Ober…eld,John Romalis,Robert Shimer, Anna Wang,and seminar participants at Empirical Investigation in Trade,the University of Chicago Money and Banking Workshop,Capital Theory Working Group,and International Economics Working Group for very helpful comments.Please send comments to danlu@.AbstractThis paper uses Chinese…rm-level data to document facts that run counter to the accumu-lated evidence about exporting…rms and provides a model that reconciles these contrasting patterns.The new facts are:(1)China’s exporters are typically less productive and sell less in the domestic market than non-exporters,and(2)the distribution of export inten-sity exhibits a U-shape,with more than half of China’s exporters exporting most of their output.Previous studies of…rms in more developed countries have found that exporters are more productive,sell more in the domestic market,and export only a small fraction of their output.The new facts call into question the generality of recent trade theory,which has been extremely successful in explaining the behavior of exporters in developed countries. However,I show that the economic forces described by Melitz(2003),when properly inter-preted,are exactly the ones needed to explain the observed patterns among Chinese…rms. When countries di¤er in their factor endowment,sectors that are intensive in the locally abundant factor face higher competition in the domestic market than in foreign markets. Hence domestic rather than export markets select the most e¢cient…rms.In the Chinese data,both the productivity di¤erences between exporters and non-exporters as well as the distribution of export intensity are systematically related to the labor intensity of the…rm or its industry.This relationship is exactly what is predicted by a Melitz model augmented to allow for factor intensity to vary by stly,I show that the model correctly predicts the e¤ects of trade liberalization in China following China’s integration into the WTO in2001.1IntroductionThis paper documents stylized facts about exporting…rms in China that contrast with the accumulated evidence in the literature.First,China’s exporters are typically less productive and sell less in the domestic market than non-exporters.Second,the distribution of export intensity in China exhibits a U-shape,i.e.,while many exporters only export a very small fraction of their output,another large set of exporters export the majority of their output. However,previous studies of…rms in developed countries have found that exporters are more productive,sell more in the domestic market than their non-exporting counterparts, and export only a small fraction of their output.1These facts seem to be inconsistent with existing trade theories as well.Existing theories (e.g.Melitz(2003),Chaney(2008),Eaton,Kortum,and Kramarz(2009))postulate that …rms di¤er in production e¢ciency.With…xed costs and trade costs of selling to foreign markets,only the more productive…rms will be able to export.These models seem to be a poor match for the behavior of Chinese…rms,which raises the question:How can we explain the very di¤erent…rms’exporting behavior?A useful clue comes from the fact that export patterns of Chinese…rms are systematically related to the factor intensity of…rms/sectors.In labor-intensive sectors,exporters are actually the majority,are less productive than non-exporters,and export a large fraction of their output.On the other hand,in capital-intensive sectors,exporters are the minority,are more productive than non-exporters,and export a small fraction of their output.This brings us to an explanation based on factor intensity.Indeed,Melitz’s(2003)insight is that only the more productive…rms are able to enter tougher markets,which we have always assumed to be the foreign markets.This is not necessarily the case,especially if countries di¤er in factor endowments,and sectors di¤er in factor intensities.In particular, for a labor-abundant country like China,wages in its main export destinations are likely to be higher than its domestic wage.For labor-intensive goods,prices are higher in the foreign market than in the domestic market.Thus the exporting markets are less competitive than the domestic market for Chinese…rms in the labor-intensive sectors.As a result,less productive…rms sell only to foreign markets while the survivors in the more competitive domestic market are the more productive…rms.For example,for a Chinese producer of apparel(a labor-intensive sector),the Chinese market,populated