CH8_Political Economy of Trade Policies 国际贸易理论政策与
国际商务英语授课国际商务2
Political Economy of International Trade
Ⅰ. Instruments of Trade Policy
7 main instruments of trade policy --- tariffs
--- who gains: ☺ --- government: raising revenue for government --- domestic producers: protection
Political Economy of International Trade
Ⅰ. Instruments of Trade Policy
7 main instruments of trade policy --- subsidies
--- main gains: ☺ --- helping domestic firms to be a first-mover --- helping domestic firms to gain as a major global company
Political Economy of International Trade
Introduction
free trade
Political Economy of International Trade
Introduction
free trade --- a situation where a government does not attempt to restrict
--- who suffers: --- consumers: pay more for certain imports
Political Economy of International Trade
Ch008 开放经济下的政策目标与工具1
在本节最后，我们可对内外均衡冲突问题作一小结： 第一，内外均衡冲突的根源在于经济的开放性。这一开放性要求 同时实现经济的内在稳定与合理开放，而这两点对特定变量要求 的调整方向并不总是一致的，由此造成内外均衡的冲突。 第二，内外均衡冲突的产生是与某种特定的调控方式直接相对应 的。在米德的研究中，是针对固定汇率制下调整社会总需求的不 同影响进行分析的，将开放经济运行的特定区间定义为内外均衡 之间的冲突。从更定义的角度看，凡是实现某一均衡的努力对另 一均衡的干扰或破坏都可以称为内外均衡之间的冲突。 第三，内外均衡冲突问题说明：在开放经济下，单纯运用调节社 会总需求这一封闭经济的政策工具是不足以同时实现内外均衡目 标的，开放经济的调控需要有新的政策工具，需要对政策工具有 新的运用方式。
第八章 开放经济下的政策目标与工具
INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL 在封闭条件下，市场经济的有效运作离不开政府的宏观调控。 政府对经济制定宏观调控目标并运用政策工具来加以实现，已是 MANAGEMENT
现代市场经济的一般规律。封闭条件下，政府对经济进行调控的 中心任务是实现经济的稳定与发展。 Fourth Edition 在开放条件下，不仅依然存在政府利用政策工具对经济进行调 控的问题，而且这一问题的性质还因为经济的开放性而发生深刻 EUN / RESNICK 的变化。
将前者称为内外均衡的一致，后者称为内外均衡之间的冲突。 我们采取措施努力实现某一均衡目标时，这一措施可能会同时造成开 放经济另一均衡问题的改善，也有可能对另一均衡问题造成干扰或破坏。 一般地，我们将前者称为内外均衡的一致，后者称为内外均衡之间的冲突。
6-7
Copyright © 2007 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Ch08 Trade Restrictions Tariffs(国际经济学,韩国国立江原大学)
Table 8.3 Economic Effect of U.S. Import Tariffs on Selected Products in 1990
slide 9
8.2 Partial Equilibrium Analysis of a Tariff – A Small country case
원부자재 세율이 높아짐
8.3 The Theory of Tariff Structure
8.3A. The Rate of Effective Protection
Example: Suppose that $80 of imported wool goes into the
slide 5
8.2 Partial Equilibrium Analysis of a Tariff – A Small country case
8.2A. Partial Equilibrium Effects of a Tariff
15$증
FIGURE 8-1 Partial Equilibrium Effects of a Tariff.
However, all nations impose some restrictions on the
Table 8.1 Tariffs on Industrial Products in the US, the EU,
Table 8.2 Tariffs on Industrial Products in Brazil, Mexico,
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8.3 The Theory of Tariff Structure
8.3A. The Rate of Effective Protection 실효보호관세율
PARTⅠTrade theory (ch.1-7)国际经济学 克鲁格曼
Brief ContentPreface 11 Introduction2 PartⅠInternational Trade Theory 42 World Trade: An Overview 43 Labor Productivity and Comparative Advantage:The Ricardian Model 84 Resources, Comparative Advantage, and Income Distribution 145 The Standard Trade Model 256 Economies of Scale, Imperfect Competition and International Trade 317 International Factor Movements 40 PartⅡInternational Trade Policy 468 The Instruments of Trade Policy 469 The Political Economy of Trade Policy 5210 Trade Policy in Developing Countries 5811 Controversies in Trade Policy 62Preface§1. Some distinctive features of International Economics: Theory and Policy.This book emphasizes several of the newer topics that previous authors failed to treat in a systematic way:·Asset market approach to exchange rate determination.·Increasing returns and market structure.·Politics and theory of trade policy.·International macroeconomic policy coordination·The word capital market and developing countries.·International factor movements.§2. Learning features:·Case studies·Special boxes·Captioned diagrams·Summary and key terms·Problems·Further reading§3.Reference books:·[美]保罗•克鲁格曼，茅瑞斯•奥伯斯法尔德，《国际经济学》，第8版，中译本，中国人民大学出版社，2012.·Dominick Salvatore, International Economics, Prentice Hall International, 2011.Chapter 1Introduction·Nations are more closely linked through trade in goods and services, through flows of money, and through investment than ever before.§1. What is international economics about?Seven themes recur throughout the study of international economics: ·The gains from trade(National welfare and income distribution)·The pattern of trade·Protectionism·The balance of payments·Exchange rate determination·International macroeconomic policy coordination·International capital market§2. International economics: trade and money·Part I (chapters 2 through 7) :international trade theory·Part II (chapters 8 through 11) : international trade policy·Part III (chapters 12 through 17) : international monetary theory ·Part IV (chapters 18 through 22) : international monetary policyChapter 2World Trade: An Overview§1 Who Trades with Whom?1. Size Matters: The Gravity Model•The size of an economy is directly related to the volume of imports and exports.•Larger economies produce more goods and services, so they have more to sell in the export market. Larger economies generate more income from the goods and services sold, so people are able to buy more imports.• 3 of the top 10 trading partners with the US in 2003 were also the 3 largest European economies: Germany, UK and France. These countries have the largest gross domestic product (GDP) in Europe.Cultural affinity: if two countries have cultural ties, it is likely that they also have strong economic ties.Geography: ocean harbors and a lack of mountain barriers make transportation and tradeeasier.2. Distance Matters: The Gravity ModelDistance between markets influences transportation costs and therefore the cost of imports and exports. Distance may also influence personal contact and communication, which may influence trade.Estimates of the effect of distance from the gravity model predict that a 1% increase in the distance between countries is associated with a decrease in the volume of trade of 0.7% to 1%.Borders: crossing borders involves formalities that take time and perhaps monetary costs like tariffs. These implicit and explicit costs reduce trade. The existence of borders may also indicate the existence of different languages or different currencies, either of which may impede trade more.3.The gravity modelThe gravity model is:a b c ij i j ijT A Y Y D =⨯⨯ where a, b, and c are allowed to differ from 1.