词汇学笔记(名词解释为主)

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词汇学笔记

词汇学笔记NOTES OF ENGLISH LEXICOLOGYIntroduction0.1The Nature and Domain of English LexicologyLexicology is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of word.English lexicology is a theoretically-oriented course. It is chiefly concerned with the basic theories of words in general and of English words in particular.0.2It’s Relation to Other DisciplinesLexicology embraces other academic disciplines, such as morphology, semantics, etymology, stylistics, lexicography.Morphology is the branch of grammar which studies the structure or forms of words, primarily through the use of morpheme construct.Etymology is traditionally used for the study of the origins and history of the form and meaning of words.Semantics is the study of meanings of different linguistic levels: lexis, syntax, utterance, discourse, etc.Stylistics is the study of style.Lexicography shares with lexicology the same problems: the form, meaning, origins and usages of words, but they have a pragmatic difference.0.3Methods of StudyThere are two approaches to the study of words, namely synchronic and diachronic.0.4 Aims and Significance of the courseChapter 1 Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary1.1 What Is a WordA word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.1.2 Sound and Meaning1.3 Sound and FormThe three reasons for the differences between sound and from.㈠the internal reason is that the English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound.㈡the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years.㈢some of the differences were created by the early scribes.1.4 VocabularyThe term “vocabulary” is use d in different senses. Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for the words used in a particular historical period.1.5 Classification of Words 词汇的分类1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic Vocabulary 基本词汇和非基本词汇The 5 characteristics of basic word stock: 基本词汇的5大特点①All national character 全民性② Stability 稳定性③ Productivity 多产性④ Polysemy 多义性⑤ Collocability 搭配性The 7 types of nonbasic word stock words: 非基本词汇的7大种类① Terminology 术语② Jargon 行话③ Slang 俚语④ Argot 黑话⑤ Dialectal words 方言词⑥ Archaisms 古语词⑦ Neologisms 新词1.5.2 Content Words and Functional Words 功能词和实义词①Functional words 功能词② Content words 实义词1.5.3 Native Words and Borrowed Words 本地词和外来词The 2 characteristics of native words: 本地词的另2大特点（包括基本词汇的5大特点）① Ne utral in style 文体中性② Frequent in use 使用频繁The 4 types of borrowings: 外来词的4大类型① Denizens 同化词② Aliens 异形词③ Translation- loans 翻译借词④ Semantic- loans 语义借词Chapter 2 The Development of the English Vocabulary2.1 The Indo-European Language Family 印欧语系ScandinavianEastern set: Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian, AlbanianArmenianAlbanianBalto-Slavic: Prussian, Lithuanian, Polish, Czech,Bulgarian, Slovenian, RussianIndo-Iranian: Persian, Bengali, Hindi, Romany(the last three derived from deadlanguage Sanskrit) Western set: Celtic, Italic, Hellenic, GermanicGreek (derived from Hellenic)Celtic: Scottish, Irish, Welsh, BretonItalic: Portuguese, Spanish, French,Italian, Roumanian(Latin Romance language)Germanic: Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish, Swedish(Northern European Language)GermanDutchFlemishEnglish 北欧日耳曼语系东部：巴尔特-斯拉夫语系，印度伊朗语系，亚美尼亚，阿尔巴尼亚亚美尼亚阿尔巴尼亚巴尔特-斯拉夫语系：普鲁士语，立陶宛语，波兰语，捷克语，保加利亚语，斯洛文尼亚语，俄罗斯语印度伊朗语系：波斯语，孟加拉语，印地语，吉普赛语（后三种语言源于已消失的梵文）西部：凯尔特语系，意大利语族，古希腊语言，日耳曼语系希腊语(源于古希腊语言)凯尔特语系：苏格兰语，爱尔兰语，威尔士语，布列塔尼语意大利语族：葡萄牙语，西班牙语，法语，意大利语，罗马尼亚语（拉丁语）日耳曼语系：挪威语，冰岛语，丹麦语，瑞典语（北欧语言）德语荷兰语佛兰芒语英语2.2 A Historical Overview of the English Vocabulary 英语词汇的历史概况2.2.1 Old English( 450-1150 ) 古英语2.2.2 Middle English( 1150-1500 ) 中古英语If we say that Old English was a language of full endings, Middle English was one of leveled endings.2.2.3 Modern English(1500-up to now) 现代英语①Early Modern English (1500-1700) 早期现代英语② Late Modern English (1700- up to now) 后期现代英语2.3 Growth of Present-day English Vocabulary 当代英语词汇的发展2.4 Modes of Vocabulary Development 词汇的发展方式：创词，旧词新义，借词English vocabulary develops through 3 channels: creation, semantic changes, borrowingCreation创词refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements.Semantic changes旧词新义means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.Borrowing借词has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times.Reviving archaic or obsolete words also contribute to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant.Chapter 3 Word Formation I3.1 Morphemes 词素Morpheme is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.3.2 Allomorphs 词素变体Morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word are known as allomorphs.3.3 Types of Morphemes 词素的分类① free morphemes = free root 自由词素② bound morphemes 粘附词素3.3.1 Free Morphemes自由词素= 自由根词Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free.3.3.2 Bound Morphemes 粘附词素：粘附词根，词缀：内部曲折词缀，派生词缀：前缀，后缀Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound.Bound morphemes include 2 types: bound root and affix.Bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning , it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.Affixes include: inflectional and derivational affixesInflectional affixes: affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional.Derivational affixes: are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words.Derivational affixes include: prefix and suffix.3.4 Root and Stem 词根和词干A root词根is that part of a wordform that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed.A stem词干can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.Chapter 4 Word Formation II4.1 Affixation词缀法Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems.4.1.1 Prefixation 前缀法Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.Prefixes can be classified into 9 groups on a semantic basis.①Negative prefixes 表示否定意义的前缀②Reversative prefixes表示逆向意义的前缀③Pejorative prefixes 表示贬义的前缀④Prefixes of degree or size 表示程度、大小等意义的前缀⑤Prefixes of orientation and attitude 表示倾向和态度等意义的前缀⑥Locative prefixes 表示方位意义的前缀⑦Prefixes of time and order 表示时间和顺序等意义的前缀⑧Number prefixes 表示数字的前缀⑨Miscellaneous 其他种类意义的前缀4.1.2 Suffixation 后缀法Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.Suffixes can be grouped into 3 types on a grammatical basis: noun suffixes, adjective suffixes, adverb suffixes and verb suffixes1. Noun suffixes include: denominal nouns, deverbal nouns, de-adjective nouns, noun and adjevtive suffixesDenominal nouns: a. Concrete:-eer, -er, -ess, -ette, -let 由n.