英语语言学笔记第四章
新篇简明英语语言学-Chapter--Four---Syntax

Chapter Four Syntax 句法学一、定义1. syntax句法学:Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.句法学是一门研究语言的规则,这些规则控制句子的形成。
〔把单词凑在一起形成句子〕二、知识点4.2 Category 范畴Syntactic category 句法类型: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called Syntactic category. 单词可以被组成数量相对较小的类别,称为句法类型。
This classification reflects a variety of factors, (1) including the type of meaning that words express, (2) the type of affies that they take, (3) and the type of structures in which they can occur.这种分类反映出各种不同的因素:〔1〕包括单词所表达的意义的类别,〔2〕它们所带词缀的类别,〔3〕它们所能出现的结构的类别。
word level category词层面类型〔对于句法学而言最核心的类型〕1. Major lexical categories 主要词汇类型〔词性〕:名、动、形、副词N, V, Adj, Adv〔open开放性词类,can add new words〕P43图〔在句子构成中起重要作用〕1〕主要词类又称开放词类,可以不断地出现新词。
在英语,它们主要有四类:名词〔N〕: student linguistics lecture动词〔V〕: like red go形容词〔adj〕: tall lovely red副词〔adv〕: loudly constantly hardP134中2. Minor lexical categories 次要词汇类型〔词性〕:限定、程度、量词、助动、介、代、连、叹Det, Deg, Qual, Aux, Prep, Pron, Conj, Int 〔close封闭性词类, words are fixed不添加新词〕P43图2〕次要词类又称闭合词类。
英语语言学Chapter 4 Syntax

2) Immediate constituent analysis
❖ Immediate constituent analysis: Immediate constituents analysis may be defined as the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents—word groups or phrases, which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached. Such a process of analysis of sentence structure is known as IC Analysis.
poor John;
will have been leaving;
really very late;
the book on the shelf;
walked away immediately.
❖ Exocentric construction (离心结构): An exocentric construction is one whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents, none of which serves as a noticeable head or a center of the whole. For instance, PP, if adverbial clauses, and clauses, which have no functional head, belong to exocentric constructions.
语言学chapter 4 笔记

Chapter 4 SyntaxTeaching AimsTo enable students to master the categories of word and phraseTo make students understand the rules of phrase structure and sentence structureTo enable students to recognize transformations in transformational generative grammar4.1 What is syntax?Syntax is the study of the internal structures of sentence and the rules for the combination of words. The term syntax came originally from Greek word meant arrangement. What that means is that sentences are structured according to particular arrangement of words. Well-arranged sentences are considered to grammatical sentences. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.Types of sentences:: consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.: contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunctions, such as “and”, “by”, “or”…: contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the otherEmbedded clause子句←→ matrix clause主句Transformational Generative Grammar (TG)⏹Norm. Chomsky, the most influential linguist in 20th century, some important works:⏹(1957) Syntactic Structure;⏹(1965) Aspects of the Theory of Syntax;⏹(1981) Lectures on Government and Binding;⏹(1986) Barriers⏹(1993) A Minimalist Program for Linguistic Theory;⏹(1995) The Minimalist Program;⏹(1998) The Minimalist Inquiry……Criteria on good grammar⏹Observational adequacy⏹Descriptive adequacy⏹Explanatory adequacy(The ultimate goal for any theory is to explain.)TG differs from traditional grammar in that it not only aims at language description, but also its explanation. Chomsky is much more interested in the similarities (language universals) between languages rather than their differences:⏹Linguists should attempt to find a grammatical framework which will be suitable for all languages;⏹Linguists should concentrate on the elements and constructions that are available to all languages rather thanon elements that actually occur in all languages.⏹There are likely to be universal constraints on the ways linguistic elements are combined⏹Chomsky proposed that the grammars of all human languages share a common framework (UniversalGrammar).4.2 Categories4.2.1 Word-level categoriesCategory refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories (traditionally, parts of speech)the predicate句法范畴词汇范畴Major lexical categories (open categories): N. V. Adj. Adv.Minor lexical categories (closed categories): Det. Aux. Prep. Pron. Conj. Int.The criteria on which categories are determined:⏹Meaning⏹Inflection⏹DistributionNote:The most reliable criterion of determining a word‟s category is its distribution.短语范畴4.2.2 Phrase categories and their structuresPhrase categories----the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories, such as NP(N), VP(V), AP(A), PP(P).The structure: specifier + head + complement⏹Head---- the word around which a phrase is formed⏹Specifier---- the words on the left side of the heads⏹Complement---- the words on the right side of the heads4.3 Phrase structure ruleThe grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as:⏹NP→ (Det) + N +(PP)……e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls.⏹VP→ (Qual) + V + (NP)……e.g. always play games, finish assignments.⏹AP→ (Deg) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to⏹PP→ (Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station.S→ NP VP (A sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase)NP→ (det.