（Table 2-1 Example ）§2. The Changing Composition of Trade1. Has the World Become “Smaller ”?There were two waves of globalization.1840–1914: economies relied on steam power, railroads, telegraph, telephones. Globalization was interrupted and reversed by wars and depression.1945–present: economies rely on telephones, airplanes, computers, internet, fiber optics,…2. Changing Composition of TradeToday, most of the volume of trade is in manufactured products such as automobiles, computers, clothing and machinery.Services such as shipping, insurance, legal fees and spending by tourists account for 20% of the volume of trade.Mineral products (e.g., petroleum, coal, copper) and agricultural products are a relatively small part of trade.Multinational Corporations and OutsourcingBefore 1945, multinational corporations played a small role world trade.But today about one third of all US exports and 42% of all US imports are sales from onedivision of a multinational corporation to another.Chapter 3Labor Productivity and Comparative Advantage:The Ricardian Model*Countries engage in international trade for two basic reasons:·Comparative advantage: countries are different in technology (chapter 3) or resource (chapter 4).·Economics of scale (chapter 6).*All motives are at work in the real world but only one motive is present in each trade model.§1. The concept of comparative advantage1. Opportunity cost : The opportunity cost of roses in terms of computers is the number of computers that could have been produced with the resources used to produce a given number of roses.Table 3-1 Hypothetical Changes in ProductionMillion Roses Thousand Computers United States－10 ＋100 South America＋10 －30 Total 0 ＋702. Comparative advantage : A country has a comparative advantage in producing a good if the opportunity cost of producing that good in terms of other goods is lower in that country than it is in other countries.·Denoted by opportunity cost.·A relative concept : relative labor productivity or relative abundance.3. The pattern of trade: Trade between two countries can benefit both countries if each country exports the goods in which it has a comparative advantage.§2. A one-factor economy1.production possibilities: LC C LW W a Q a Q L +≤Figure 3-1 Home’s Production Possibility Frontier2. Relative price and supply·Labor will move to the sector which pays higher wage.·If C W LC LW P P a a >(C LC W LW P a P a >, wage in the cheese sector is higher ), the economy willspecialize in the production of cheese.·In a closed economy, C W LC LW P P a a =.·If each country has absolute advantage in one good respectively, will there exist comparative advantage?§3. Trade in a one-factor world·Model : 2×1×2·Assume: **LC LW LC LW a a a a <Home has a comparative advantage in cheese.Home ’s relative productivity in cheese is higher.Home ’s pretrade relative price of cheese is lower than foreign.·The condition under which home has the comparative advantage involves all four unit labor requirement, not just two.1. Determining the relative price after trade·Relative price is more important than absolute price, when people make decisions on production and consumption.·General equilibrium analysis: RS equals RD . (World general equilibrium)·RS : a “step ” with flat sections linked by a vertical section. **(/)/)LC LW L a L aFigure 3-3 World Relative Supply and Demand·RD : subsititution effects·Relative price after trade: between the two countries ’ pretrade price.(How will the size of the trading countries affect the relative price after trade? Which country ’s living condition improves more? Is it possible that a country produce both goods?)2. The gains from tradeThe mutual gain can be demonstrated in two alternative ways.·To think of trade as an indirect method of production :(1/)()1/LC C W LW a P P a > or C W LC LW P P a a >·To examine how trade affects each country ’s possibilities of consumption.Figure 3-4 Trade Expands Consumption Possibilities(How will the terms of trade change in the long-term? Are there income distribution effects within countries? )3. A numerical example:·Two crucial points :When two countries specialize in producing the goods in which they have a comparative advantage, both countries gain from trade.Comparative advantage must not be confused with absolute advantage; it is comparative, not absolute, advantage that determines who will and should produce a good.Table 3-2 Unit Labor RequirementsCheese WineHome 1LC a = hour per pound 2LW a = hours per gallonForeign *6LC a = hours per pound *3LW a = hours per gallonabsolute advantage; relative price; specialization; the gains from trade.4. Relative wages·It is precisely because the relative wage is between the relative productivities that each country ends up with a cost advantage in one good.***LC LC LW LW a a w w a >> **LC LC wa w a <；**LW LW wa w a >·Relative wages depend on relative productivity and relative demand on goods.Special box: Do wages reflect productivity?·Debates about relative wages and relative labor productivity.·Long-run convergence in productivity produces long-run convergence in wages.§4. Misconceptions about comparative advantageThe proposition that trade is beneficial is unqualified. That is, there is no requirement that a country be “competitive ” or that the trade be “fair ”.1. Productivity and competitivenessmyth1: Free trade is beneficial only if your country is strong enough to stand up to foreigncompetition.·The gains from trade depend on comparative advantage rather than absolute advantage.