Writing technique大学英语写作资料

WritingThe Whole CompositionAim: The basic aim of a writing course is to develop the ability to write whole compositions (or essays, theses, papers).OutlineTopicThesis (Controlling Idea; Central Idea)------Thesis StatementIntroduction; Body (Main idea1, Main idea 2); ConclusionI IntroductionII Main Idea -------Topic Sentence (in the beginning: to tell briefly the content of a paragraph;at the end: to conclude the whole paragraph)A. Sub-ideaB. Sub-idea1. Supporting Detail2. Supporting Detaila. Fact 1b. Fact 2III Main IdeaA.Sub-ideaB.Sub-idea1.Supporting Detail2.Supporting Detail3.Supporting DetailC.Sub-ideaIV Conclusion------- Restatement or summary of the main pointsTopic Outline: All entries consist of nouns and their modifiers, or their equivalents, ie, gerund phrases or infinitive phrases. It is brief and clear.Sentence Outline: The entries are complete sentences. It provides a more detailed plan of the paper.Example. Topic: The School LibraryThesis: The library plays a very important part in a student’s life.Outline:I A student has to borrow books from the library.A.H e needs reference books for his elective courses.B.H e may want to read novels, stories and plays.II He reads newspapers, and magazines in the library.A.Many new magazines are on display in the First Reading-Room.B.There are newspapers from all provinces.C.Back numbers may be borrowed ate the counter.III He needs the library all the more in his junior and senior years.A.The library provides him with books for his research.B.He would not be able to write his graduation paper without using the library.ExerciseLies are usually considered very bad and rather indecent. However, we must admit that all of us have told some lies, either consciously or unconsciously. If we think about this seriously, we may conclude that lies are sometimes necessary and nobody can go without them. Do you agree with this viewpoint? Please write an essay of no less than 150 words.Sample:Outline: Lie: A Necessary Part of LifeI Introduction: Everyone tells lies from time to time.II Body: Telling lies is based on three purposesA.One is to obtain psychological balance and comfort1.We do not tell the truth to a very ill patient.2.One does not want to know the truth of one’s own fatal disease.B.One is to make a living.1.Businessmen deceive men about the value and quality of their products.2.Sales person lie to persuade us to purchase something.C.One is to ensure social order and peaceernment lies to stay in power.2.Religion lies to make people feel safe in following their lies.3.People want to maintain a certain kind of society.III Conclusion: Telling lies is an indispensable part of life.Key: From time to time everybody tells lies----little lies, white lies, necessary lies in order to obtain psychological balance and comfort, to make a living or to ensure social order and peace.In order to have psychological balance and comfort, you may not want to tell your seriously ill patient or relative or young kid that he or she is terminally ill and will die a painful death. Similarly you yourself do not want to know that your cancer is spreading so fast that you may not have more than 6 months to live in agonizing pain. Or you may lie to a friend , a colleague or your boss in order to save face, to gain some advantage over or to get a closer relationship with him or her.Telling lies is a kind of profession for certain people. In other words, some people make a living through telling lies. For instance, businessmen lie every day in order to deceive customers about the value and quality of their products. Again, sales people lie so as to persuade us to purchase something we may not need.Governments lie quite often to stay in power by persuading people that their needs and desires are being attended to and that they are safe. Meanwhile, many people know what lies to transmit so as to maintain the kind of society that both the people in power and many of its citizens want and need. Besides, religion lies in order to make people feel safe in following their lies.In conclusion, we lie in a word of lies. We can not live without lying and being lied to, for lying disguise our motality, our inadequacies, our fears and anxieties, our loneliness in the midst of the crowd. So telling lies is a n indispensable part of people’s life.How to writer a paragraphA paragraph is a unit of thought; it is at once a unit in itself and part of a larger whole, that is, an essay.A paragraph is like a mini-essay; it should be unified, coherent and well developed. A paragraph is unified when all the sentences in the paragraph are focused on one central thought or on a single topic; when the writer wishes to introduce a new thought or topic, he should begin a new paragraph. A paragraph is coherent when it develops naturally and smoothly, and one sentence leads logically to another. There are many ways to develop a paragraph, for example, by