转化来的名词b. Abstract: -age, -dom, -ery, -ery(-ry), -hood, -ing, -ism, -shipDeverbal nouns: a. nouns denoting people:-ant, -ee, -ent, -er(or), 由v.转化来的名词b. nouns denoting acting, result, process, state: -age, -al, -ance,-ation(-ition, -tion, -sion, -ion), -ence, -ing, -ment,De-adjective nouns: -ity, -ness, 由a. 转化来的名词Noun and adjective suffixes: -ese, -an, -ist n.和a.后缀2.Adjective suffixes include: denominal suffixes, deverbal suffixes.加在n.后的a.后缀，加在v.后的a. 后缀Denominal suffixes: -ed, -ful, -ish, -less, -like, -ly, -y, -al(-ial, -ical),-esque, -ic, -ous(-eous, -ious),Deverbal suffixes: -able(-ible), -ive(-ative, -sive),3. Adverb suffixes: -ly, -ward(s), -wise a.后缀4. Verb suffixes: -ate, -en, -(i)fy, -ize(-ise) v. 后缀4.2 Compounding 复合构词法Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems.A compound is a lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word.4.2.1 Characteristics of Compounds 复合词的特点The 3 characteristics of compounds.① Phonetic features 语音特点② Semantic features 语义特点③ Grammatical features 语法特点4.2.2 Formations of Compounds 复合词的构成There are 3 major classes of compounds① Noun compounds 名词复合词② Adjective compounds 形容词复合词③ Verb compounds 动词复合词4.3 Conversion 转类法There are 3 types of words that produced by conversion: nouns, verbs, adjectives,1. Conversion to noun 转换成n.的转类词① Verb to noun② Adjective to noun③ Miscellaneous conversion2. Conversion to verbs 转换成v.的转类词① Noun to verb② Adjective to verb③ Miscellaneous conversion3. Conversion to adjectives 转换成a.的转类词4.4 Blending 拼缀法Head + tail 词头+词尾Head + head 词头+词头Head + word 词头+词Word + tail 词+词尾4.5 Clipping 截短法There are 4 common types of clipping:① Front clipping 首部截短② Back clipping 尾部截短③ Front and back clipping 首尾部截短④ Phrase clipping 短语截短4.6Acronymy 首字母拼音法Words formed this way can be divided into: initialisms or acronyms.4.6.1 Initialisms 首字母缩略法Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter.Letters represent full words: A.D., VOA, UFO, p./c.Letters represent constituents in a compound or just parts ofa word: TV, ID, GHQ4.6.2 Acronyms 首字母拼写法Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.: NA TO, AIDS, V-Day4.7 Back-formation 逆生法1. Abstract nouns 抽象名词2. Human nouns 人物名词3. Compound nouns and others 复合词及其它4. Adjectives 形容词4.8 Words from Proper Names 专有名词转化而来的普通名词1. Names of people 人名2. Names of places 地名3. Names of books 书名4. Tradenames 商标名Chapter 5 Word MeaningWord is the combination of form and meaning. By form we mean both its pronunciation and spelling.5.1 The Meanings of ‘Meaning’意义的意义5.1.1 Reference 所指Reference is the relationship between language and the word.5.1.2 Concept 概念Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.5.1.3 Sense 意义The meaning of …meaning ? is perhaps what is termed …sense?.5.2 Motivation 理据Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.5.2.1 Onomatopoeic Motivation 拟声理据Some words whose sounds suggest their meanings, for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises.5.2.2 Morphological Motivation 形态理据Compound and derived words are multi-morphological words and the meanings of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined.5.2.3 Semantic Motivation 语义理据Semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word.5.2.4 Etymological Motivation 语源理据The meanings of many words often relate directly to their origins.5.3 Types of Meaning 意义的种类5.3.1 Grammatical Meaning and Lexical Meaning 语法意义和词汇意义Grammatical meanings refers o that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept of relationships such as part of speech of word (n. v. a. ad.), singular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms.Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word meaning.Lexical meaning itself has two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.5.3.2Conceptual Meaning and Associative Meaning 概念意义和联想意义Conceptual meaning (also known as denotative meaning) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.Associative meaning comprises four types: connotative, stylistic, affective and collocative meaning.联想意义：内涵意义，文体意义，感情意义，搭配意义Chapter 6 Sense Rations and Semantic FieldSemantically, all words are related in one way or another.6.1 Polysemy 多义关系Polysemy is a common feature peculiar to all natural languages.6.1.1 Two Approaches to Polysemy 多义关系的两个研究方法：历时方法，共时方法The problem of interrelation of the various meanings of the same word can be dealt with from two different angles: diachronic approach and synchronic approach.1. Diachronic approach历时方法In diachronic approach, other meanings apart from the primary meaning of a word were acquired by: extension, narrowing, analogy, transfer.2. Synchronic approach共时方法Synchronically, the basic meaning of a word is the core of word-meaning called the central meaning.6.1.2 Two Processes of Development 语义发展的两种模式：辐射型，连锁型The development of word-meaning from monosemy to polysemy follows two courses, traditionally known as: radiation and concatenation.Radiation辐射型is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes.Concatenation describes a process where each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains.Concatenation连锁型is the semantic process in the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until, in many cases, there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which theterm had at the beginning.6.2 Homonymy同形同音异义关系Homonyms are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.6.2.1 Types of Homonyms 同形同音异义词的种类1. Perfect homonyms 完全同形同音异义词2. Homographs 同形异音异义词3. Homophones 同音异形异义词Of the three types, homophones constitute the largest number and are most common.6.2.2 Origins of Homonyms 同形同音异义词的来源There are various sources of homonyms: change in sound and spelling, borrowing, shortening.1. Change in sound and spelling 语言和拼写变化2. Borrowing 借用3. Shortening 缩略法6.2.3 Differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemant 同形同音异义词与多义词的区别Perfect homonyms and polysemants are fully identical with regard to spelling and pronunciation.One important criterion for differentiation of homonyms from polysemants is to see their etymology, the second principal consideration is semantic relatedness.6.2.4 Rhetoric Features of Homonyms 同形同音异义词的修辞特点As homonyms are identical in sound of spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humour, sarcasm or ridicule.6.3 Synonymy 同义关系Synonyms is one of the characteristic features of the vocabulary of natural languages.6.3.1 Definition of Synonyms 同义词的定义（异形异音同义）Synonyms can be defined as words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.6.3.2 Types of