·The competitive advantage of an industry depend on relative labor productivity and relative wage. ·Absolute advantage: neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition for comparative advantage (or for the gains from trade).2. The pauper labor argumentmyth2: Foreign competition is unfair and hurts other countries when it is based on low wages. ·Whether the lower cost of foreign export goods is due to high productivity or low wages does not matter. All that matter to home is that it is more efficient to “produce ” those goods indirectly than to produce directly.3. Exploitationmyth3: Trade exploits a country and makes it worse off if its workers receive much lower wagethan workers in other nations.·Whether they and their country are worse off?·What is the alternative ?(If it refuses to trade, real wages would be even lower).§5. Comparative advantage with many goods·Model: 2×1×n·For any good we can calculate *Li Li a a , label the goods so that the lower the number, the lower this ratio. ***1122L L L L LN LN a a a a a a <<<(or ***1122L L L L L N L N a a a a a a>>> ) 1. Relative wages and specialization·Any good for which **Li Li a a w w >will be produced in home. Relative productivity is higher thanits relative wage,**Li Li wa w a <, goods will always be produced where it is cheapest to make them.·All the goods to the left of the cut end up being produced in home.Table 3-3 Home and Foreign Unit Labor RequirementsApples1 10 10 Bananas5 40 8 Caviar3 124 Dates6 12 2 Enchiladas12 9 0.75 ·if *3w w =, A 、B 、C will be produced in Home and D 、E in foreign.(Hint: Comparing the labor cost of producing a (import) good directly and indirectly).2. Determining the relative wage in the multigood model·*w w: RD of labor equals RS of labor.·The relative derived demand for home labor (*L L) will fall when the ratio of home to foreign wages (*w w) rises, because:(1)The goods produced in home became relative more expensive.(2)Fewer foods will be produced in home and more in foreign.Figure 3-5Determination of relative of wages.RD: derived form relative demand for home and foreign goods.RS: determined by relative size of home and foreign labor force (Labor can’t move between countries).§6. Adding transport costs and nontraded goods·There are three main reasons why specialization in the real international economy is not so extreme:(1) the existence of more than one factor of production(2) protectionism(3) the existence of transport cost.E.g. suppose transport cost is a uniform fraction of production cost, say 100 percents. For goods Cand D in table 2-4:D: Home 6hours < 12hours×1/3×2 foreignC: Home 3hours×2 >12hours×1/3 foreignThus, C and D became nontraded goods.·In practice there is a wide range of transportation costs.In some cases transportation is virtually impossible: services such as haircut and auto repair ;goods with high weight-to-value ratio, like cement.·Nontraded goods: because of absence of strong national cost advantage or because of high transportation cost.·Nations spend a large share of their income on nontraded goods.§7. Empirical evidence on the Ricardian model·Misleading predictions :(1)An extreme degree of specialization;(2)Neglect the effects on income distribution;(3)Neglect differences in resources among countries as a cause of trade;(4)Neglect economics of scale as a cause of trade.·The basic prediction of the Ricardian model has been strongly confirmed by a number of studies over years.(1) Countries tend to export those goods in which their productivity is relative high.(2) Trade depends on comparative not absolute advantage.Figure 3-6productivity and exportsChapter 4Resources, Comparative Advantage, and Income Distribution(Factor endowment theory)*Comparative advantage is influence by the interaction between relative abundance and relative intensity.*Relative abundance: the proportions of different factors of production are available in different countries.If(T/L)H<(T/L)F, Home is labor-abundant and Foreign is land-abundant“per captia”,“relative” , no country is abundant in everything.*Relative intensity: the proportions of different factors of production are used in producing different goods.At any given factor prices, if (T C/L C) < (T F/L F), production of Cloth is labor-intensive and production of Food is land-intensive. A good can’t be both labor-intensive and land-intensive.(Factor-proportions theory)§1. A model of two-factor economy1. Assumption of the modelThe same two factors are used in both sectors: T、L ; Cloth、Food.(1)Alternative input combinations: In each sector, the ratio of land to labor used in production depends on the cost of labor relative to the cost of land, w/r.Figure 4A-2/L C↑and T F/L F↑)w/r↑L↑(T(2) Relative intensityAt any given wage-rental ratio, food production use a higher land-labor ratio, food production is land-intensive and cloth production is labor-intensive.2. Factor price and goods prices(1)One-to-one relationshipBecause cloth production is labor-intensive while food production is land-intensive. The one dollar worth isoquant line of cloth and food are shown as Figure4A-3).The two isoquants CC and FF are tangent to the same unit isocost line.Figure 4 A-3When P C raises, the slope of the unit isocost line w/r rises, that is, there is one-to-one relationship between factor price ratio w/r and the relative price of cloth P C/P F (Figure4A-4). The relationship is illustrated by the curve SS.(Suppose the economy produce both cloth and food).Figure 4 A-4If the relative price of a good rises, the real income of the factor which intensively used in that goodW/P C=MPL C↑, W/P F=MPL F↑Figure 4-73. Resources and output(1)Relative price、resources and productionGiven the prices of cloth and food and the supply of land and labor, it is possible to determine howmuch of each resource the economy devoted to the production of each good; and thus also todetermine the econom y’s output of each good.the slope of OcC is Tc/Lc , the slope of O F F is T F /L F• In general, the economy aims to maximizes the value of production:C C F F V P Q P Q =+ or F F C F C Q V P P P Q =-(2)Rybczynski effectIf goods prices remain unchanged, an increase in the supply of land will rise the output of food more than proportion to this increase, while the output of cloth will fall.T T↑L F↑;T C↓L C Q F↑Q C↓Rybczynski effect: At unchanged relative goods price, if the supply of a factor of production increases, the output of the good that are intensive in that factor will rise, while the output of the other good will fall.Figure 4-10·The economy could produce more of both cloth and food than before.