by…rms with access to cheap labor,is much tougher than the US market,populated mostly by…rms with access to more expensive labor.The opposite is true for capital-intensive sectors.For a Chinese 1For example,Bernard and Jensen(1995,1999),Aw,Chung,and Roberts(1998),and Bernard and Wagner(1996)show that across a wide range of countries and industries,employment,shipments,wages, productivity,and capital intensity are all higher at exporters than non-exporters at any given moment.producer of pharmaceuticals(a capital-intensive sector),it is much harder to enter the US market than the domestic market.The relative competitiveness of markets also explains…rms’export intensity.By adopting Arkolakis’s(2008)market access costs,we expect that the more productive…rms in markets will access more consumers and sell more.For Chinese…rms in labor-intensive sectors,the foreign markets are less competitive than the domestic market.These exporters are relatively more pro…table in foreign markets and are thus able to access more consumers there.Hence, a large fraction of their output is sold abroad.Again the opposite is true for exporters in capital-intensive sectors.Exporters sell a small fraction of their output abroad.The model explains the di¤erent patterns of trade,productivity,and export intensity in China as well as in developed countries documented in the literature.When embedded in a general equilibrium framework,the model predicts that if we lower import tari¤s in China,labor will shift to labor-intensive sectors because of Heckscher–Ohlin e¤ects.In addition,the productivity advantage of exporters decreases across all sectors as the domestic markets become more competitive due to foreign competition.These predictions are con…rmed by the Chinese data when China joined the WTO in2001and reduced import tari¤s dramatically.In the literature,the superior performance of exporting…rms relative to non-exporters is often explained by self-selection(i.e.,good…rms become exporters)rather than by learning by exporting.This paper supports the self-selection mechanism precisely because exporters do not necessarily exhibit superior performance.2Introducing factor endowments and di¤erent factor intensity across sectors into Melitz (2003)follows the model of Bernard,Redding,and Schott(2007).But in this paper,I show why we need to bring Heckscher-Ohlin theory to the study of…rm-level trade.When…rms in a labor-abundant country like China export to developed countries,comparative advantage makes it easier to enter foreign markets for labor-intensive goods;hence…rms’exporting behavior exhibits patterns opposite to those observed in capital-abundant countries.The rest of this paper is organized as follows:Section2reports the facts.Section3 explains individual…rms’decisions in a partial equilibrium setup,and shows how the model …ts the data.Section4presents the general equilibrium analysis and the e¤ects of tari¤change.Section5concludes.2Clerides,Lach,and Tybout(1998)concludes that the well-known e¢ciency gap between exporters and non-exporters is due to self-selection of the more e¢cient…rms into the export market,rather than due to learning by exporting.Bernard and Jensen(1999)also…nds evidence that good…rms become exporters.Both growth rates and levels of success measures are higher ex-ante for exporters,while the bene…ts of exporting for the…rm are less clear.Whether exporting improves Chinese…rms’performance is not analyzed in the paper.2Empirical EvidenceThe data used in this paper comes from a…rm-level data set from the Annual Census of Enterprises by the Chinese National Bureau of Statistics from1998to2007.3It includes all the State-Owned Enterprise(henceforth SOE)and non-SOEs with sales over5million RMB (about600,000US dollars),yielding162,855…rms in the2000survey.This number rises to336,768in2007.The data contain all information from the three accounting statements (balance sheet,pro…t&loss,and cash‡ow),which include more than100…nancial variables for each…rm.The analyses are based on all manufacturing…rms,representing90%of all …rms in the sample.Their exports total about90%of Chinese manufacturing exports from aggregate trade data.2.1Export Participation and ProductivityThis section describes the overall patterns of Chinese manufacturing…rms’exporting behav-iors.By comparing the statistics with those from US…rms,4I demonstrate the systematic di¤erences between Chinese and US…rms.Table1:Exporting ParticipationPercentage of Manufacturing FirmsExport Status China a US