限定词) (Adj.) N (PP) (S)… “→”:包括/分为VP→ (qual.修饰词)V (NP) (POP) (S)… “( )”:内部的成分可以省略AP→ (deg.程度词)A (PP) (S)… “…”:可以选择附加其他补语PP→(deg.)P NP…Significantly, the above rules can generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinite length, due to their recursive properties.4.3.1 XP ruleXPSpecifier X ComplementNote: The phrase structure rules can be summed up as XP rule shown in the diagram, in which X stands for N, V, A or P.X‟ Theory⏹XP → (Specifier)X‟⏹X‟ → X(complement)XP(Phrase level)Specifier X’X(head) complement4.3.2 Coordination ruleCoordination structures-----the structures that are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, or, etc.----Coordination has four important properties:⏹no limit on the number of coordinated categories before the conjunction;⏹ a category at any level can be coordinated;⏹the categories must be of the same type;⏹the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.4.4 Phrase element4.4.1 Specifiers---- Semantically, specifiers make more precise the meaning of the head; syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary. Specifiers can be determiners as in NP, qulifiers as in VP and degree words as in AP.4.4.2 Complements---- Complements themselves can be a phrase, they provide information abut entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head, e.g. a story about a sentimental girl;There can be no complement, one complement, or more than one complement in a phrase, e.g. appear, break, put…; a sentence-like construction may also function as a complement such as in “I believed that she was innocent.I doubt if she will come. They are keen for you to show up.” That/if /for are complementizers, the clauses introduced by complementizers are complement clause.4.4.3 Modifiers---- Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of heads.4.5 Sentences (The S rule)S→NP VPSNP VPDet N VDet NA boy found the evidenceS→NP infl VPInflP(=S)NP Infl VPMany linguists believe that sentences, like other phrases, also have their own heads. Infl is an abstract category inflection (dubbed …Infl‟) as their heads, which indicates the sentence‟s tense and agreement.Infl realized by a tense labelInflP(=S)NP VPDet N V NPInfl Det NA boy Pst found the evidenceInfl realized by an auxiliaryInflP(=S)NP VPDet N V NPInfl Det NA boy will find the evidence4.6 Transformations4.6.1 Auxiliary movement (inversion)Inversio n→Move Infl to the left of the subject NP.Inversion (revised)→Move Infl to C.CPC SNP VDet N InflThe train will arriveCPC SNP VInfl Det N InflWill The train e arrive4.6.2 Do insertionDo insertion---- Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position.CPC SNP Infl VPBirds fly Figure-1CPC SNP Infl VPBirds do fly Figure-2CPC SInfl NP Infl VPDo Birds e fly Figure-34.6.3 Deep structure and surface structureConsider the following pair of sentences:John is easy to please.John is eager to please.Structurally similar sentences might be very different in their meanings, for they have quite different deep structures. Consider one more sentence:Flying planes can be dangerous.It can mean either that if you fly planes you are engaged in a dangerous activity or Planes that are flying are dangerous. Deep structure----formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head‟s sub-categorization properties; it contains all the units and relationships that are necessary for interpreting the meaning of the sentence.(Deep structure---the structure that corresponds most closely to the meaningful grouping of words. It is abstract, which gives the meaning of a sentence and which itself is not pronounceable.)Surface structure----corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations; it is that of the sentence as it is pronounced or written.(Surface structure--- linear arrangement of words as they are pronounced. A surface structure is relatively concrete, and gives the form of a sentence as it is used in communication.)D-structure: phrase structure rules + lexiconThe organization of the syntactic component:The XP rule↓Deep structure←Subcategorization restricts choice of complements↓transformations↓Surface structure4.6.4 Wh movementConsider the derivation of the following sentences:What languages can you speak?What can you talk about?These sentences may originate as:You can speak what languages.You can talk about what.Wh-movement---- Move a wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence.What language can you speak ?Wh-movement---- Move a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP. (Revised)CPNP C SWho NP Infl VPe Pst V NPwon the game4.6.5 Move α and constraints on transformationsInversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position, but not to a more distant C position. No element may be removed from a coordinate structure.。
英语语言学Chapter 4_gram

NP=noun phrase AP=adjective phrase VP=verb phrase PP=preposition phrase S=sentence or clause
19
Bracketing
Bracketing is not as common in use, but it is an economic notation in representing the constituent/phrase structure of a grammatical unit.