·A biased expansion of production possibilities.·An economy will tend to be relatively effective at producing goods that are intensive in thatfactors with which the country is relative well-endowed.§2. Effects of international trade between two-factor economies1. Resources 、relative prices and the pattern of tradeAs always, Home and Foreign are similar along many dimensions, such as relative demand and technology. The only difference between the countries is their resources: Home has a lower ratio of land to labor than Foreign does.·relative abundance relative supply relative prices tradeFigure 4-11·H-O proposition: Countries tend to export goods whose production is intensive in factors with which they are abundantly endowed.·Budget constraint: C C F F C C F P D P D P Q P Q+=+ or ()()F F C F C C D Q P P Q D -=⨯-2. Trade and the distribution of income·According to Stolper-Samuelson effect, a rise in the price of cloth raises the purchasing power of labor in terms of both goods, while a rise in the price of food declines the purchasing power of land in terms of both goods.·Owners of a country’s abundant factors gain from trade, but owners of a country’s scare factors lose.3. Factor price equalization·Factor price equalization proposition: International trade produces a convergence of relative goods prices. This convergence, in turns, causes the convergence of the relative factor prices. Trade leads to complete equalization of factor prices. (Figure4-11,4-7 or Figure 4A-3)Figure 4A-3one-dollar-worth isoquant lines.goods’ price and technologies are the same, so CC、FF are the same in both countries.w/r are the same in both countries.·In an indirect way the two countries are in effect trading factors of production.（Home exports labor: more labor is embodied in Home’s exports than its imports ；Foreign exports land: more land is embodied in Foreign exports than its imports.）·In the real world factor prices are not equalized (Table4-1). Why?Table 4-1 Comparative international Wage Rates (United States=I00)Hourly compensationCountry of production workers, 2000United States 100 Germany121 Japan111 Spain55 South Korea41 Portugal24 Mexico12 Sri Lanka* 2*1969Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Foreign Labor Statistics Home Page. Three assumptions crucial to the prediction of factor price equalization are in reality certainly untrue.(1)Both countries produce both goods.(Trading countries are sufficiently similar in their relative factor endowments)(2)Technologies are the sameTrade actually equalizes the prices of goods in two countries.(3)There are barriers to trade: natural barriers (such as transportation costs) and artificial barriers (such as tariffs, import quotas, and other restrictions).Case study: North-south trade and income inequality·Why has wage inequality in U.S. increased between the late 1970s and the early 2000s?(1)Many observers attribute the change to the growth of world trade and in particular to the growing exports of manufactured goods from NIEs .(2)Most empirical workers believed that trade has been at most a contributing factor to thegrowing inequality and that the main villain is technology.§3. The political economy of trade: a preliminary view1. Income distribution in the short run·specific factor(,)M M M Q Q K L =；(,)F F F Q Q T L =·Trade benefits the factor that is specific to the export sector of each country but hurts the factor to the import-competing sectors, with ambiguous effects on mobile factors.·Does trade make each country better off? Is trade potentially a source of gain to everyone?The fundamental reason why trade potentially benefits a country is that it expands the economy ’s choices. This expansion of choice means that it is always possible to redistribute income in such a way that everyone gains from trade.It is possible in principle for a country ’s government to use taxes and subsidies to redistribute income to give each individual more of both goods.·The distinction between income distribution effects due to immobility and those due to differences in factor intensity.The specific factor model: Sectors; temporaryThe H-O model: Factors; permanent·Resources and trade (factor endowment theory)Short-run analysis: the specific factor modelLong-run analysis: H-O model2. Optimal trade policy.There are two ways to look at trade policy:(1) (Normative analysis) given its objectives, what should the government do? What is theoptimal trade policy?(2) (Positive analysis) what are the governments likely to do in practice?·Economists: to maximize the national welfare, free international trade is the optimal policy. ·Three main reasons why economists do not regard the income distribution effects of trade as a good reason to limit trade (P70).3. Income distribution and trade politics.·An example : an import quota : U.S. sugar (P191).·Problems of collective action (P 219).·Typically, those who lose from trade in any particular product are a much more concentrated, informed, and organized group than those who gain.·The formulation of trade policy: A kind of political process.