b Germany c France d Taiwan eSome Exports29.6214417.446Export Value/Gross ProductionChina US2214a The statistics are calculated from the Annual Census of Enterprises in China,for all manufacturing…rms in2005.b Bernard,Eaton,Jensen,and Kortum(2003),1992US Census of Manufactures.c Bernard and Wagner(1997),1978and1992Annual Survey of Establishments,Lower Saxony State,Germany.d Eaton,Kortum,and Kramarz(2004),1986Customs and BRN-SUSE datasource.e Aw and Hwang(1994),1986Taiwanese electronics industry.The…rst natural question would be:How many…rms export?Table1reports the overall export participation for manufacturers.The fraction of exporting…rms in China is higher than that in the US,but exporters are still in the minority.3I thank Liutang Gong in Beijing University for providing this data.4Statistics from other countries,if available,are also shown.Note that they are similar to the US…gures.For…rms that export,how much do they sell abroad?Table2reports the distribution of export intensity–export values as the percentage of total output–for exporters.Notice that the Chinese export intensity distribution is U-shaped:fewer than20%of exporters sell less than10%of their output abroad,while about40%of them export more than90%of their output.Table2:Export Intensity of ExportersPercentage of ExportersExport Intensity(%)China a US b Germany c0to1018.15665010to208.601620to30 4.987.730to40 4.52 4.440to50 4.26 2.450to60 4.13 1.512.660to70 4.35 1.070to80 5.080.680to90 6.460.590to10039.490.7a The statistics are calculated from the Annual Census of Enterprises in China,for all manufacturing…rms in2005.b Bernard,Eaton,Jensen,and Kortum(2003).c Bernard and Wagner(1997).This is signi…cantly di¤erent from the US distribution.The second column of Table2, taken from Bernard et.al.(2003),indicates that two-thirds of US exporters sell less than 10%of their output abroad,and fewer than5%of them export more than50%of their output.5Are exporting…rms systematically di¤erent from non-exporting…rms in China?The answer is yes,as demonstrated by Table3.6Chinese exporting…rms are larger than non-exporters,though the di¤erence is not as pronounced as for their US counterparts.The more striking…nding is that exporting…rms have lower labor productivity(about10%)than non-exporters.Again these patterns are di¤erent for US exporters are more productive than their non-exporting counterparts with higher(more than30%)sales per worker and value added per worker.75The third column for Germany should indicate that50%of exporters export less than15%of their output;overall,12.6%of exporters export more than50%of their output.6In this table,I de…ne exporters relative to non-exporters as the arithmetic mean value of exporters divided by the arithmetic mean of non-exporters to facilitate a direct comparison with the US…gures in Bernard and Jensen(1995).However,since the data distributions are close to log-normal,a geometric mean is probably more appropriate and is used in the rest of this paper.7One may argue that,since Chinese exporters use labor more intensively,di¤erences in value added perTable3:Firms CharacteristicsExporters Relative to Non-Exporters aChina US b Germany France TaiwanTotal sales 2.92 6.48 5.872815.41Employment 2.59 4.38 3.848.17Value added 2.7413.35Sales per worker0.91 1.36 1.01 1.56Value added per worker0.86 1.390.99 1.22a Mean value of exporters divided by mean value of non-exporters.b Bernard and Jensen(1995),1987US Census of Manufactures.These…ndings suggest that…rm exporting behavior in China exhibits a pattern di¤erent from the United States and other countries.Why is this the case?2.2Determinants of Market Selection:Labor-Intensity of Firmsor Their SectorsIn this section I consider the explanatory power of the capital-labor ratio.I examine the three questions in Section2.1by the labor-intensity of…rms or their sectors:How many…rms export?How much do they export?What is the productivity di¤erence between exporters and non-exporters?Export ParticipationTo do so,I…rst rank sectors by their capital-labor ratio.Figure1plots the share of exporting…rms in2-digit sectors(on the y-axis)against the median capital-labor ratio in the sector.There is a clear negative relationship between export participation and the capital-labor ratio:more…rms in the sector export if the sector uses labor more intensively. Distributions of Export IntensityI then plot the histogram of export intensity in sectors grouped by their factor inten-sity.Figures2,3,and4show the distribution of export