Synonyms 同义词的类别：绝对同义词，相对同义词Synonyms can be classified into two major groups: absolute synonyms and relative synonyms.Absolute synonyms绝对同义词also known as complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects.Relative synonyms相对同义词also called near-synonyms are similar or near the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning of different degrees of a given quality.6.3.3 Sources of Synonyms 同义词的来源①Borrowing 借词② Dialects and regional English 方言词③ Figurative and euphemistic use of words 比喻词和委婉语④ Coincidence with idiomatic expressions 与习语的巧合6.3.4 Discrimination of Synonyms 同义词的区别：外延上，内涵上，应用上The differences between synonyms boil down to 3 areas: denotation, connotation, and applicationDifference in denotation, synonyms may differ in the range and intensity of meaning.Difference in connotation, by connotation we mean the stylistic and emotive colouring of words.Difference in application, many words are synonyms in meaning but different in usage in simple terms.6.4 Antonymy 反义关系6.4.1 Types of Antonyms 反义词的类别Antonymy is concerned with semantic opposition.Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning1. Contradictory terms, 互为矛盾的反义词these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning.2. Contrary terms, 相对反义词antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.3. Relative terms, 表示相互关系的反义词this third type consists of relational opposites such as parent/child.6.4.2 Some of the Characteristics of Antonyms 反义词的一些特点1. Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition.In a language, there are a great many more synonyms than antonyms.反义词是按语义相反的情况进行划分的。

《英语词汇学》笔记1-10章

Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary重点知识锦集：1. According to semanticists（意义学家）, a word is a unit of meaning.2. This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is ‘no logical relationships between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself’.3. Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency.4. Words may fall into content words and functional words by notion.5. Words may fall into native words and borrowed words by origin.6. The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language.7. ‘all national character’（全民性）is the most important of all features that may differentiate words of common use from all others.8. Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.9. Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words.9. The English language is noted for the remarkable complexity and heterogeneity of its vocabulary because of its extensive borrowings.10. According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing, we can bring the loan-words under four classes: Denizens, Aliens, Translation-loans, Semantic-loans.11. The differences between sound and form are due to innovations made by linguists.12. Of all the five characteristics listed for the basic word stock, the most important is all national character.（全民性）13. Content words are changing all the time whereas functional words are stable.14. In Old English there was more agreement between sound and form.15. A word is a symbol that represents something else in the world.16. Some words in the basic words stock are said to be stable because they refer to the commonest things in life.17. In different language, the same concept can be represented by different sounds and the same sound can show different meanings.18. The internal reason for the difference between sound and form is the fact of more phonemes than letters in English.19. Native words are neutral in style and frequent in use.20. The expression of “long time no see”is translation-loan among the four classes of borrowings.名词解释：1. word(词): A word is a minimal free form of a Language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2. vocabulary（词汇）: The term ‘vocabulary’is used in different senses. Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period. We also use it to refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book,a given disicipline and the words possessed by an individual person.3. Jargon（专门术语）: It refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particulararts, sciences, trades, and professions, communicate among themselves.4.Archaisms（古语词）: Archaisms are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use.5. Neologisms（新词语）: Neologisms are newly created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.6. borrowed words（外来词）: Words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms.7. Deizens（同化词）: Deizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are all assimilated into the English Language.8. Aliens（非同化词）: Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. These words are immediately recognisable as foreign in origin.9. Translation-loans（译借词）: Translation-loans are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modelled on the patterns taken from another language.10.Semantic-loans（借义词）: Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form. But their meanings are borrowed. In other words, English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language11. argot（黑话）: It generally refers to the jargon of criminals.12. content words（实词）: Content words denote clear notions including nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.13. terminology(术语): Terminology consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas.14. native words（本族语）: Native words, also known as Anglo-Saxon words, are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the German tribes.论述问答题：1. With the development of the Language, why do more and more differences occur between the Sound and Form?答：It is generally agreed that the written form of a natural Language is the written record of the oral form. But with the development of the Language, more and more differences occur between them, the reasons are as follows:①. The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the Language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.②. Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart.③. A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.④. Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary. When English borrowed words from other Languages , it borrowed spelling as well.2. What are the obvious characteristics of the words of the basic word stock（基本词汇）?①. All national character.