语言学第四章总结
语言学概论第四章语义笔记
语义一、语义的内容和性质（一）意义与语义：意义（价值、语义）例如：1、改革开放具有深远的意义；2、粮食对于一个农民的意义；3、这个词在这句话的意义是什么；（语义）所以，“意义”和“语义”是两个不同的概念，它们所指的对象是不一样的，它们不是同义词，而是上下位概念。
而“语义”一项在语言意义这个范畴内也有几层意思；语言单位的意义：语义：可推行的交际单位的意义：不可推行的“举烛”事件使燕国强大（？书燕说）语义：是人们对“三个世界”（客观世界、主观世界、语言世界）（二）语义的内容（主要类型）1、理性意义和附加意义（认知角度）①理性意义：是人们对客观世界以及人的精神世界中的现象的理性认识在语言中的反映。
如：妇女：【 + 人】【 + 成年】生命：【 + 生命】【 + 停止】理性意义是抽象的，概括的，是语义的核心内容。
②附加意义：是附着在理性意义上的反映语言使用者的心理文化等特征意义。
A、感情色彩和语体色彩感情色彩：表说话者对所谈对象的感情或态度，有褒义、贬义和中性三种。
如：“成功”和“得逞”“成果、后果、结果”语体色彩: 表词语所用的社会坏境通常有口语语体和书面语体。
如：书面语体，母亲；口语语体，妈、娘；一般语体，妈妈；B、联想色彩a、形象联想：指词的理性意义所引起的人们对现实中某种形象的联想。
b、意义联想：由于多义词的几个义项或同音词的几个意义相互作用而产生的联想。
(比如说“元音和原因”同音)c、文化联想：是由于人们的文化背景、社会观念的作用而产生的联想。
（如：中国人和英美人谈到对狗的看法）2、词汇意义和语法意义（语言系统角度）词汇意义：词的语言形式能够表达的全部内容，包括理性意义和附加意义，从客观事物和现象中抽象出来的，与人的认知能力有关。
语法意义：语法形式表达的意义。
从语素、词、短语中、句子等语法单位中抽象出来的，用语言的特点有关。
（“他学习我”和“我学习他”词汇意义不变，构成词汇相同）3、语言意义和言语意义（语言状态角度上）：语言意义：是词在语言系统中固有的意义，它是抽象的概括的是全社会共同理解的。
语言学纲要笔记第四章语法
第四章语法一、语法的内涵和研究范围1、语言结构和使用的规则性2、客观的规则和对客观规则的抽象3、对“语法”的多层次理智（1）语法的词的构成、变化和用词造句的规则。
（客观的，一种语言只有一套）。
（2）对客观语言结构规则的描写、说明和解释。
实际指语法学。
（有主观性。
不同专家可能有不同的系统）。
陆俭明《现代汉语语法研究教程》P12-13：语法是一种语言中由小的音义结合体组合成大的音义结合体所依据的一套规则。
4、大语法和小语法（1）凡是能够体现为语言结构的规则性的部分都是语法。
（大语法）包括语音学、语义学、词法学（形态学）、句活学所研究的对象。
（2）只限于词和句子的构造规则。
（小语法，本书的理解）（3）有的甚至只指句子的构造规则（句法学）。
二、语法规则1、语言结构（1）结构成分：音义结合体，如语素、词、短语、句子。
（2）结构方式：成分与成分的组合，如：成绩好——好成绩。
虚素“们、看、了、呢”与别的成分组合时，永远不会出现在句道：“第、初、问”与别的成分组合时，永远不会出现在句末。
［分布］2、语法单位的内涵即语法系统的组成部分，凡是能在组合的是位置上被替换下来的组合成分单位，如短语、句子，都是合义结合的。
3、组合规则和聚合规则（1）组合规则：语法单位的组合起来的规则，链条，现实的，存在于话语中。
（2）聚合规则：语法单位的归类的规则，仓库，潜在地，存在于人脑中。
例如：小学生的句型练习：游戏中的语词龙（组合规则）及其后接的多种可能性（聚合规则）。
三、语法单位的层级性教材中从大单位到小单位，是解构式［分解］：应该从小单位到达单位讲，建构式［组合］。
（一）句子1、概念：语言交际的基本表述单位。
陆俭明《现代汉语语法研究教程》P21：是语言中前后有较大停顿、伴有一定句谓、表示相对完整意义有音义结合体，是最大的语法单位。
2、句型：按语气分：陈述句、疑问句、祈使句、感叹句。
张涤华等《汉语语法修辞词典》：［补充，不讲］句类：（1）句子的类型。
语言学概论(第四章)
二、组合规则
语素组合成词的规则
词的不同类型： 单纯词：由一个词根语素或一个词根语素加上屈折词缀构成的词 山、树、高、葡萄、窈窕、table、books、run 合成词：由两个或两个以上的构词语素组成的词 复合词：由词根语素按一定的规则组合起来构成的合成词 学习、黑板、司机、降低、football、railway、take-off 派生词：由词根语素和派生词缀组合起来构成的合成词 reaction、unjust、artist、musician、绿化、作者、木头
1）交际中能用来对话的片段，不管多么短，都算一个句子 “谁？”——“我。” 2）从语音形式上看，句子的最大特点是有一个完整的语调 3）句子可以根据不同的标准进行分类
根据句子的交际功能可分若干功能类型，简称句类
根据句子的结构特点，句子可以归纳为若干结构类型，简称句型
二、组合规则
语素组合成词的规则
语素的不同类别： 1）根据语素在构词中的不同作用可以把语素分为词根和词缀 词根：山、钱、家、说、炒、table、dance、fresh、blue、spy 词缀：老-、第-、-子、-者、-性、dis-、un-、co-、-ful、-er
词缀按与词根语素的位臵关系，可以分为前缀、中缀和后缀 词缀按功能可分为派生词缀和屈折词缀
3. 添加（插入）
小王骑走了自行车。→ 小王把自行车骑走了。 You know him. → Do you know him?
4. 替代
我请了老张，可老张不肯来。→ 我请了老张，可他不肯来。 Your bike is outside, is it?
四、变换
变换和句型
变换原则
小明打了他。→ 他被小明打了。 *他打了小明。 妈妈批评了小洪。→ *小洪被爸爸批评了。 妈妈批评了小洪。→ 妈妈批评了谁？ → 谁被妈妈批评了？ → 小洪被谁批评了？ （1）老张用这个箱子装书。 （2）这个箱子老张装书。 （3）老张装书用这个箱子。 （4）装书老张用这个箱子。 （5）这个箱子老张用来装书。 （6）谁用这个箱子装书？ （7）老张用什么装书？
语言学第四章要点
Chapter 4 Syntax 句法学1．W hat is Syntax?Syntax studies the sentence structure of language. The term syntax came originally from Greek. It literally meant arrangement. It means that sentences are structured according to a particular arrangement of words. Well-arranged sentences are considered grammatical sentences. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.句法学研究语言的句子结构。
该术语来自希腊语，字意是排列。
句子是根据一种特定的排列词的方式构成的。
排列正确的句子被认为是合乎语法的句子。
合乎语法的句子是根据一套句法规则构成的。
句法是一个规则系统。
2. Syntax as a system of rules 句法是规则系统Syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. A sentence is considered grammatical when it is in agreement with the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers. Universally found in the grammars f all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统，句子由单词组合而成。
语言学纲要 第四章
