《国际经济学》第八章

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Methods of import-license importdistribution
Import-license auction The government gets (almost all of) area c, in the form of auction revenues. Fixed favoritism In this case the importers lucky enough to receive the import licenses will get area c. Resource-using application With resource-using procedures, some or all of area c is turned into a loss to society by wasting productive resources.
CHAPTER 8
NONTARIFF BARRIERS TO IMPORTS AND PUSHING EXPORTS
Import quotas
The import quota specifies that only a certain physical amount of the good will be allowed into the country during the time period, usually one year.
VERs is a barrier in which the importing country government coerces the foreign exporting country to agree “voluntarily” to restrict its exports to this country. The export restraint usually requires that foreign exporting firms act like a cartel, restricting sales and raising prices.
Vs. import quota, VER causes a loss of area c. Vs. free trade, the net loss is b+c+d from VER.
For many products foreign producers can adjust the mix of varieties or models of the product that they export, while remaining within the overall quantitative limit.
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What should the importing country think of dumping ?
Predatory dumping is potentially the most troubling to the importing country. If the exporter succeeds, it will raise prices in the future, and the importing country can be harmed. But predatory dumping probably is rare. The importing country could also have concerns about cyclical dumping. If used aggressively, it can export unemployment.
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Export subsidy (small country)
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The effect of export subsidy on export country
An export subsidy expands exports and production of the subsidized product. An export subsidy lowers the price paid by foreign buyers, relative to the price that local consumers pay for the product. The export subsidy reduces the net national well-being of the exporting country.
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Quota versus tariff for a small country
For a competitive market, the effects of a quota on price, quantities, and well-being are the same as those of an equivalent tariff, with one possible exception. The import quota is worse than the tariff in two cases:
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Types of dumping
Seasonal dumping unloads excess inventories, especially on products that are perishable or going out of fashion. Persistent dumping is international price discrimination, with the exporting firm facing a less elastic demand curve in the home market, and having some way to limit or prevent reimport back into its home market.
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Persistent dumping
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Persistent dumping Dumping can occur only if three conditions are met:
Imperfectly competitive industry Different demand elasticity in different market Ed <Ef Segmented markets
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Quota vs. tariff for a large country
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Quota vs. tariff for a large country
If the quota licenses can be distributed with minimal resource costs, then the effect on net national wellbeing of the import quota is the gain of area e less the loss of area b+d. If the exporters are passive, then a large country can gain net national well-being by imposing an import quota, and there is an optimal quota that maximizes the gain in national well-being. An optimal quota are the same as those for the optimal tariff. The quota hurts the foreign country, and the foreign country may choose to retaliate. Even if the foreign country does not retaliate, the quota causes worldwide inefficiency.
If quota licenses are allocated through resource-using application and selection procedures. If a dominant domestic firm can use the quota to assert its monopoly pricing power.
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Voluntary Export Restraints
A VER is exactly like an import quota where the licenses are assigned to foreign governments and is therefore very costly to the importing country. A VER is always more costly to the importing country than a tariff that limits imports by the same amount. A VER produces a loss for the importing country.
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Voluntary Export Restraints
A voluntary export restraint (VER) is an export quota administered by the exporting country.
It is also known as a voluntary restraint agreement (VRA).
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Types of dumping
Predatory dumping occurs when a firm temporarily charges a low price in the foreign export market, with the purpose of driving its foreign competitors out of business. Cyclical dumping occurs during an industry downturn in demand, with sales at prices that cover average variable cost but are below average total cost.