15
Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis) The girl ate the apple
16
This analysis, in terms of its immediate constituents, which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached, are called IC Analysis. The principle is that we always take a sentence and cut it into two parts.
To make it more understandable, they are called Vertical Relations or Choice Relations. The relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure.
胡壮麟语言学笔记无私分享(英语)

胡壮麟语言学笔记无私分享(全;免"支持"版:)《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章??语言的性质语言的定义:语言的基本特征(任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性);语言的功能(寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为);语言的起源(神授说,人造说,进化说)等。
第二章? ?? ?语言学语言学定义;研究语言的四大原则(穷尽、一致、简洁、客观);语言学的基本概念(口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为);普通语言学的分支(语音、音位、语法、句法、语义);;语言学的应用(语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学)等。
第三章? ?? ?语音学发音器官的英文名称;英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法;语音学的定义;发音语音学;听觉语音学;声学语音学;元音及辅音的分类;严式与宽式标音等。
第四章? ???音位学音位理论;最小对立体;自由变异;互补分布;语音的相似性;区别性特征;超语段音位学;音节;重音(词重音、句子重音、音高和语调)等。
第五章? ? 词法学词法的定义;曲折词与派生词;构词法(合成与派生);词素的定义;词素变体;自由词素;粘着词素(词根,词缀和词干)等。
第六章? ? 词汇学词的定义;语法词与词汇词;变词与不变词;封闭词与开放词;词的辨认;习语与搭配。
第七章??句法句法的定义;句法关系;结构;成分;直接成分分析法;并列结构与从属结构;句子成分;范畴(性,数,格);一致;短语,从句,句子扩展等。
第八章? ?语义学语义的定义;语义的有关理论;意义种类(传统、功能、语用);里奇的语义分类;词汇意义关系(同义、反义、下义);句子语义关系。
第九章? ?语言变化语言的发展变化(词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化);第十章??语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义;萨丕尔-沃夫假说;语言与思维的关系;语言与文化的关系;中西文化的异同。
语言学第四章chapter4

英语语言学:第4章
Adverbs are words that describe or add to the meaning of a verb, an adjective, another adverb, or a sentence, and which answers the questions introduced by how, where, when, etc. carefully, slowly, then, now Prepositions are words used with nouns in phrases providing information about time, place and other connections involving actions and things.
河南大学外语学院 马应聪
英语语言学:第4章
Syntactic rules
(1) a. The hunter fears the cries of the blackbirds. b. The blackbirds fear the cries of the hunter. (2) a. Jack looked up the word. b. Jack looked the word up. (3) *Cries fear the the of hunter blackbirds the. Conclusion: The structure of sentence such as word order can change the meaning. Every sentence is a sequence of words but not every sequence of words is a sentence. Sentence formation has rules, so that we have well/ill formed or (un)grammatical sentences.