第四章一,举例解释下列名词1.内部曲折指的是依靠词根中的元音或辅音的变化来表达不同的语法意义的手段.如:(英语)foot(脚,单数)-feet(脚,复数),goose(鹅,单数)-geese(鹅,复数),build(建设,现在时)-built(建设,过去时)等.2.后缀是词缀的一种,粘附在词根语素的后面构成新词,如:汉语的"者"放在动词形容词(或语素)后面表示跟这个动作形状有关的人——作者,编者,长者,工作者,劳动者,等等.又如英语的-er/-or接在表动作的词(或语素)后面,表示跟该动作有关的人-worker(工作者),teacher(教师),publisher(出版者),translasor(译者)等等.3.词尾是变词语素,它附着在词干后面,表示某种语法意义,例如英语动词doing,其中的ing 就是词尾,表示动作行为的方式.4.复合词就是由两个以上的词根语素构成的词,例如汉语"白菜","电脑","支持",英语"themselves","waterfall",都是复合词.5.语法范畴是指通过词形变化表现出来的语法意义的归类,例如"he"的语法意义是主格,"him"的语法意义是宾格,它们都属于格的语法范畴.二,填空题1.语法2.组合规则聚合规则3.具有完整的语调4.自由词组5.实词虚词6.句法词法7.词尾词缀词根8.构词变词9.述宾结构述补结构偏正结构主谓结构10.词形变化词形变化三,单项选择1.D2.D3.B4.A5.A6.C7.D8.A9.C 10.A四,分析题1.地震(陈述式) 看见(补充式) 忘记(并列式)司令(支配式) 拖鞋(偏正式) 伤心(支配式)2. 轻的我们意气风发地走进不同凡响的新时代｜主‖谓｜｜偏‖正‖偏‖正｜｜述‖宾｜｜述‖补‖偏‖正｜｜偏‖正｜3.①我们支持的是党委王书记.(王书记是受事)②支持我们的是党委王书记.(王书记是施事)(这个句子的多义是因为"王书记"的施事还是受事身份不能确定,他可以是"支持"这一动作的发出者,也可以是"支持"这一动作的涉及对象,两种含义在这里都江得通,造成了多义.因此可以在前后适当增加成分,明确"王书记"是施事或受事,而不会既是施事又是受事.)五,问答题1.什么是词？举例说明其定义的内涵。
语言学概论第四章 语言的性质
其中涉及心理、生理、物理等因素，但是没有社会因素作根底， 没有对社会约定的语言的共同理解，语言交际无法进行。
再看一个材料： 〔背景：20年代一个来华的德国牧师要给在他们家当女佣的
二、语言为全民使用。 三、语言为全民效劳。
思考：不同的阶级、阶层和集团对语言的 使用有一定影响，这是否与全民性矛盾？
需要注意：自言自语现象。 它是在个人范围内进行的，但是它并不
能否认语言交际的社会性。因为：
1、自言自语也是对语言的运用，只不过说者和 听者是一个人承担而已。
2、自言自语并不是交际的主要方面。
第二节 语言的全民性
一、语言为全民所创造。
全民包含两个方面：一个是历史上世世代代的人们，另 一方面是某个断代社会上的人们。
与植物有关的器官：种、苗、叶、枝、蘖 农具词汇：鉏、夷、斤、斸、耒、耜、耞、芟、镈、耨、 刈 关于农业生产活动场所的词：仓库、仓廪、田、田野、 沟、仓、渠、场、廪、畴、陆、阜、陵、墐、井、沟渎 与农业有关的动作行为的词来：坺、舂、耕、垦、耦、 耰、种
畜牧业方面的词汇只有6个：六畜、牧、刍、豢、牢、饩。 渔猎业方面的词汇有：搏、罟、网罟、罛、罶、罝、罗、罜、狩、蒐、 弋、毕、矠、阱、鄂。
我的祖母照片〕那时，祖母对照相机这东西非常恐惧，说是能 把小孩的灵魂摄去，因此千方百计谢绝了，这让德国人莫名其 妙，同时感到非常遗憾。〔?齐鲁晚报?〕
思考：在有的交际中尽管有时候对一些语言没有形成共同 的理解，但是交际仍然能够进行。这种个体性语言成分的存在 是否违背语言交际的社会性呢？
语言学第四章要点英语整理
语言学第四章要点(2011-10-11 21:15:48)说明：本章要点参考了多本教材，其中的X-bar theory, Universal Grammar, merger and move等部分仅供考研的同学参考。
其他同学不做要求。
第四章Syntax句法学1.Syntax定义is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language. Sentences are structured according to particular arrangement of words.2、Syntax as a system of rules. as a major component of grammar, syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences3、Sentence structureSubject all language have ways of referring to some entity, such as a person , a place, a thing, an idea, or an event, this referring expression is grammatically called subject. A subject may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.2.Type of sentence英语的句子中的三种基本类型是什么？Traditionally, three major types of sentences are distinguished. They are simple sentence, coordinate or compound sentence and complex sentence.A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. For example, ① John reads extensively. the sentences contains a single clause and can stand structurally independent.A coordinate sentence并列句 contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinat ing conjunction, such as “and”, “but”, “or”. The two clauses in a coordinate sentence are structurally equal parts of the sentence; neither is subordinate to the other. For example, ③ John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam.A complex sentence contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence have unequal status, one subordinating the other. The incorporated, or subordinate, clause is normally called an embedded clause子句, and the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix sentence主句. For example, ⑤ Mary told Jane [that John liked linguistics]. In the above examples, the clauses in the square brackets are embedded clauses. Theyare subordinate to the clauses outside the brackets which are called matrix clauses.A complex sentence的特征：Some conclusions can be drawn from the complex sentence.1、an embedded clause functions as a grammatical unit in its matrix clause.2.most embedded clauses require an introductory word called a subordinator, such as “that”,” if ”.3.an embedded clause may not function as a grammatically well-formed sentence if it stands independently as a simple sentence unless it form changes.3、linearly- and hierarchically-structured.