§4. Empirical evidence on the H-O model1.Tests on U.S data. (Table4-2)Table 4-2 Factor Content of U.S. Exports and Imports for 1962Imports Exports Capital per million dollars $2,132,000 $1,876,000Labor(person-years) per million dollars 119 131Capital-labor ratio (dollars per worker) $17,916 $14,321Average years of education per worker 9.9 10.1Source: Rodert Baldwin, “Determinants of the Commodity Structure of U.S. Trade,”American Economic Review 61 (March1971), pp.126-145·Leontief paradox: U.S. exports were less capital-intensive than U.S. imports. (Capital-labor ratio) ·U.S. exports were more skilled labor-intensive and technology-intensive than its imports. (Average years of education; scientists and engineering per unit of sales)·A plausible explanation: U.S. may be exporting goods that heavily use skilled labor and innovative entrepreneurship(such as aircraft and computer chips), while importing heavy manufactures that use large amounts of capital (such as automobiles).2.Tests on global data. (Table 4-3)Table 4-3 Testing the Heckscher-Ohlin ModelFactor of Production Predictive Success*Capital 0.52Labor 0.67Professional workers 0.78Managerial workers 0.22Clerical workers 0.59Sales workers 0.67Service workers 0.67Agricultural workers 0.63Production workers 0.70Arable land 0.70Pasture land 0.52Forest 0.70*Fraction of countries for which net exports of factor runs in predicted direction.Source: Harry P.Bowen, Edward E. Leamer, and Leo Sveikauskas,“Multicountry,Multifactor Tests of the Factor Abundance Theory,”American EconomicReview 77 (December 1987), pp.791-809.·If the factor-proportion theory was right, a country would always export factors for which the factor share exceeded the income share, import factors for which it was less.·Two-thirds of the factors were trading in the predicted direction less than 70 percents of the time. This result confirms the Leontief paradox on a broader level: Trade ofte n doesn’t run in the direction that the H-O theory predicts.3. Test on North-South tradeNorth-South trade in manufactures seems to fit the H-O theory much better.4. The case of the missing trade.·A previously overlooked empirical problems: The H-O model can predict not only the direction but the volume of trade.·Factor trade in general turns out to be much smaller than the H-O model predicts.·A large part of the reason for this disparity comes from a false prediction of large-scale trade in labor between rich and poor countries.·This puzzle can be resolved only by dropping the H-O assumptions that technologies are the same across countries. (Table4-5)Table 4-5 Estimated Technological Efficiency, 1983 (United States=1)Bangladesh 0.03Thailand 0.17Hong Kong 0.40Japan 0.70West Germany 0.78Source: Trefler, American Economic Review, (December 1995), p.1037Chapter 5The Standard Trade Model* The differences and common features of the three models developed in previous chapters.··(1)different PPF(2)different PPF different RS(3)different RS different P C/P F trade* A more general trade model: the models we have studied may be viewed as special cases.·different PPF?(1)Home’s relative labor productivity of cloth is higher than Foreign’sOr (2)Q C=Q C(K,L C), Q F=Q F(T,L F). Home has more capital while Foreign has more land.Or (3)Home is labor-abundant and cloth is labor-intensive, while …·different Pc/P F?At any given Pc/P F, (Q C/Q F)>(Q C*/Q F*), RS lies to the right of RS*, that is (P C/P F)H<(P C/P F)F。
Ch8 知识产权和国际技术贸易法v2
中央民族大学
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（三）合同条款
详见 三、
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（四）签字
再次写明双方公司的名称，加盖印章 （Common Seal）
双方代表的手写签字后面留下的空白中， 要有清晰的、该人姓名的打印文字
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（五）附件 在合同主要条款中，要有文字写明“本合 同的附件系合同不可分割的一部分，与合 同本文同样有效”。
中央民族大学 周英
2．排他许可证/合同（Sole Licence） 全权许可合同或独家许可合同，许可方授 予被许可方在合同规定地区内，排他地享 有使用某项商标或技术制造和销售合同产 品的权利。在合同规定地区内，许可方不 得再向任何第三方许可与合同标的相同的 商标或技术，但是，许可方本人保留在该 地区内使用该项商标或技术的权利。
（1）专利技术 （2）秘密技术 （3）介于二者之间的计算机软件
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（二）技术转让（Transfer of Technology） 指的是专有技术的所有人或持有人，把技 术的使用权或所有权转移给其他人，并通 过这种转移获得报酬。是各种知识产权在 贸易中得到利用的一种综合行为。 《国际技术转让行为法》草案：“技术转 让”是为制造某种产品、应用某种工艺流 程或提供某种服务而转让系统的知识。
《中华人民共和国商标法》 《中华人民共和国专利法》
（二）专利的保护
《保护文学艺术作品伯尔尼公约》 （三）版权的保护
《中华人民共和国著作权法》
（四）知识产权的反不正当竞争保护
《中华人民共和国反不正当竞争法》
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§8.2 国际技术贸易法（一） ——知识产权转让的基本问题
12 Political economy of trade policy
INTERNATIONAL TRADE12.The Political Economyof Trade Policy•The cases for free trade•The cases against free trade•Political models of trade policy•International negotiations of trade policy and the World Trade Organization•PTAsSource: Krugman, P. R., & Obstfeld, M. & Melitz M. (2015). International Trade: Theory and Policy. Prentice Hall online resources 2PreviewThe Cases for Free Trade•The first case for free trade is the argument that producers and consumers allocate resources most efficiently when governments do not distort market prices through trade policy.–With restricted trade,consumers pay higher prices and consume too little while firms produce too much.3 Source: Krugman, P. R., & Obstfeld, M. & Melitz M. (2015). International Trade: Theory and Policy. Prentice Hall online resourcesThe Cases for Free Trade(cont.)•However, because tariff rates are already low for most countries, the estimated benefits of moving to free trade are only a small fraction of national income for most countries.–For the world as a whole, protection costs less than 1percent of GDP.–The gains from free trade are somewhat smaller foradvanced economies such as the United States andEurope and somewhat larger for poorer developingcountries.4 Source: Krugman, P. R., & Obstfeld, M. & Melitz M. (2015). International Trade: Theory and Policy. Prentice Hall online resourcesThe Cases for Free Trade(cont.)•Free trade allows firms or industry to take advantage of economies of scale. Why?•Protected markets limit gains from external economies of scale by inhibiting the concentration of industries:–Too many firms to enter the protected industry.–The scale of production of each firm becomesinefficient.5 Source: Krugman, P. R., & Obstfeld, M. & Melitz M. (2015). International Trade: Theory and Policy. Prentice Hall online resourcesThe Cases for Free Trade(cont.)