英语语言学笔记第四章

句法(syntax)这个单词,来自希腊语,由两个语素构成:﹛syn﹜和﹛tax﹜。
﹛syn﹜的意思是"一起、共同",﹛tax﹜的意思是"安排、排列",因此syntax本来是"排列在一起"或"组合"的意思。
在语言学上,它是指研究语言中词组合成句子的支配规则,或者简单地说,是研究句子的构造。
因为通常认为句子是语言中最大的语法单位,所以句法长期以来是语法研究的核心。
不同的语言学理论首先体现在对句子结构的不同处理上。
这一章我们将介绍一些有代表性的句法学派。
4.1 传统学派传统认为句子是词的序列。
因此句子构造的研究涉及了对词的大量研究,例如,词类是对词进行的分类,主语、谓语是对词功能的描写,等等。
这些词类和功能有时叫做范畴。
但是"范畴"这个术语,更专门用于表示像名词、动词这些单位的特性。
例如:常说名词有数、性、格的范畴,动词有时、体、态的范畴。
在这里,我们将简要地讨论以上一些范畴。
名词、动词、形容词等形式在有关范畴中的相互关系将在"一致关系和支配关系"中讨论。
4.1.1 数、性、格4.1.2 时和体4.1.3 一致关系和支配关系4.1.1 数、性、格数(number),主要是名词和代词的范畴,如:a book(一本书);some books(一些书);I(我),we(我们);he(他),they(他们)。
英语动词也反映了数的范畴,如:He speaks English.(他说英语);They speak English.(他们说英语)。
在法语等语言中,形容词和冠词也有数的变化,如:le cheval royal,les chevaux royaux。
数一般有两种:单数和复数。
但是在古希腊语、阿拉伯语等语言中,还有第三种数:双数,类似于英语中的both(双方,两者)。
斐济群岛语还有第四种数:三数。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第四章

Chapter 4 Syntax1. Immediate Constituent Analysis (直接成分分析法)DefinitionIt may be defined as: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached. However, for the sake of convenience, in practice we usually stop at the level of word. The immediate constituent analysis of a sentence may be carried out with brackets or with a tree diagram.直接成分分析法先把句子分析为直接成分---词组(或短语),再把这些直接成分依次切分,得到各自的直接成分,层层切分,直到最终成分为止。
实际操作中,为了方便,通常切到词为止。
直接成分分析法可以用括弧或树形图表示。
Advantages:Through IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, ambiguities, if any, will be revealed. 通过IC分析法,句子的内在结构可以清晰地展示出来,如果有歧义,也会被揭示出来。
Problems①At the beginning, some advocators insisted on binary divisions. Any construction, at anylevel, will be cut into two parts. But this is not always possible.开始的时候,一些提倡者坚持二元切分。
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句法(syntax)这个单词,来自希腊语,由两个语素构成:﹛syn﹜和﹛tax﹜。
﹛syn﹜的意思是"一起、共同",﹛tax﹜的意思是"安排、排列",因此syntax本来是"排列在一起"或"组合"的意思。
在语言学上,它是指研究语言中词组合成句子的支配规则,或者简单地说,是研究句子的构造。
因为通常认为句子是语言中最大的语法单位,所以句法长期以来是语法研究的核心。
不同的语言学理论首先体现在对句子结构的不同处理上。
这一章我们将介绍一些有代表性的句法学派。
4.1 传统学派传统认为句子是词的序列。
因此句子构造的研究涉及了对词的大量研究,例如,词类是对词进行的分类,主语、谓语是对词功能的描写,等等。