（全民性）②. Stability（稳定性）③. Productivity（多产性）④. Polysemy（多义性）⑤. Collocability（搭配性）Of course, not all the words of the basic word stock have these characteristics. Pronouns and numerals enjoy nation-wide use and stability, but are semantically monosemous and have limited productivity and collocability. Therefore, ‘all national character’is the most important of all features that may differentiate words of common use from all others.3. Apart from the characteristics mentioned of the basic word stock, in contrast to borrowed words, native words have two other features, what are they?答：①. Neutral in style（文体上中性）. Since native words denote the commonest things in human society, they are used by all people, in all places, on all occasions, and at all times. Therefore, they are not stylistically specific.②. Frequent in use（使用频繁）. Native words are most frequently used in everyday speech and writing. The proportion of its use in relation to borrowings is perhaps just the opposite of its number.4. Illustrate the relationship between sound and meaning with examples.答：A word is phonetic symbol that stands for something in the world. This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is ‘no logical relationships between the sound which stands for a things or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself’. For example, woman is represented by the sound Frau in German, femme in French, and funv in Chinese.5. Explain neologisms（新词语）with examples.答：Neologisms are newly created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings. For example, “emil”(electronic mail, the sending of messages via computer systems) is a word newly coined against the background of rapid development in information technology. The word “mouse” might examplify the words taking on new meanings : now a mouse is indispensable for computer users.6. How are English words generally classified? Elaborate on it.答：V ocabulary can be classified by different criteria into different types.①By use frequency（使用频率）, words may fall into the basic word stock（基本词汇）and nonbasic vocabulary（非基本词汇）. Basic vocabulary is small in number but forms the core of the language and enjoys the high frequency of use. Nonbasic vocabulary contains such words as terminology, jargon, which have a relatively limited use；②By notion（实义）, words can be divided into content words（实义词）and functional words （功能词即虚词）, content words have clear notions such as nouns, verbs. Functional words cover prepositions, articles, conjunctions, etc, whose major functions are to help make sentences；③By origin（起源）, words can be grouped into native words（本族语词）and borrowed words （外来语词）. Native words refer to the words of Anglo-Saxon origin, which are small in number but form the main stream of basic word stock. Borrowed words are words taken over from other languages and make up 80%of the whole English vocabulary. These three criteria are the most widespread and popular. There are other ways too, for example, by morphological structure, formality, emotionality, and so on.Chapter 2 The Development of the English Vocabulary重点知识锦集：1. Indo-European Language is made up of most of the Languages of Europe, the Near East, and India.2. The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages：Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian Languages.3. In the Western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic.4. The surviving Languages show various of degrees of similarity to one another. The similarity bears a more or less direct relationship to their geographical distribution.5. Now people generally refer to Anglo-Saxon as Old English（古英语）.6. The introduction of Christianity（基督教）at the end of the 6th century had a great impact on the English vocabulary.7. Old English （古英语）has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like modren German.8. Until 1066, although there were borrowings from Latin, the influence on English was mainly Germanic.9. The Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English.10. During the Middle English period, Britain had trade relations with the low countries, especially Holland.11. Middle English retained much fewer inflections. If we say that Old English was a language of full endings, Middle English was one of leveled endings.12. As a result, Celtic made only a small contribution to the English vocabulary with such words as crag and bin and a number of place names like Avon, Kent, London, and Thames.13. After the invading Germanic tribes settled down in Britain, their Language almost totally blotted out Celtic .14. Old English is considered to be a highly-inflected Language.15. During the Middle English period three languages—English, French and Latin（英语，法语和拉丁语）---- existed simultaneously for over a century.16. Modern English（当代英语）began with the establishment of printing（印刷术）in England.17. Since the beginning of this century, word-formation has become even more important for the expansion of English vocabulary.18. Early Modern English refers to the language spoken from 1500 to 1700 .19. The major factors that promote the growth of modern English are the growth of science and technology, economic and political changes, the influence of other cultures and Languages .20. The four major foreign contributors to the English vocabulary in earlier times were French, Latin, Greek and Scandinavian .21. Though still at work today , borrowing can hardly compare with what it was in the past.22. It can be concluded that English has evolved from a synthetic Language(Old English) to the present analytic Language.23. Modern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, semantic change, borrowing.24. The word of “recollection” is formed by creation.25. The first people known to inhabit the British isles were Celts. Their languages were Celtic.26. Besides French words, English also absorbed as many as 2,500 words of Dutch origin in theMiddle English period.名词解释：1. creation（创造新词）: Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements. In Modern times, creation is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.2. semantic change（旧词新意）: Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.3. borrowing（借用外来词语）: Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times.4. Old English（古英语）: It refers to the Language used from 450 to 1150.5. Middle English（中世纪英语）: It refers to the Language used from 1150 to 1500.6. Modern English（现代英语）: It refers to the Language used from 1500 up to the present.论述问答题：1. What are eight principal language in the Indo-European Language family（印欧语系）?