intensity of exporters in sectors with low,medium,and high capital-labor ratio,respectively.A common pattern is that exporters in labor-intensive sectors export a large fraction of their output,while exporters in capital-intensive sectors export only a small fraction of their output.The distributions of export intensity shifts to the left as sectors’relative capital usage increases.In general, the distribution of foreign-owned…rms(including Hong Kong,Macau,and Taiwan…rms,worker in China cannot be directly compared to the same ratio in US,as it may misrepresent the di¤erences in TFP.However,Chinese exporters on average are still less productive than non-exporters after controlling for factor usage.See Section2.2for details.Figure3:Sectorsand…rms in tari¤free zones)are more concentrated to the right(which means they sell relatively more abroad than domestic…rms).Yet they exhibit a similar left-shifting pattern as we move from labor-intensive to capital-intensive sectors.Productivity Di¤erences Between Exporters and Non-ExportersI also examine average labor productivity(in terms of value added per worker)for ex-porters and non-exporters across di¤erent sectors.The x-axes in Figures5and6are the median capital-labor ratio of sectors.Figure5plots the value-added per worker for exporting and non-exporting…rms in each sector.Notice that in labor-intensive sectors,non-exporters have higher productivity than exporters,whereas the reverse is true in capital-intensive sectors.Figure6plots the di¤erences in value added per worker between exporters and non-exporters for each sector.The di¤erence between exporters and non-exporters increases with capital intensity.The di¤erences are negative for labor-intensive sectors,meaning that exporters have lower labor productivity in these sectors.8It is possible that a sector median is not a good classi…cation for a…rm’s technology and capital-labor usage.To further explore the relationship between factor intensity and productivity di¤erences,I rank…rms by their capital-labor ratio and group them into100 bins.Within each group,…rms are choosing a very similar capital-labor ratio.In this case, di¤erences in value added per worker represent di¤erences in…rm TFP.8The pattern is similar if we exclude SOEs.Among non-SOEs,exporters are less productive in labor-intensive sectors,and the productivity di¤erence between exporters and non-exporters has a signi…cant positive relation with the capital-labor usage.Therefore,SOEs are not the explanation of this relationship.Figure6:SectorsFigure7:Figure8:Productivity Di¤erences Between Exporters and Non-Exporters and the95%con-…denceFigure7plots the mean level of log value added per worker of exporters and non-exporters across di¤erent capital-labor-ratio bins.Figure8shows the di¤erences between the value of exporters and non-exporters and the95%con…dence intervals.Again,the productivity di¤erence between exporters and non-exporters has a signi…cant positive relation with the capital-labor ratio.Exporters are more productive among capital-intensive goods,but not among labor-intensive goods.Figure9reports the results from the same exercise excluding SOEs.The pattern is similar,suggesting that SOEs are not generating the signi…cant positive relationship observed.Another possible productivity measure is sales.Under monopolistic competition and CES preferences,more e¢cient…rms have larger sales.Figure10plots the total sales of exporters and non-exporters across di¤erent capital-labor-ratio bins.It is not surprising that exporters have higher sales than non-exporters,as they enter into more markets.If we consider sales in a single market,the domestic market only,we get Figure11(I also plot the percentage of exporter selling in the domestic market for the readers’information). Domestic sales of exporters are smaller than non-exporters for labor-intensive goods,but larger for capital-intensive goods.Both sales and domestic sales…gures exhibit a systematic relationship between the exporter-nonexporter di¤erence and capital-labor usage as seen earlier.The evidence suggests a systematic relationship between the capital-labor ratio and ex-port patterns.Any good explanation of the overall pattern of export behavior should alsoFigure9:Productivity Di¤erences Between Exporters and Non-Exporters and the95%con-…denceFigure BinsFigure11:K/L Bins3ModelTo recap,Chinese exporters are less e¢cient than non-exporters on average.This fact seems to contradict the existing theories of export