这些词类和功能有时叫做范畴。
但是"范畴"这个术语,更专门用于表示像名词、动词这些单位的特性。
例如:常说名词有数、性、格的范畴,动词有时、体、态的范畴。
在这里,我们将简要地讨论以上一些范畴。
名词、动词、形容词等形式在有关范畴中的相互关系将在"一致关系和支配关系"中讨论。
4.1.1 数、性、格4.1.2 时和体4.1.3 一致关系和支配关系4.1.1 数、性、格数(number),主要是名词和代词的范畴,如:a book(一本书);some books(一些书);I(我),we(我们);he(他),they(他们)。
英语动词也反映了数的范畴,如:He speaks English.(他说英语);They speak English.(他们说英语)。
在法语等语言中,形容词和冠词也有数的变化,如:le cheval royal,les chevaux royaux。
数一般有两种:单数和复数。
但是在古希腊语、阿拉伯语等语言中,还有第三种数:双数,类似于英语中的both(双方,两者)。
斐济群岛语还有第四种数:三数。
汉语中没有数的范畴。
"们"能表示复数,但它的使用很受限制。
它只能用于像"学生们、工人们"这样的有生名词,不能说"桌子们、椅子们"。
就算是有生名词,"们"也不能和数量词一起使用,如"* 三个学生们、* 很多工人们"。
性(gender),主要也是名词和代词的范畴。
英语中,性的差别是自然的,由动物本身的生理性别决定。
如:actor(男演员),actress(女演员);hero(男英雄),heroine(女英雄);prince(王子),princess(公主);lion(雄狮),lioness(雌狮)。
跟英语相反的是,在法语一类的语言里,性的差别是语法上的,跟现实世界中实体的性别可以根本没有关系。
不管指称的实体是否有生命,所有名词都有性的差别。
格(case)范畴在拉丁语语法里是很显著的。
它有六种格:主格、呼格、宾格、属格、与格、离格。
英语里,代词有三种格:主格(如I,he,she),宾格(如me,him,her)和属格(如my,his,her)。
但是名词只有两种格:普通格(如John,boys)和属格(如John's,boys'),由词的形态区分,属格有附加语素﹛'s﹜。
名词的主格和宾格的区别表现在语序上,在动词之前的是主格,在动词之后的是宾格。
与格用介词如to引入,如I gave a book to him (我给了他一本书)。
离格用介词如with引入,如He opened the door with a key(他用钥匙开了门)。
4.1.2 时和体时(tense)和体(aspect)是动词的两个重要范畴,在传统语法中两者并不区分。
基于拉丁语语法的时态系统,一般认为英语有十六种时态,现列表如下:一般现在时现在进行时现在完成时现在完成进行时一般过去时过去进行时过去完成时过去完成进行时一般将来时将来进行时将来完成时将来完成进行时一般过去将来时过去将来进行时过去将来完成时过去将来完成进行时图1现在,语言学家作了两个区分:区分了时间和时,区分了时和体。
时间是个通用的概念,每一种语言都能够表达;而时是个语言学概念,不同语言的时千差万别。
时和体之间的区别在于:前者是指别的(deictic),也就是说指明的时间与说话的时间相关;而后者不是指别的,指明的时间与说话的时间没有关系,却与叙述中描写或暗示的另一个事件的时间有关。
所以现在一般认为有两种时:过去时和现在时。
所谓的将来时跟它们并不采用相同的表达方式。
将来时不用形态学手段表达,不用动词的不同形式表达,而是用其他不同手段,例如"will/shall + 不定式","be going to + 不定式","现在进行体","一般现在时"和"Will/shall + 进行不定式"。
Will、shall是基本上和can、may一样的情态动词。
完成体和未完成体之间的对立见于许多斯拉夫语。
前者指一个动作的完成,后者表示未完成动作的持续,类似于英语中这两个句子的差别:He read a book(他看了一本书)和He was reading a book((那时)他正在看一本书)。
英语里的两种体叫做"完成体"(或"完成式")和"进行体"(或"持续式")。
但是如果用斯拉夫语的方法来解释英语中的完成体是会令人误解的。
英语中已经完成的动作更常用过去时态来表达,如上面例子He read a book。
因此夸克等(Quirk et al. 1985:190)建议应该把完成体最宽泛地解释为表示先前时间:也就是说"由时、或句子的其它成分、或上下文表明的任何时间定位前的时间。
"他们在注释里告诫读者"跟非完成体结构相比,完成体结构是不多见的。