(线形结构和层次结构Language is a highly structured system of communication. Sentences are not formed by randomly(随意)combining lexical items, but by following a set of syntactic rules that arrange linguistic elements in a particular order to make a string of words not only meaningful but also linearly- and hierarchically-structured.(线形结构和层次结构)Hierarchical structure: the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic categories of each structural constituent, such as NP and VP.5、Syntactic categories:句法类型1.lexical categories词类 (four major lexical categories and six minor lexical categories)2. Phrasal categories 短语类(lexical items have certain combinational properties that allow them to combine with words of different categories to form phrase. NP VP PP AP)6、Grammatical relations(语法关系) The structural and logical relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. It concerns the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. (who does what do whom). Structural vs. logical subject, object. (**)7、Combinational rules组合规则1、Phrase structural rules The combinational pattern in a linear formula may be called a phrase structural rule, or rewrite rule. It allows us to better understand how words and phrases form sentences, and so on.2、Syntactic movement and movement rules Syntactic movement occurs whena constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new position, the sentence involving which cannot be described by phrase structure rules. It was governed by transformational rules, the operationof which may change the syntactic representation of a sentence (句法的表达方式).3、什么是X-标杆理论?X-bar theory is a general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrasal structure rules into a single format: X″→ (Spec) X (Compl). In this format, Spec stands for specifier while Compl stands for complement. This theory is capable of reducing the redundancies of individual phrasal structure rules and may well capture certain basic properties shared by all phrasal categories, i.e. NP, VP, AP, PP, across the languages of the world.4、Syntactic movement and movement rulesSyntactic movement occurs when a constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new position, the sentence involving which cannot be described by phrase structure rules. It was governed by transformational rules, the operation of which may change the syntactic representation of a sentence (句法的表达方式).1 NP-movement and WH-movementNP-movement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice (postpose, prepose).WH-movement is obligatory in English. It changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.2 Other types of movementAUX-movement (auxiliary)3 D-structure and S-structureThe syntactic component of the grammar:Phrase Structure Rules + the Lexicon (词汇)（generate）―――D-structure (deep structure) ―――Movement Rules （ transform）―――― S-structure (Surface structure) A sentence may not look different when it is at different syntactic levels. Since syntactic movement does not occur to all sentences, the D-structure and S-structure of some sentences look exactly the same at different