答：They are Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian, Albanian, Celtic, Italic, Hellenic and Germanic.2. What are the causes of more new words appearing today?答：the rapid development of modern science and technology.；Social, economic and political changes.；The influences of other cultures and languages.；3. What are three main modes of vocabulary developments?答：Creation creates new words by using existing materials.Semantic change. An old form takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.Borrow words from other Languages.Chapter 3 Word Formation I重点知识锦集：1. It seems to be generally agreed that a word is the smallest unit of a Language that stands alone to communicate meaning.2. In other words, the morpheme is ‘the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words’.3. Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs.4. The morpheme to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone.5. Allomorphs as such do not occur at random, but are phonetically conditioned and thus predictable.6. Morphemes can be divided into free morphemes and bound morphemes.7. Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words.8. Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and affix.9. According to the functions of affixes, we can put them into two groups: inflectional affixes and derivational affixes.（内部曲折词缀和派生词缀）10. A monomorphemic word is a word that consists of a single free morpheme.11. Chiefly found in derived words, bound morphemes(黏着语素) include bound roots, inflectional affixes, derivational affixes.12. The plural morpheme ‘s’ is realized by /s/ after the sounds /t, p, k/ and by /z/ after /d, b, g, l/13. In the Eastern Set, Albanian and Armenian are each the only modern language respectively.名词解释：1. morpheme（语素）: the minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes.2. allomorphs（语素变体）: some morphemes, however, are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs.3. free morphemes（自由语素）: Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences.4. bound morphemes（黏着语素）: morphemes which can not occur as separate words are bound. They are so named because they are bound to other morphemes to form words.5. bound root（黏着词根）: a bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. It’s a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.6. affixes（词缀）: Affixes are forms that are attached to words or words elements to modify meaning or function.7. inflectional affixes（曲折词缀）: Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes.8. derivational affixes（派生词缀）: As the term indicates, derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to creat new words. Derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes.9. root（词根）: A root is the basic form of a word which can not be further analysed without total loss of identity. It is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed.10. stem（词干）: A stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.论述问答题：1. What are the differences between root and stem?答：①A root is the basic form of a word which can not be further analysed without total loss of identity. The root whether free or bound generally carries the main component of meaning in a word.②A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in “iron”or of two root morphemes as ina compound like “handcuff”. It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in “mouthful”. Therefore, a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind cab be added.2. Analyze the morphological structure of the following words in terms of free morpheme and bound morpheme, then explain the differences between the two kinds of morphemes.UnhappilyIdealistic答:①Each of two words consists of three morphemes:unhappily(un+happy+ly), idealistic(ideal+ist+ic).②“happy”and “ideal”are free morphemes; un-, -ly, -ist and –ic are bound morphemes.③free morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. Bound morphemes must be bound to other morphemes to form words.3. Analyze the morphological structures of the following words and point out types of the morphemes. recollection, nationalist, unearthly.答：recollection, nationalist, unearthly1) Each of the three words consists of three morphemes:recollection(re+collect+ion), nationalist(nation+al+ist), unearthly(un+earth+ly).2) Of the nine morphemes, only “collect” “nation” and “earth” are free morphemes as they can exist by themselves.3) All the rest are bound morphemes as none of them can stand alone as words.Chapter 4 Word Formation II重点知识锦集：1. The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word-formation.2. According to the positions which affixes occupy in words, affixes falls into two subclasses:prefixation and suffixation.（前缀和后缀）3. Affixation is also known as derivation.4. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning.5. Suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems. In other words, they mainly change the word class.6. We shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into noun suffixes, verb suffixes, adjective suffixes, etc.7. Compounds can be written solid, hyphenated and open.（连写的，加连字符号的，不连写的）8. Most compounds consist of only two stems but are formed on a rich variety of patterns and the internal grammatical relationships within the words are considerably complex.9. Conversion is also known as functional shift.（功能转换）10. Words produced by conversion are primarily nouns, adjectives, and verbs.11. The most productive, however, is the conversion that takes place between nouns and verbs.12. Unlike verbs, not all adjectives which are converted can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion,（完全转换）others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion.（部分转换）13. Blending（拼缀法）is a very productive process and many coinages resulting from blending have become well-established.14. As far as the structure is concerned, blends fall into four major groups: head+tail, head+head, head+word, word+tail.15. The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns.16. Blends are mostly used in writing related to science and technology, and to newspapers and magazines.17. There are four common types of clipping: front clipping, back clipping, front and back clipping, phrase clipping.18. Both intialisms and acronyms have become very popular since the Second World War and thus extremely productive.19. Words created through back-formation are mostly verbs.20. Stylistically, back-formed words are largely informal and some of them have not gained public acceptance.21. Open compounds look like free phrases as the elements forming each word are written separately.22. As a rule, the stress of compounds falls on the first element.23. A compound functions as a single grammatical unit, so the internal structure can not be changed.24. Conversion（转换法）refers to the use of words of one class as that of a different class.25. Partial conversion and full conversion are concerned with adjectives when converted to nouns.