关于动词短语的实例研究表明大约只有百分之十的定式动词性短语是完成体。
"(同前)4.1.3 一致关系和支配关系一致关系(concord),又叫做协同关系,指两个或更多处于一定语法关系中的词,要在某些范畴上互相保持一致的形式。
例如英语中,限定词和名词在数上应该保持一致,如this man(这个男人),these men(这些男人);a book(一本书),some books(一些书)。
在现在时中主语的形式应该和动词的形式在数上保持一致,如He speaks English(他说英语);They speak English(他们说英语)。
在法语之类的语言中,有更多要求一致的情况。
如前面已经提到,冠词和形容词的数要跟他们所修饰的名词保持一致。
在性的方面,它们也要保持一致。
支配关系(government),是指某个句法构造中某些词的形式被其他词控制的另一种类型。
它与一致关系不同,是指在某个范畴方面,由某类词决定其他词的形式的关系。
比如英语里动词或介词后面的代词要用宾格形式,如She gave him a book.She gave a book to him (她给了他一本书)。
换句话说,动词或介词决定、支配了它们后面代词的形式。
前者是支配者,后者是被支配者。
拉丁语中,有更多受支配的情形。
不同的动词支配名词性宾语的不同的格形式,如:Videt bovem(他看见公牛),Nocet bovi(他伤害公牛),Meminit bovis(他记得公牛)。
这些句子里的宾语都是同一个单词,但是因为前边的动词不同而采用了不同的格的形式。
4.2 结构主义学派结构主义(structural)学派的创始人是二十世纪初瑞士语言学家费尔迪南·德·索绪尔。
在某种意义上,他之后的所有语言学理论都属于结构主义。
他们都认为语言单位是在一种结构(或系统)中相互关联的,不是孤立的。
但在这一节,我们只讨论索绪尔的一个重要观点和美国结构语言学家的句子分析模式。
另外两个重要理论将在以后章节介绍。
4.2.1 组合关系与聚合关系4.2.2 直接成分分析法4.2.3 向心结构和离心结构4.2.1 组合关系与聚合关系索绪尔认为语言是一个符号系统,每个符号由两个部分组成:所指(signified)(概念)和能指(signifier)(音响形象)。
这两者之间的关系是任意的。
因此语言学家不能再致力于用零碎的方式解释个体符号,相反他必须努力从一个符号与其他符号的关系中发现它的价值,或者说它在系统中的地位。
索绪尔提出了两种主要关系类型:组合(syntagmatic)关系与聚合(paradigmatic)关系。
前者指一个单位和同一序列中的其他单位之间的关系,或者说是在现场的所有成分之间的关系,例如下面句子中weather与其他词之间的关系:例4-1If the weather is nice, we'll go out.(如果天气好,我们就出去。
)这些处于组合关系中的词,必须满足一些句法和语义条件。
例如,下面的例4-2a是个合格的句子,而(b)(c)不是合格的句子。
例4-2a. The boy kicked the ball.(男孩踢球。
)h. * Boy the ball kicked the.c. * The ball kicked the boy.例(b)中的词语是以一种违反句法规则的方式组合起来的。
首先,可数名词boy前面不能没有限定词,其次,boy the或boy the ball里边的词语彼此没有语法关系。
他们既不是像boys there这样的主从关系,也不是像boys and girls这样的并列关系。
最后,the是个冠词,不能用作kicked的宾语。
例(c)中,the ball是无生命的,而动词kick要求主语是有生命的。
语序也要受到语义的影响。
例4-3中选用(a)还是选用(b),取决于语义。
例4-3(a)The boy chased the dog.(男孩追狗。
)(b)The dog chased the boy.(狗追男孩。
)聚合(paradigmatic)关系,索绪尔原本叫做联想(associative)关系,是指在结构的某个特殊位置上彼此可以相互替换的成分之间的关系,或者说是在现场的成分与不在现场的成分之间的关系。
例如,在语境The ____ is smiling中,能出现在这个位置上的成分是有限制的。
显然,动词根本不能出现在这个位置上。
最可能出现的是名词。
但是能出现在这里的名词仍然有严格的限制。
第一,它必须是个有生名词,像"书、桌子"等名词不是可能的选择。
第二,即使是在有生名词这个类里,只有那些含有"人类"语义成分的有生名词,才能很自然地与smile(笑)这一动词连用。