process, by cause and effect, by comparison and contrast, etc.Unity of a paragraph is concerned with its content. If all the sentences in the paragraph lead to one central theme, the paragraph is unified. The central theme is usually summarized in what is called the topic sentence. It often appears at the beginning of the paragraph.Coherence of a paragraph is concerned with its form, or its organization. The sentences in a paragraph should be arranged in a clear, logical order, and the transitions should be smooth and natural. As a result, the reader finds it easy to follow the writer’s train of thought and understand what he is talking about.Coherence my not be perfect even if the writer arranges his sentences in a clear, logical order. He has to use good transitions so that one sentence runs smoothly to another.Learn to use transitional expressions1. Connectives and transitional phrases for spatial development:above before me here on the left across from below in the distance on the right adjacent to beyond nearby opposite to also further next to on top of up down close to beneath under around near to over2. Connectives and transitional phrases for chronological development:first, second, etc. soon eventually in the meantime then thereupon at the same time next thereafter after an interval now after presently later afterward somewhat later finally at last3. Connectives and transitional phrases for analytical development:first, second, etc. now for this purpose but as a result furthermore but at last moreover also consequently likewise another for example next yet for instance on the contrary once in addition in summary such in this case on the other hand then otherwise in conclusion thus in closing therefore4. Connectives and transitional phrases for comparisons:another furthermore moreover equally important too, also at the same time besides then accordingly in fact in addition to like, likewise similarly just as…so in the same way5. Connectives and transitional phrases for contrasts:on the contrary different from/ in contrast on the other hand to despite in spite of yet, but whereas unlike nevertheless not only…but also here…there years ago…today this…that the former…the latter then…now the first…whereas the second some…others on the one hand…on the other once…nowLearn to use Transitional Words:启：first, first of all, firstly, at present, lately, presently, to begin with, currently, generally speaking, in the beginning, in the first place, now, recently, it goes without saying, etc.承：after a while, also, at any rate, at the same time, besides, by this time, certainly, consequently, for example, for instance, for this purpose, from now on, furthermore, in addition, in addition to, truly, likewise, second, third, after a few days, in fact, in other words, in particular, in the same manner, incidentally, indeed, meanwhile, moreover, no doubt, obviously, of course, particularly, similarly, so, then, still, secondly, thirdly, what is more, etc.转：anyway, after all, all the same, especially, but, nevertheless, on the contrary, otherwise, in the same way, at the same time, on the other hand, luckily, yet, conversely, in other words, however, fortunately, in particular, etc.合：consequently, accordingly, eventually, finally, at last, as a consequence, as a result, above all, at last, at length, by and large, briefly, hence, thus, in sum, in conclusion, in short, on the whole, to speak frankly, in summary, to sum up, in a word, to summarize, etc.Coherence of the paragraph启文：to begin with, to start with, first(ly), in the first place, in the beginning, generally speaking, etc.时间与过程：presently, recently, now, afterwards, meanwhile, simultaneously, in the meantime, by this time, next, earlier, the next step, from now on, finally, etc.增加：moreover, furthermore, in addition, too, and, second, third, equally important, what’s more, etc.类似：likewise, similarly, moreover, etc.方向：here, over there, beyond, opposite in the distance, to the left, etc.举例：for example, for instance, n amely, take… for example, etc.转折：yet, whereas, anyway, however, despite, in spite of, on the other hand, otherwise, still, conversely, etc.结果：therefore, as a result, consequently, accordingly, inevitably, naturally, then, etc.强调：at any rate, certainly, obviously, in fact, in particular, indeed, no doubt, especially, of course, fortunately, etc.