•Free trade provides competition and opportunities for innovation (dynamic benefits).–By providing entrepreneurs with an incentive to seeknew ways to export or compete with imports, free trade offers more opportunities for learning and innovation.•Free trade avoids the loss of resources through rent seeking.–Spend time and other resources seeking quota rightsand the profit that they will earn.6 Source: Krugman, P. R., & Obstfeld, M. & Melitz M. (2015). International Trade: Theory and Policy. Prentice Hall online resourcesThe Cases for Free Trade(cont.)•The political argument for free trade says that free trade is the best feasible political policy,even though there may be better policies in principle.–Any policy that deviates from free trade would bequickly manipulated by political groups, leading todecreased national welfare.7 Source: Krugman, P. R., & Obstfeld, M. & Melitz M. (2015). International Trade: Theory and Policy. Prentice Hall online resourcesThe Cases against Free Trade•Gains from tariffs:–For some countries like the U.S., an import tariffand/or export tax could improve national welfare (at the expense of other countries)–But this argument ignores the likelihood that othercountries may retaliate against large countries byenacting their own trade restrictions.8 Source: Krugman, P. R., & Obstfeld, M. & Melitz M. (2015). International Trade: Theory and Policy. Prentice Hall online resourcesFig. 10-2: The Optimum TariffA tariff rate thatcompletelyprohibits importsleaves a countryworse off, but tariffrate t O may existthat maximizesnational welfare: anoptimum tariff.9 Source: Krugman, P. R., & Obstfeld, M. & Melitz M. (2015). International Trade: Theory and Policy. Prentice Hall online resourcesThe Cases against Free Trade(cont.)•A second argument against free trade is that domestic market failures may exist that cause free trade to be a suboptimal policy.•Types of market failures include (for instance):–Persistently high underemployment of workers–Persistently high underutilization of structures,equipment, and other forms of capital–Property rights not well defined or well enforced…need(?) to protect some domestic industries? (danger: such policy is likely to be manipulated by politicallypowerful groups).10 Source: Krugman, P. R., & Obstfeld, M. & Melitz M. (2015). International Trade: Theory and Policy. Prentice Hall online resourcesWhich Industries Are Protected?•Agriculture: In the U.S., Europe, and Japan, farmers make up a small fraction of the electorate but receive generous subsidies and trade protection.•Examples: European Union’s Common AgriculturalPolicy, Japan’s 1000% tariff on imported rice, America’s sugar quota.•Clothing: textiles (fabrication of cloth) and apparel (assembly of cloth into clothing).11 Source: Krugman, P. R., & Obstfeld, M. & Melitz M. (2015). International Trade: Theory and Policy. Prentice Hall online resourcesInternational Trade Agreements:A Brief History•In 1930, the United States passed a tariff law, theSmoot-Hawley Act.–Tariff rates rose steeply and U.S. trade fell sharply.•Initial attempts to reduce tariff rates were undertaken through bilateral trade negotiations:–U.S. offered to lower tariffs on some imports if another country would lower its tariffs on some U.S.exports.•Bilateral negotiations, however, do not take full advantage of international coordination.–Benefits can “spill over” to countries that have notmade any concessions.12 Source: Krugman, P. R., & Obstfeld, M. & Melitz M. (2015). International Trade: Theory and Policy. Prentice Hall online resourcesFig. 10-5: The U.S. Tariff Rate13Source: Krugman, P. R., & Obstfeld, M. & Melitz M. (2015). International Trade: Theory and Policy . Prentice Hall online resources After rising sharply at the beginning of the 1930s, the average U.S. tariff rate has decreased substantially from the mid-1930s to 1998.•Multilateral negotiations mobilize exporters to support free trade if they believe export markets will expand.•Multilateral negotiations also help avoid a tradewar between countries, where each country enacts trade restrictions.15 Source: Krugman, P. R., & Obstfeld, M. & Melitz M. (2015). International Trade: Theory and Policy. Prentice Hall online resourcesWorld Trade Organization(cont.)WTO negotiations address trade restrictions in at least 3 ways:1.Reducing tariff rates through multilateral negotiations.2.Binding tariff rates: a tariff is “bound” by having theimposing country agree not to raise it in the future.3.Eliminating nontariff barriers: quotas and exportsubsidies are changed to tariffs because the costs of tariff protection are more apparent and easier to negotiate.–Subsidies for agricultural exports are an exception.–Exceptions are also allowed for “market disruptions”caused by a surge in imports.16 Source: Krugman, P. R., & Obstfeld, M. & Melitz M. (2015). International Trade: Theory and Policy. Prentice Hall online resourcesWorld Trade Organization(cont.)•The dispute settlement procedure:a formal procedure where countries in a trade dispute can bring their case to a panel of WTO experts to rule upon.–The panel decides whether member counties arebreaking their agreements.–A country that refuses to adhere to the panel’sdecision may be punished by the WTO allowingother countries to impose trade restrictions on itsexports.18 Source: Krugman, P. R., & Obstfeld, M. & Melitz M. (2015). International Trade: Theory and Policy. Prentice Hall online resources160 members since 26 June2014 Source: WTO website (January2015)WTO and Preferential Trade Agreements (PTAs)•Preferential trade agreements are trade agreements between countries in which they lower tariffs for each other but not for the rest of the world.•Under the WTO, such discriminatory trade policies are generally not allowed:–Each country in the WTO promises that all countrieswill pay tariffs no higher than the nation that pays the lowest: called the “most favored nation” (MFN)principle.