名词解释：1. affixation（词缀法）: Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems.2. prefixation（前缀法）: Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.3. suffixation（后缀法）: Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.4. compounding（合成法）: Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way are called compounds.5. conversion（转换法）: Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.6. blending（拼缀法）: Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. Words formed in this way are called blends or pormanteau words.7. clipping（截短法）: Another common way of making a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. This is called clipping.8. acronymy（首字母拼音法）: Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.9. initialisms（首字母缩略词）: Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter.10. acronyms（首字母拼音词）: Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.11. back-formation（逆生法）: Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It’s therefore the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.论述问答题：1. In what aspects do compounds differ from free phrases?答：Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects:1). Phonetic features. In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stress.2). Semantic features. Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word.3). Grammatical features. A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence, for example, a verb, a noun, or an adjective.2. What is the best way to classify prefixes? Why?答：Prefixes do not usually change the word-class of the stem but only modify lts meaning.Although present-day English finds an increasing number of class-changing prefixes, they make up only an insignificant number in the huge contemporary vocabulary. It might be the best way to classify prefixes by their non-class-changing feature.3. In what way are compound verbs generally formed? Give examples to illustrate your point.答：Compound verbs are created either through conversion or back-formation. This could be illustrated by two words, nickname and chain-smoker. Nickname, which is originally a noun, can be used as a verb through conversion. Chain-smoker, which is originally a noun, can turn into a verb through back-formation.4. What is the difference between partial and full conversion? Explain them with examples. 答：When converted to nouns, not all adjectives can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion, others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion. When a noun fully converted from an adjective has all the characteristics of a noun, it can take an indefinite article or-(e)s to indicate singular or plural number. For example, adjective “white”can be fully converted to a noun “white”, which can take indefinite article: a white. When a noun partially converted from adjectives do not possess all the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with the definite article, and they retain some of the adjective features. For example, the poor, the rich.5. Both back-formation（逆生法）and back-clipping（截后留前）are ways of making words by removing the endings of words. How do you account for the coexistence of the two? Can you explain the difference?答：Back-formation is the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. It’s considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. For example, “loafer”may be assumed to derive from the verb “loaf”’on the analogy of known derivatives, such as “swimmer” from “swim” or “driver” from “drive”. By removing the supposed suffixes –er from “loafer”, a verb “loaf”’is coined. Majority of back-formed words are verbs. Back-clipping is different. The deletion occurs at the end of the word(usually a noun). Both the original long word and its short form remain in the same word class. In diffe rent context, one could be used in other’s place.6. After he comes back, he oiled machine.In above sentence, which word is the converted word? Explain the type of the conversion and the effect of the conversion.答：In this sentence, the word “oil”is the converted word. It is converted from a noun to a verb. When it was used as a noun, the meaning of it is that “油”. But in this sentence, it was used as a verb, the meaning is “给…加油”; As is often the case, a noun can be converted to a verb without any change. The use of the verb converted is both economical and vivid.Chapter 5 Word Meaning重点知识锦集：1. Reference(所指关系) is the relationship between Language and the world.2. The reference of a word to a thing outside the Language is arbitrary and conventional.（任意的和依照惯例的）3. Although reference is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer tosomething specific.4. Every word that has meaning has sense(not every word has reference).5. Different lexical items, which have different lexical meanings, may have the same grammatical meaning.（语法意义）6. Functional words, though having little lexical meaning, possess strong grammatical meaning.7. Lexical meaning itself has two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.（概念意义和关联意义）8. Associative meaning（关联意义）comprises four types: connotative, stylistic, affective, collocative.9. Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative or pejorative.（褒义词和贬义词）10. To a large extent the affective meaning of the word depends on the context where the word is used.11. Motivation（理据）explains why a particular form has a particular meaning.12. Unlike conceptual meaning, associative meaning is unstable and indeterminate.13. By etymological motivation, we mean that the meaning of a particular word is related to its origin.14. The relationship between the linguistic sign and a referent is conventional.15. Content words have both meanings, and Lexical meaning（词汇意义）in particular.16. The word “miniskirt”is morphologically motivated.17. The word “laconic”is etymologically motivated.18. In the phrase “the mouth of the river”, the word “mouth”is semantically motivated.