收尾：in conclusion, to summarize, in summary, to sum up, in sum, finally, at length, eventually, on the whole, as has been told, in short, briefly, in other words, therefore, above all, etc.ExpositionExposition means to make something known and explain it to make the reader understand. An expository paper explains or explores something, such as the process of making a machine, the causes of natural or social phenomenon, the planning of a project, or the solution of a problem.The purpose of it is to inform. It mainly deals with processes and relationships. An expository essay explains how an object is made, how it is used, and how it may change. In an expository essay, we discuss its cause and effect, its nature, and its significance in history. Things can be explained by illustration, process, classification and division, comparison and contrast, an analysis of their causes and effects, or definition.The most important quality of exposition is clarity. To achieve this, the writer should:1.Limit his subject or the scope of discussion; for it is impossible to explain many things clearly in a short essay;2.Prepare enough material (details or examples) to help his explanation;3.Present his facts and views in proper order, in the order of time or of logical sequence depending on the nature of the subject;4.Pay attention to the accuracy and clarity of words and sentences; avoid ornamental as well as ambiguous expressions; and5.Make his exposition, if possible, interesting or moving.1.IllustrationIllustration is the use of example to illustrate a point. Good examples help to clarify a writer’s thought by making the general specific, and the abstract concrete. They also add interest and help to persuade or convince the reader.1) pattern:I Introduction: States general idea to be proved (usually in a thesis statement)II Body: Gives illustration(s), all of which support the general idea.III Conclusion: Restates the thesis, if appropriate; or provides a sense of completion to the paper.2) Useful Expressions:for example, as an example, to give another example, for instance, as an illustration, let me illustr ate by, This can be illustrated by…; An example of this is/ involves; to provide a specific case…; such…as; take… for example/ instance, etc.Ex1. On Keep Healthy2. Honesty is not Always the Best Policy2.Division and Classification1.introductionDivision is used to deal with one thing. Its purpose is to separate that thing into parts. Classification is used to organize things which share certain qualities. Its purpose is to group these things systematically.Division stresses the distinction between things, whereas classification emphasizes the similarities. The former deals with the whole while the latter, the parts.eful expressions:first (of all), in the first place, first and foremost, most important of all, to begin/ start with, in addition, furthermore, moreover, besides, thirdly, fourthly, lastly, finally, I want to make one final point…, I want to begin/ conclude by saying…, etc.3.patterns:1) Division: exa. composition: introduction; body; conclusionb. a pair of glasses: frame, lens2) Classification: exa.courses: elective, required/ obligatoryb.courses: taught in native language, taught in foreign language4.Exercises:1)Ways of Spending One’s Spare Time2)Kinds of Second Jobs3. Comparison and Contrast1. A comparison explains how things are similar, and a contrast, how they are different.Principles of selection and development in writing a comparison and contrast paper:1)Only items (usually two) of the same general class can be compared/ contrasted.2)A comparison and contrast essay usually follows one of these two patterns, thesubject-by-subject pattern or the point-by-point pattern.In the former pattern, the writer discusses the various aspects of one item before going on the other; while in the latter case, the writer discusses both items under each of the various aspects compared/ contrasted.2. Mode 1: (better in short essays, where few aspects are considered, or where the writer’s interest is on the whole.)I Topic SentenceII Subject 1A characteristic 1B characteristic 2C characteristic 3,4,5…III Subject 2A characteristic 1B characteristic 2C characteristic 3,4,5…IV Concluding SentencesMode 2: (preferable in long essays where many aspects are mentioned)I Topic SentenceII Characteristic 1A Subject 1B Subject 2 (in comparison/ contrast to A Subject 1)III Characteristic 2A Subject 1B Subject 2IV Characteristic 3A Subject 1B Subject 2V Concluding Sentence3. Example 1:I IntroductionII Discussing Object A------Beijing JeepA Point 1------PriceB Point 2------Options AvailableC Point 3------Gas MileageD Point 4------Frequency of RepairIII Discussing Object B------ Shanghai SuntanaA Point 1------PriceB Point 2------Options AvailableC Point 3------Gas MileageD Point 4------Frequency of RepairIV ConclusionExample 2:I IntroductionII Point 1-------PriceA Discussing Object A------Beijing JeepB Discussing Object B------Shanghai SuntanaIII Point 2------Options AvailableA Discussing Object A------Beijing JeepB Discussing Object B------Shanghai SuntanaIV Point 3------Gas MileageA Discussing Object A------Beijing JeepB Discussing Object B------Shanghai SuntanaV Point 4------Frequency of RepairA Discussing Object A------Beijing JeepB Discussing Object B------Shanghai SuntanaVI Conclusion4. Useful Expressions in Comparison Essay:1)Both X and Y are _________.2)X and Y have/ seem to have/ seemed to have/ happen to have sth in common/ much in common/ some