–An exception is allowed only if the lowest tariff rate is set at zero(FTA,CU)20 Source: Krugman, P. R., & Obstfeld, M. & Melitz M. (2015). International Trade: Theory and Policy. Prentice Hall online resourcesWTO and Preferential Trade Agreements (PTAs) There are two types of preferential trading agreements in which tariff rates are set at or near zero:1.A free trade area (FTA): an agreement that allows freetrade among members, but each member can have its own trade policy towards non-member countries.–An example is the North America Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).2.A customs union (CU): an agreement that allows freetrade among members and requires a common external trade policy towards non-member countries.–An example is the European Union.21 Source: Krugman, P. R., & Obstfeld, M. & Melitz M. (2015). International Trade: Theory and Policy. Prentice Hall online resourcesPreferential Trading Agreements(cont.)•Are PTAs necessarily good for national welfare?•PTA increases national welfare when new trade is created, but not when existing trade from the outside world is diverted to trade with member countries.•Trade creation–occurs when high-cost domestic production is replaced by low-cost imports from other members.•Trade diversion–occurs when low-cost imports from nonmembers arediverted to•high-cost imports from member nations.22 Source: Krugman, P. R., & Obstfeld, M. & Melitz M. (2015). International Trade: Theory and Policy. Prentice Hall online resourcesRegional Trade Agreements(RTAs)•RTAs -reciprocal trade agreements between two or more partners (note the difference between RTAs and PTAs : in WTO PTAs are understood to mean non-reciprocal preferential schemes)•RTAs have become increasingly prevalent since the early 1990s. As of 8 January 2015, some 604 notifications of RTAs (counting goods, services and accessions separately) had been received by the GATT/WTO. Of these, 398 were in force.Source: Krugman, P. R., & Obstfeld, M. & Melitz M. (2015). International Trade: Theory and Policy. Prentice Hall online resourcesExamples of Regional Trade Agreements Among the best known are:•-The European Union(28)•-The European Free Trade Association (EFTA: Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland),•-The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA:USA,Can,Mex),•-The Southern Common Market (MERCOSUR: Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Venezuela),•-The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Free Trade Area(AFTA),•-The Common Market of Eastern and Southern Africa(COMESA).•There are many others. > RTA DatabaseSource: Krugman, P. R., & Obstfeld, M. & Melitz M. (2015). International Trade: Theory and Policy. Prentice Hall online resources259Evolution of RTAs in the world,1948-201552 Source: WTO website (January2015)26Summary1.The cases for free trade are that freer trade–allows consumers and producers to allocate their resources freely and efficiently,withoutprice distortions.–may allow for economies of scale.–increases competition and innovation.2. The cases against free trade are that trade restrictions may allow–terms of trade gains.– a government to address a market failure when better policies are not feasible.27 Source: Krugman, P. R., & Obstfeld, M. & Melitz M. (2015). International Trade: Theory and Policy. Prentice Hall online resourcesSummary(cont.)3.Models of trade policy choice consider the incentivespoliticians face given their desire to be reelected, and the tendency for groups that gain from protection to be better organized than consumers who lose.4.Agricultural and clothing industries are the mostprotected industries in many countries.28 Source: Krugman, P. R., & Obstfeld, M. & Melitz M. (2015). International Trade: Theory and Policy. Prentice Hall online resourcesSummary(cont.)5.Multilateral negotiations of free trade may mobilizedomestic political support for free trade, as well as make countries agree not to engage in a trade war.6.The WTO and its predecessor have reduced tariffssubstantially in the last 50 years, and the WTO has adispute settlement procedure for trade disputes.7.A preferential trading agreement is beneficial for acountry if it creates new trade but is harmful if it diverts existing trade to higher-cost alternatives.29 Source: Krugman, P. R., & Obstfeld, M. & Melitz M. (2015). International Trade: Theory and Policy. Prentice Hall online resourcesReferences•Krugman,P.R.,&Obstfeld,M.&Melitz M.(2015).International Trade: Theory and Policy. Prentice Hall–Chapter1030 Source: Krugman, P. R., & Obstfeld, M. & Melitz M. (2015). International Trade: Theory and Policy. Prentice Hall online resources。
Ch8开放经济下的政策目标与工具
Ch8.1 开放经济下的政策目标
三、内部均衡和外部均衡的关系
内外均衡既存在一致性，也存在冲突。
米德冲突（英国经济学家詹姆斯· 米德于1951提出）：在固定汇率制度下， 汇率工具无法使用，政府只能运用调节社会总需求的政策来实现内外均衡， 便出现内外均衡难以兼顾、发生冲突的情形，即：失业增加、经常帐户逆差 或通货膨胀、经常帐户盈余这两种特定的内外经济状况组合。
国际储备政策、国际融资政策 国际政策协调
国际合作
（第十三章） 国际货币合作 （第 十四、五章）
信息交流、危机管理、避免共享目标变量冲突、 合作确定中介目标、部分协调、全面协调 国际货币制度安排、货币一体化
Ch8.2 开放经济下的政策工具和调控原理
二、开放经济下的政策调控的基本原理
1、关于政策协调的“丁伯根原则” （1952年） 含义：由首届诺贝尔经济学奖得主荷兰经济学家丁伯根（J.Tinbergen）提出、 关于政策目标和工具之间关系的原则：为达到一个经济政策目标，政府至少要运 用一种有效的政策工具；要实现N种独立的政策目标，至少需要相互独立的N种 有效的政策工具。 线性模型：假定存在两个目标T1、T2与两个工具I1、I2,政策调控追求的T1、T2的 最佳水平为T1*、T2*,则：
Ch8 开放经济下的政策目标与工具
8.1 开放经济下的政策目标
8.2 开放经济下的政策工具与调控原理
Ch8.1 开放经济下的政策目标
一、内部均衡和外部均衡
封闭经济下的 宏观调控目标 内部均衡 经济增长 充分就业 价格稳定 经济增长 内部均衡 开放经济下的 宏观调控目标 外部均衡 价格稳定 充分就业 国际收支均衡 长期目标 市场机制占主导
财政政策 紧缩 扩张 扩张 紧缩
(国际经济学课件)Chapter08The-Instruments--of-Trade-policy
(ⅱ) Measuring the Costs and the Benefits
The analytical framework will be based on either of the following:
Large country case---Two large countries trading with each other Small country case---A small country trading with the rest of the world
某国海关对进口男式开司米羊绒衫(每磅价格在18 美元以上 者)征收混合税，每磅征收0.375 美元的从量税，加征从价 税15.5% 。该批货物总量10 万磅，每磅价格28 美元，试计 算该批货物的从量税、从价税及混合税额(计税货币单位均 为美元)。
从量税额为：100000*0.375=37500美元 从价税额为：2800000*15.5%=434000美元 混合税额为：37500+434000=471500美元
2023/11/16 bicycle.