名词解释：1. concept（概念）: Concept, which is beyond Language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind. It’s universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, Language and so on.2. sense（语义）: Sense denotes the relationship inside the Language. The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the Language.3. motivation（理据）: Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.4. onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）: In modern English one may find some words whose sounds suggest their meanings, for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises. For example, bang, miaow, ha ha and the like are onomatopoetically motivated words. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning.5. morphological motivation（形态理据）: Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meanings of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined. Quite often, if one knows the meaning of each morpheme, one can figure out the meaning of the word. For instance, “airmail” means to ‘mail by air’.6. semantic motivation（语义理据）: Semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.7. etymological motivation（词源学理据）: The meanings of many words often relate directly。

词汇学名词解释

词汇学1、Compounding（合成法）Compounding is a word-formation process of joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a compound word.e.g. blackboard, air-conditioning, flowerpot2、Derivation（派⽣生法）= aﬃxation（词缀法）A word-formation process by which new words are created by adding a prefix, or suﬃx,or both, to the base.e.g. belittle, debug, anti-war3、Conversion（词性转移法）Conversion is a word-formation process whereby a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the addition of an aﬃx.e.g. attack (v. & n.), compound (v. & n.), permit (v. & n.)4、Initialisms（⾸首字⺟母连写词）Initialism is a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase; it is pronounced letter by letter.e.g. BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation), VIP (a very important people)5、Acronyms（⾸首字⺟母拼⾳音词）Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of the name of an organization or a scientific term.e.g. OPEC, BASIC, SAM, TEFL, UNESCO6、Clipping（剪裁法）The process of clipping involves the deletion of one or more syllables from a word (usually a noun), which is also available in its full form.e.g. plane from airplane, phone from telephone, gym from gymnastics, taxi from taxicab7、Blending（混合法）Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of whichare not in their full forms.e.g. newscast (news + broadcast), brunch (breakfast + lunch)8、Back formation（逆构法）Back-formation is a term used to refer to a type of word-formation by which a shorterword is coined by the deletion of a supposed aﬃx from a longer form already present in the language.e.g.the verb resurrect was formed from the noun resurrection by removing the supposed derivative suﬃx -ion, and the verb edit formed from editor by dropping the suﬃx -or.9、Words from proper names（专有名词构词法）The words that coined from the diﬀerent proper names. Such as the names of people, the names of places, the names of books, or the names of brands.e.g. watt, hertz, Nicotine10、Reduplication（复制法）Reduplication is a minor type of word-formation by which a compound word is created by the repetition (1)of one word like go-go; (2)of two almost identical words with a change in the vowel’s such as ping-pong; (3) of two almost identical words with a change in the initial consonants, as in teenyweeny.11、Coinage（新造的字）Coinage is a process of inventing words not based on existing morphemes.e.g. fruice = fruit +juice, slanguage =slang + language12、Classification of English words according to diﬀerent criteriaA. By origin:1) native words2) loan wordsB. By level of usage :1)common words2)literary words3)colloquial words4)slang words5)technical wordsC. By notion:1)function words（虚词）2)content words （实词）13、inflectional morpheme (or inflectional aﬃxes) （曲折词缀）An inflectional aifix serves to express such meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree. It does not form a new word with new lexical meaning when it is added to another word. Nor does it change the word-class of the word to which it is aﬃxed.e.g. “s” in chairs, pens ; “es” in boxes, tomatoes; “en” in oxen14、root（词根）(1) 书：A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word.e.g. work, boy, moon, walk(2) ⽹网：A root is a form which is not further analysable, either in terms of derivational or inflectional morphology. A root is the basic part always present in a lexeme.15、stem（词⼲干）Stem is the part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional aﬃxes have been removed.e.g. in the word undesirables, the stem is undesirable;in the word desired, the stem is desire16、base（词基）Base is any form to which aﬃxes of any kind can be added.e.g. in the word desirable, desire is the base to which a suﬃx -able is added.17、echoic words or onomatopoeic words（拟声词或象声词）Words motivated phonetically are called echoi words or onomatopoeic words, whose pronunciation suggests the meaning.e.g. the woof-woof of a dog, the miaow of a cat18、homonyms（异义词）In the English language, there are many pairs or groups of words, which, though diﬀerent in meaning, are pronounced alike, or spelled alike, or both.e.g. lead (n. & v.), sow (n. & v.), tear (n. & v.)19、complementary antonyms（互补性反义词）Complementaries or contradictories represent a type of binary semantic opposition. In a complementary pair the contrast between the two terms is absolute.e.g. alive and dead, single and married20、synchronic dictionary（共时词典）Synchronic dictionaries describe the vocabulary of a certain period or at a certain stage of the development of the language, providing the from, meaning, usage, etc., of the words of the period.e.g. COD, WCD21、allomorph（同位异形体）An allomorph is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.e.g. the allomorphs -ion/-tion/-sion/-ation are the positional variants of the same suﬃx22、prefixation（前缀）Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding a prefix or combining form to the base.e.g. de-, be-, en-23、semantic motivation（语义动机）Semantic motivation refers to motivation based on semantic factors. It is a kind of mental association.e.g.When we speak of a stony heart we are comparing the heart with a stone; when we say the leg of a table, we are comparing the tables leg with one of the lower limbs of a human being.24、aﬀective meaning（情感意义）Aﬀective meaning is concerned with the expression of feelings and attitudes of the speaker or writer.e.g. Aha! Alas! and Hurrah!25、hyponymy（上下义关系）Hyponymy is the relationship which obtains between specific and general lexical items, such that the former is “included” in the la tter.e.g. a cat is a hyponym of animal, flute of instrument, chair of furniture26、semantic field（语义场）（1）书：Semantic field theory "took the view that the vocabulary of a given language is not simply a listing of independent items (as the headwords in a dictionary would suggest), but is organized into areas, or fields, within which words interrelate and define each other in various ways."