features in common/ many features in common/ some common features.3)4)In the same way X ________, Y __________.5)X corresponds to ___________.6)A comparison between X and Y demonstrates/ results in/ reveals/ suggests/ shows/ seems interesting.7)X is like Y in ____________.Useful Expressions in Contrastive Essay:1)X is different from Y.2)X differs from Y.3)X and Y differ/ seem to differ as far as the main postulates are concerned.4)There are some/ a great difference between X and Y.5)In contrast to X, Y __________.6)Unlike X, Y __________.7)Whereas/ While/ Whilst X ___________, Y ____________.8)X ___________ in contrast, Y __________.9)Y __________, while/ whereas/ whilst on the other hand, X ___________.5. Some transitions used in comparison:both, each, at the same time, similarly, like, likewise, as, too, also, compared with, etc.Some transitions used in Contrast:on the other hand, on the contrary, in contrast (with/ to), instead (of), the opposite (of), unlike, although, while, whereas, but, however, yet, nevertheless, etc.6. Example: Traditional Family and Modern FamilyI Similarities (general idea)A Nuclear FamilyB The Role of FatherC The Role of MotherII DifferencesA The Man Role1.Traditional Family: Head of the household (work outside)Modern Family: Both work2.Traditional Family: Man makes big decisionModern family: Shared by couples3.Traditional Family: Man not help with houseworkModern Family: Shared by couplesB The Women’s Role1.Traditional Family: Quit for birthModern Family: Work after birth2.Traditional Family: Live on man’s incomeModern Family: Live on her own incomeC The Role of Children1.Traditional Family: Taken care by motherModern Family: Child-care centre2.Traditional Family: School-age children dependentModern Family: School-age children independent6. Exercises1)Travelling by Train and by Plane2)Chinese and Western Medicine or Food4. Cause and Effect1. A cause paper begins with an introduction which briefly describes the effect, and then the entire body of the paper analyses the causes, each of which is generally discussed in one paragraph.An effect paper reverses the procedure. It begins with an introduction describing the cause, and the rest of the paper discusses the effects.2. Modes(1) Effect—Cause (eg. Smoking results in a series of negative effects)I Topic SentenceII Effect 1III Effect 2IV Effect 3,4,5…V Concluding Sentence(2) Cause—Effect (eg. Students study English for different reasons)I Topic SentenceII Cause 1III Cause 2IV Cause 3,4,5…V Concluding Sentence3. To introduce cause:because, since, if, as a result of, is caused by, due to, owing toTo introduce effect:as a result, cause, lead to, for this reason, so, therefore, thusGroup 1Because of/ Since/ If (CAUSE) + SV (ie main sentence)(EFFECT) :eg. Because/ Since children watch too much TV, they lose creative ability.If children watch too much TV, they will lose creative ability.Group 2SV (CAUSE) + so/ as a result/ for this reason/ consequently/ therefore/ hence/ because of this/thus, + Clause (EFFECT)eg. Children watch too much TV, as a result/ consequently/ for this reason, they lose creative ability.Group 3As a result of/ Because of/ Due to/ Owing to (CAUSE) + noun or gerund, + Clause (EFFECT)eg. As a result of /Because of too much TV/ watching too much TV, the children lose creative ability.Exercises:Smoking has always been a controversial question throughout the world. Some people say smoking is very bad to the health while others insist that it is very good. What is your idea on this? Clarify your reasons.5. DefinitionDefinition is necessary when one uses a term that may have various denotative and connotative meanings or shades of meanings.There are two main types of definition---logical or formal, and extended or informal.The logical or formal definition is the dictionary definition which is rigid in form. It is often used in clarifying meanings of concrete or non-controversial terms. It consists of three essential parts: t he term, the class, and the difference. For example, “A dentist is a person whose work is filling. Cleaning, taking out teeth and fitting artificial teeth.”Extended of informal definitions are used when discussing ideals, concepts, or emotions. They also use classification and differentiation, but they are not rigid in form and are extended. The principles for giving an extended definition is:1)A definition paper discusses abstract terms such as liberty, individualism, love, beauty,etc.2)It answers fully, though often implicitly, the question “What is… ?”3)It may be either deductive or inductive.