participation(Melitz(2003)),which predict only the more e¢cient…rms will export to the tougher foreign market.At the same time, the systematic relationship between exporters non-exporters productivity di¤erences and capital-labor ratio hints at an explanation driven by factor intensity,a mechanism which is absent in the existing models.Indeed,when relative factor endowment in the domestic and foreign markets di¤er,whether the foreign market is"tougher"depends on the factor intensity.In Section3.1,I introduce endowment-driven comparative advantage into Melitz(2003) and Chaney(2008)in a manner similar to Bernard,Redding,and Schott(2007).The stripped-down model is used to give the intuition for why such a model can explain the trade patterns in China and in developed countries.The full model which adds market access costs(Arkolakis,2008)and…rm-speci…c shocks in entry costs(Eaton,Kortum,and Kramarz,2009)is presented in Section3.2.I show that 9In Appendix A,I consider and reject several explanations of di¤erences between US and Chinese ex-porters.Overall,SOE or foreign-owned…rms’behavior,tari¤free zones,and processing trade explain little of the opposite patterns observed in China.the observations documented in Section2,which seem to contradict the existing models, actually…t the natural hybrid model,both qualitatively and quantitatively.3.1A Baseline ModelThere are2countries,m;n2f CN;US g,that produce goods using capital and labor.Chinais relatively labor abundant:K CNL CN <K USL US.In this section,I restrict the analysis to a partialequilibrium model by assuming w CNr CN <w USr US,i.e.,China has relatively cheap labor.A generalequilibrium analysis consistent with this assumption is deferred to Section4.To focus on di¤erences in factor costs,countries are assumed to have the same preferences and technology.There are I sectors in each country.PreferencesIn both countries,utility is a Cobb-Douglas function of the I sector goods,with i2(0;1) being the share of spending on sector i.U=Y i2I C i i.Sector i consumption is a composite of individual varieties sold in the market,C i= Z i q i(z) 1 d (z) 1;P i= Z i p i(z)1 d (z) 11 ,where is the elasticity of substitution across varieties.Assume is the same across countries and sectors.TechnologyFirms within each sector have heterogeneous productivity.The measure of potential…rms in country m and sector i who have productivity at least z is:i m(z)=T m z .Assume is the same across countries and sectors.10The production function for a…rm with productivity z in sector i is:y i(z)=zl i k1 i,where i is the labor intensity of sector i.Sector i is more labor intensive than sector i0if 10Assumption of Pareto distribution makes the model analytically simple.Results hold for general pro-ductivity distributions.i> i0.Trade BarriersSelling goods in a foreign country incurs transportation cost d>1and tari¤charge >0.Transportation costs are iceberg costs:for1unit of goods to arrive in n,d nm units need to be shipped from m.On the other hand,tari¤s distort prices but do not entail a physical loss of goods.Trade barriers can take many forms;here I only consider‡at rate tari¤s nm which are levied by country n on goods imported from m.Tari¤revenues are rebated as lump sum payments to households in n.Firm DecisionsThere is a…xed entry cost to sell in each market(country).Each…rm in each country decides where to sell its output and what price to set in each market.PricingFor simplicity I drop the country index.The variable cost function for a…rm in sector iis c i(z)=B w i r1 iz,where B= (1 ) 1.In the home market the…rm sets a price that is the usual markup over unit cost:p i(z)=1c i(z).If it sells in a foreign country,it adjusts that price for tari¤s and trade costs:p i x(z)=d(1+ )1c i(z).The potential revenue from selling in either market iss i n(z)=( i X n) p i(z)P i n 1 ,n=CN;US(1)where X n is the total spending of the market and P i n is the price index of the market.Market SelectionLet E d and E x be the Chinese…rms’entry cost to the domestic and foreign market respectively.Note the entry costs here are the…xed costs in Melitz(2003).Because the model here is static,there is no entry costs f e on free-entry condition.The net pro…ts for…rm z from selling in the domestic and foreign market are:i d(z)=s id(z)E di x(z)=s i x(z)E x.Then the productivity cuto¤s of entering domestic and foreign markets are z idand z i x, respectively:s i d z i d = E ds i x z i x = E x.