levels of representation.4 Moreα-a general movement ruleThere is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement, called Moveα(or Move Alpha), which means “move any constituent to any place”. The problem is Moveαis too powerful and the grammar should include some conditions which will restrain this power and stimulate tha t only “certain constituents” move to “certain positions”.7、Toward a theory of universal grammarSince early 1980s, Noam Chomsky and other generative linguists proposed and developed a theory of universal grammar (UG) known as the principles and parameters theory. According to Chomsky, UG is a system of linguistic knowledge and a human species-specific gift, which exists in the mind or brain of a normal human being. According to principles-and-parameters framework, UG consists of a set of general conditions, or general principles, that generate phrases and at the same time restrain the power of Moveα, thus preventing this rule from applying in certain cases. UG also contains a set of parameters that allow general principles to operate in certain ways, according to which particular grammar of natural languages vary。
语言学概论笔记（第四章）（4）
2）分类： ①体词属性范畴：指由名词的词形变化形式表⽰的意义。
A.“性”范畴：在某些语⾔中表⽰⼈或事物有关性属的⼀组特征。
B.“数”范畴：表⽰事物数量的⼀组特征。
（汉语中没有严格的数范畴） C.“格”范畴：表⽰名词与其他词的语法结构关系的⼀组特征，在很多综合性语⾔中这都是重要的名词属性范畴。
D.“有定和⽆定”范畴：表⽰名词指称性质的⼀组特征。
②谓词属性范畴：指由动词的词形变化形式表⽰的意义。
A.“时”范畴：表⽰动词所反映的动作发⽣的时间和说话的时间的关系的⼀组 特征。
B.“体”范畴：表⽰动词所反映的动作⾏为进⾏的状况的⼀组特征。
C.“态”范畴：表⽰动词与主语名词之间的施受关系的⼀组特征。
（主动态、被动态） D.“⼈称”范畴：表⽰动词与主语名词之间⼀致关系的⼀组特征。
9.句法范畴 1）定义凡是主要由结构的变化形式表⽰的语法意义。
2）分类： ①类别范畴：由语类和语类选择形式表⽰的语法意义。
A从词的类别看，各种语⾔都需要词的语法类别意义 B从词与词的类别选择看，各种语⾔也都要求某类词与某类词组合的意义 ②关系范畴：指通过虚词和语序表⽰语法结构关系的语法意义。
A.通过虚词和语序来表⽰特定的语法关系意义 B.通过语序变化来确定结构的语法关系意义 第四节语法单位的聚合和组合 1、词和句⼦是语法结构中最重要的两个单位 因为词和句⼦既是基本单位，⼜是最终单位，他们可以把各种语法单位联系起来 2、聚合规则和组合规则主要是指应⽤于词和句⼦的规则。
3.语素的语法地位： 语素是最⼩的语法单位，在语法地位上并不特别重要。
①形式上它是构词的基本单位，本⾝很难建⽴聚合类和组合类。
②义⾓度上，语法分析不太需要语素这个单位。
4、词类：指可以替换出现在语法结构某些共同组合位置上的词的类，即具有聚合关系的词的类。
词类是词的语法分类。
5、划分词类的标准： ①形态标准，即根据词形变化来确定词类 ②意义标准，即根据词的意义来确定词类 ③分布标准，即根据词的聚合位置来确定词类 备注：分布是反映词类的本质属性，⽽在具体区别词类时，形态和意义可以作为参考。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
Chapter 4 Form Word to TextSyntaxSyntax is the study of rules governing the ways different constituen ts are combined to form sentence in a language, or the study of the interrelation between elements in sentence structure. It studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Syntactic Relation:句法关系a. Positional relation (word order) is a manifestation of one aspect of syntagmatic relation, also called horizontal relation or chain relat ionb. Relation of substitutability refers to classes or sets of word subst itutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same st ructure. It refers to groups of more than one word which may be joi ntly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set . It called associative relations, vertical relations, choice relations.c. Relation of cooccurrence共现关系2．Grammatical construction (construct)The boy ate the apple.A: the boy B and C: ate the appleA: external B and C: internal (immediate constituent)To dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called imme diate constituent in this way is called immediate constituent analysi s or IC analysis.3. Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituent. Exocentric construction is a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole.4. Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction. (and ,but, or)Subordination refer to the process or result of linking linguistic unit s so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.5. Syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic fo rm and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. a. Subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case. It incl udes grammatical subject and logical subject. Its characteristics in clude word order, pro-forms, agreement with verb content question, tag questionb. Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together.c. Object include direct object and indirect object6. Category refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense and refers to the defining properties of these general units. a. Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes di splaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural.b. Gender display such contrasts as masculine, feminine, neuter.c. Case is used in the analysis of word class to identify the syntacti c relationship between word in a sentence accusative, nominative, detived. Agreement (concord)7. Phrase is a single element of structure containing more than one word and lacking the subject-predicate structure typicalof classes. Sentence is the minimum part of languages that expres s a compete thought.8. Recursiveness: there is no limit to the number of embedding one relative classes into another relative classes.Conjoining refer to the process where one clause s coordinated or conjoined with another.Embedding refer to the means by which one clause is included in t he sentence in syntactic subordination.Sentential connection include hypotactic and paratactic. Cohension is a concept to do with discourse or text rather than with syntax, it refer to relations of meaning that exist within the text. (conjuncti on, ellipsis, lexical collection, lexical repetition, reference, substituti on)9. Categories: refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a senten ce, a new phrase or a verb.Syntactic categories: a fundamental fact about words in all human languages is that they can be grouped together into a relatively s mall number of classes.Wordlevel categories: major lexical categories (N.V.A.P.) and min or lexical categories (determiner, degree words meaning, inflection, distribution qualifier, auxiliary, conjunction)Phrase categories: syntactic unit that are built around a certain wo rd category are called phrases. It contains: head, specifier, comple ment10. Phrase structure ruleSuch special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arr angement of elements that make up a phrase. NP----(Det) N (PP)… VP---(Qual) V (NP)… AP---(Deg) A (PP)… PP---(Deg) P (NP)…XP rule: XP---(specifier) X (complement) The coordination rule: X---X’ Con X11. Phrase elementsSpecifier semantic roles：help make more precise the meaning of the headSyntactic roles: mark a phrase boundary Complement are thems elves phrases and provide information about entities and location whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. The XP rul es (revised)XP---(specifier) X (complement)’Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed com plementizers (CS). The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause. The whole underlined part in the above sentence is called a complement phrase (CP) and the constr uction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matr ix clause.Modifiers: specifies optionally expressible properties of heads. The Expanded XP rule:XP---(spec) (mod) X (complement’) (mod)。