●The deductive essay begins with a definition which is followed by other expositorypatterns: general statement to specific conclusion●The inductive essay reaches the definition after employing any of the other methodsof development: facts to general conclusion●The final part of the essay is often a restatement, in which the essentials of thedefinition are summed up or reinforced,Exercises:1.Happiness2.Values3.Individualism6.Argumentation1. general ideaThe purpose of exposition is to inform, while the purpose of argumentation is to convince. While an expository paper makes known something and explains it to make the reader understand, an argumentative essay tries to make the reader agree with its point of view and support it, to persuade him to change his mind or behavior, and to approve a policy or a course of action that it proposes.Argumentation frequently makes use of the other three types of writing--- description, narration, and above all exposition, for argumentation and exposition are very closely related--- argumentation is actually exposition with the additional purpose of convincing or persuading.1.Modes of argumentative paperModel 1A IntroductionB Body: Present problem 1, 2, 3…C Conclusion: Give solutions (give possible solutions; or give alternative strategies)Model 2A Introduction: Provide a brief overviewB Body: Effects to cause 1, 2, 3…; or Causes to effect 1, 2, 3…C Conclusion: Give more undesirable consequences (Effects)2.Requirements for argumentative essay:(1)A debatable point(2)Sufficient evidence(3)Good logic: All the facts and reasons that are given as evidence should be logicallyconnected with the conclusion and with each other.●Inductive reasoning: It starts with facts and proceeds from facts to a generalconclusion. In other words, you move from specific examples to a general statement.●Deductive reasoning: It moves from a general statement to a specific conclusion.(4)Clear logic: A typic argumentative essay consists of three parts:●Introduction: identify the issue to be discussed and explain the importance of such adiscussion;●Body: present the evidence;●Conclusion: reaffirm the proposition stated at the beginning.In the body, it is advisable that you devote the first one or two paragraphs to a consideration of the other side of the case before stating and amplifying your own views.Then in each paragraph that follows, you add something new and important to your argument. The evidence you provide should be arranged:a.from the least to the most importantb.from the most familiar to the least familiar, andc.from the easiest to accept or comprehend to the most difficult(5)Good use of the other three types of writing--- description, narration, and especially thevarious methods of exposition. (6)An honest and friendly attitude3.Exercises:1)New Technology --- Good or Bad2)Smoking Does Harm to Your Health7.Argumentation1. general ideaThe purpose of exposition is to inform, while the purpose of argumentation is to convince. While an expository paper makes known something and explains it to make the reader understand, an argumentative essay tries to make the reader agree with its point of view and support it, to persuade him to change his mind or behavior, and to approve a policy or a course of action that it proposes.Argumentation frequently makes use of the other three types of writing--- description, narration, and above all exposition, for argumentation and exposition are very closely related--- argumentation is actually exposition with the additional purpose of convincing or persuading.4.Modes of argumentative paperModel 1A IntroductionB Body: Present problem 1, 2, 3…C Conclusion: Give solutions (give possible solutions; or give alternative strategies)Model 2A Introduction: Provide a brief overviewB Body: Effects to cause 1, 2, 3…; or Causes to effect 1, 2, 3…C Conclusion: Give more undesirable consequences (Effects)5.Requirements for argumentative essay:(7)A debatable point(8)Sufficient evidence(9)Good logic: All the facts and reasons that are given as evidence should be logicallyconnected with the conclusion and with each other.●Inductive reasoning: It starts with facts and proceeds from facts to a generalconclusion. In other words, you move from specific examples to a general statement.●Deductive reasoning: It moves from a general statement to a specific conclusion.(10)Clear logic: A typic argumentative essay consists of three parts:●Introduction: identify the issue to be discussed and explain the importance of such adiscussion;●Body: present the evidence;●Conclusion: reaffirm the proposition stated at the beginning.In the body, it is advisable that you devote the first one or two paragraphs to a consideration of the other side of the case before stating and amplifying your own views.Then in each paragraph that follows, you add something new and important to your argument. The evidence you provide should be arranged:d.from the least to the most importante.from the most familiar to the least familiar, andf.from the easiest to accept or comprehend to the most difficult(11)Good use of the other three types of writing--- description, narration, and especiallythe various methods of exposition.(12)An honest and friendly attitude6.Exercises:3)New Technology --- Good or Bad4)Smoking Does Harm to Your Health。