(2)Using the formula for the revenue(1)and combining the expressions of productivity cuto¤s(2),we get the relationship between domestic and exporting productivity cuto¤s:z i x z i d =d(1+ )P idP i x X d E x X x E d1 1.(3)The literature to date assumes that countries are symmetric,in which case P i dP i x=1,thenz i x z i d >1due to extra trade costs or higher…xed costs for exporting.Because the existingempirical evidence…nds that only the most productive…rms export,the productivity cuto¤for exporting must be higher.But,in theory,this ratio can be less than1.In particular,ifP i d P i x is low enough,then z i xz id<1and the domestic market is tougher than the foreign market,so that less productive…rms sell to the foreign market.P i dP i x =P i CNP iUSis decreasing in the laborintensity of the sector i(Proof is provided in Section3.2).Therefore,it is more likely that the price ratio is low enough in labor-intensive sectors in China to make z i xz id<1.Figure12:Productivity Cuto¤s for Market EntryCapital intensivez x z d >1t0--domestic-foreignt z d t z x zLabor intensivez x z d <1t--foreign-domestict z x t z d zFigure12summarizes Chinese…rms’decisions for the domestic and foreign markets andfor di¤erent sectors.For the labor-intensive sector,P dP x is very small and z xz d<1.Intuitively,since wages are generally higher in the main export destinations of Chinese products than in China,labor-intensive goods are more expensive in those markets.With frictional trade,the price indices of those goods in foreign markets decrease but are still higher than that in the Chinese market.Hence,for labor-intensive goods,foreign markets are less competitive than the domestic(Chinese)market.As a result,less productive…rms sell only to the foreign market,while survivors in the more competitive domestic market are more productive.The opposite is true for capital-intensive sectors:Capital is abundant abroad,so foreign…rms have lower costs.Since the foreign market is more competitive, only the most productive Chinese…rms can export.Less productive Chinese…rms in those sectors can sell domestically,but they cannot export.At the same time,it can happen that for US…rms,the foreign market is tougher in both the capital and labor-intensive sectors.Therefore,productive US…rms export in both capital and labor-intensive sectors.11For Chinese…rms,more productive…rms export in capital-intensive sectors and less productive…rms export in labor-intensive sectors.Relative market competitiveness,hence the productivity cuto¤s in(3)also depend on markets size and entry costs.When the US market is larger or the entry cost is lower,the above case is more likely to happen.3.2Full ModelThe baseline model shows that augmenting the Melitz model to allow for factor intensity that varies by industry can explain the very di¤erent exporting patterns in China and the US. In this section,I follow Eaton,Kortum,and Kramarz(2009)to introduce…rm-by-market speci…c shocks in entry costs or/and demand and incorporate Arkolakis’s(2008)formulation of market access costs.The former helps explain market entry decisions,and the latter helps explain export intensity.The extended model…ts the data quantitatively.In the basic model,…rms enter markets according to a perfect hierarchy.Any…rm selling to a tougher market necessarily sells to the softer market as well.Therefore,when the domestic market is tougher,any…rm selling in the domestic market should also export. On the other hand,when the foreign market is tougher,every exporter should sell in the domestic market as well.Neither the French nor the Chinese data display this rigid pattern, so in this section I incorporate…rm-by-market speci…c shocks to break the deterministic ranking of markets.In the Melitz model,the distribution of export intensity is degenerate.For a n-country model,the distribution is a step function depending on the number of countries…rms sell to.Introducing an endogenous marketing costs adds an intensive margin and shows how relative toughness of the markets a¤ects…rms’sales in di¤erent markets.Entry CostsConsider a…rm in country m.In addition to its idiosyncratic productivity shock z,it has an idiosyncratic shock"n to its marketing cost in country n.I assume…rm(z;~")pays a11Note even with symmetric market sizes and entry costs,Chinese…rms cuto¤ratio is d(1+ )P i cnP i usandUS…rms cuto¤ratio is d(1+ )P i usP i cn with d(1+ )>1.Hence it can happen that z i xz id<1and z ixz i0d>1for Chinese labor-intensive and capital-intensive goods,respectively,while z i xz id >1for both US labor andcapital-intensive goods.。