Compound tariffs A compound duty (tariff) is a combination of an ad valorem and a specific tariff.
Specific tariffs PT= t + PW
Ad valorem tariffs
货品名称 整只冻鸡
啤酒 石油原油 幻灯片用未曝光彩色摄影胶卷 未曝光的窄长彩色胶卷 其他未曝光窄长彩色胶卷 未曝光的中宽彩色胶卷 其他未曝光中宽彩色胶卷
最惠国税率 1.6元/千克
3元/升 0
179元/平方米 16元/平方米 145元/平方米 16元/平方米 145元/平方米
Ch09 The Political Economy of Trade Policy
Chapter 9. The Political Economy of Trade Policy
Preview
The cases for free trade
The cases against free trade
Political models of trade policy International negotiations of trade policy and the
The Cases Against Free Trade (cont.)
A second argument against free trade is that
domestic market failures may exist that cause free trade to be a suboptimal policy.
It is possible that a tariff raises domestic
production, thereby increasing the benefit to domestic society because a market failure.
slide 17
The Cases Against Free Trade (cont.)
For a “large” country, a tariff or quota lowers
the price of imports in world markets and generates a terms of trade gain.
– This benefit may exceed production and
ch9 The Political Economy of Trade Policy
• The terms of trade argument for a tariff • The domestic market failure
National Welfare Arguments Against Free Trade
The Terms of Trade Argument for a Tariff
– Therefore, the optimal policy in export sectors must be a negative subsidy, that is, a tax on exports (export tariff) .
– Like the optimum tariff, the optimum export tax is always positive but less than the prohibitive tax that would eliminate exports completely.
trade policies. This chapter examines some of the reasons governments either should not or do not base their policy on economists’ cost-benefit calculations.
outweigh its costs.
– Small country vs. large country – Therefore, free trade might not be the best policy for a large country.
Costs and Benefits of a Tariff
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the allocation will be efficient, so there is no problem of
externality, further more
if additional policy (tax/subsidy) is imposed in such a
situation, efficiency will be lost.
What is the first-best policy to correct market failure? - a positive externality
p
Spr
Sso
12
pw=10
ab e
c
d
q1 q3
q4 q2
Q
11
- What if market fails?
What is the first-best policy to correct
What is the source of problems? What are the policy options?
15
- What if market fails?
The African elephant population was cut in half within a span of 8 yrs in 1980s due to poaching
16
4. Industrial Policy
Government policy to channel resources to particular industries, generally those industries that government views as important to future economic growth
9
- What if market fails?
If the market fails to compensate the producer for the extra benefits generated
p
Spr=MCpr
Sso =MCso
Q
10
- What if market fails?
13
- What if market fails?
An alternative to impose policies, specify the property rights
❖ Coase TheoremIf costless negotion is possible, rights are well-
free trade no longer optimal=> policy need to be used to correct market failure
8
3. What if market fails?
Market fails if there is monopoly, or increasing returns to scale, or, …
18
2
2. For and Against Free Trade
Arguments for free trade
❖ efficiency ❖ scale economy ❖ transfer of technology ❖ reducing social cost (e.g. rent-seeking cost)
market failure? - a negative externality
Sso
p
Spr
h
pw=10 8
a
b
c d
e
g f
q1 q3
q4 q2
Q
12
- What if market fails?
The first-best policy is always the one which can directly correct the market failure
specified, and redistribution does not affect marginal
values, then
the allocation of resources will be identical whatever the
allocation of legal rights, and
Public pressure from affluent countries to save the elephants intensified in late 1980s and early 1990s
What is the source of problem? What are the policy options?
The second-best policy is the one which is most closely targeted to the market failure though cannot directly correct it.
A general rule:
❖ The closer a policy is targeted to the problem, the better it is (requires to identify the problem!)
Instruments used to channel resources:
❖ tariff, direct production subsidy, government procurement, free R&D, cheap credit, etc...
Should or should not use industrial policy?
17
- Industrial Policy
Consider using industrial policy for the followings:
❖ industries with high value-added per worker ❖ upstream industries ❖ industries with future growth potential ❖ high-tech industries
When market fails, the price no longer reflects the opportunity cost of producing this good
When market fails, producer’s surplus or consumer surplus does not fully capture the benefit of producing or consuming a good
Political Economy of Trade Policies
Module 8
1
1. Overview Questions
What is market failure? What is the implication to trade when
market fails What is the Coase Theorem? What is the industrial policy?
14
- What if market fails?
Purse-seine fishing of tuna fish results in drowning of dolphin (similarly the sea turtles killed trapping in the nets with shrimp)
3
4
5
6
7
-For and Against Free Trade
Arguments against free trade
❖ optimal tariff theory ❖ Revenue ❖ Income Distribution/welfare policy ❖ Political and strategic objectives ❖ market failure