（2）⽹网：Semantic field theory is concerned with the vocabulary of a language as a system of interrelated lexical networks. The words of a semantic field are joined together by a common concept, and they are likely to have a number of collocations in common.e.g.The words red, green, white etc. make up the semantic field of colors;the words father, mother, son etc. make up the semantic field of kinship27、componential analysis（成分分析法）The analysis of word meanings is often seen as a process of breaking down the sense of a word into its minimal components.e.g. cow : [+ Bovine + Adult - Male]man : [+Human + Adult + Male]。

自考英语词汇学名词解释(54个全)

词汇学名词解释1. Word --- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic funtion.2. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the minimal significant element in the composition of words.3. Free morphemes or Content morphemes (Free root) --- They are morphemes that may constitute words by themselves : cat, walk.4. Bound Morphemes or Grammatical morphemes --- They are morphemes that must appear with at least one other morpheme, either bound or free : Catts, walk+ing.5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example: it conveys the meaning of "say or speak" as a Latin root, but not as a word. With the prefix pre-(=before) we obtain the verb predict meaning "tell beforehand".6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or funtion.7. Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes --- Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional ,thus known as inflectional morphemes.There is the regular plural suffix -s(-es) which is added to nouns such as machines, desks.8. Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes --- Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words.9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word, such as, pre+war.10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word, for instance, blood+y.Derivational morphemes/ derivational affixes --- A process of forming new words by the addition of a word element. Such as prefix, suffix, combing form to an already existing word.Prefixation ---- is the formation of new words by adding prefix or combing form to the base. (It modify the lexical meaning of the base)Suffixation--- is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or combing form to the base and usually changing the word-class of the base. Such as boy. Boyish (noun- adjective)11. Root --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity.12. Opaque Words--Words that are formed by one content morpheme only and cannot be analysed into parts are called opaque words, such as axe, glove. 13. Transparent Words--Words that consist of more than one morphemes and can be segmented into parts are called transparent words: workable(work+able), door-man(door+man).14. Morphs--Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs. They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning.15. Allomorps--Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs. For instance, the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a number of allomorphs in different sound context, e.g. in cats /s/, in bags /z/, in match /iz/.16. Derivation or Affixation--Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. This process is also known as derivation.17. Prefixation--Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.18. Suffixation--Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.19. Compounding（Compositon）--Compounding is a process of word-formation by which two independent words are put together to make one word. E.g. hen-packed; short-sighted.20. Conversion--Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. This process of creating new words without adding any affixes is also called zero-derivation. E.g. dry (a.)-->to dry.21. Back-formation-- is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by the deletion of a supposed affix. E.g. editor entered the language before edit.22. Abbreviation ( shortening )-- is a process of word-formation by which the syllables of words are abbreviated or shortened.23. Abbreviation includes four types : I. Clipped words II. Initialisms III. Acronyms IV. Blends.I. Clipped words--are those created by clipping part of a word, leaving only a piece of the old word. E.g. telephone-->phone, professional-->pro.II. Initialisms--are words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as letters. E.g. IMF/ai em ef/=International Monetary Fund.III. Acronyms--are words formed from the initial letters of word and pronounced as words. E.g. NATO/'neito/=North Atlantic Treaty Organization.IV. Blends--are words that are combined by parts of other words. E.g. smoke+fog=smog.24. Polysemy--The same word may have two or more different meanings. This is known as "polysemy". The word "flight", for example, may mean "passing through the air", "power of flying", "air of journey", etc.Two approaches to polysemy: Diachronic and SynchronicDiachronically, we study the growth or change in the semantic structure of a word , or how the semantic structure of a word has developed from primary meaning to the present polysemic state .Synchronically, we are interested in the comparative value of individual meanings and the interrelation between the central meaning and the secondary meanings.Two processes leading to polysemy: Radiation and concatenationRadiation : Semantically, radiation is the process in which the primary or central meaning stands at the center while secondary meanings radiate from it in every direction like rays.Concatenation : is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts, like the links of a chain, untill there is no connection between the sense that is finally developed and the primary meaning.25. Homonyms--are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical『a.同一的，完全相同的』only in sound or spelling.26. Perfect Homonyms--are words identical both in sound and spelling,but different in meaning。

英语词汇学重点名词解释

英语词汇学重点名词解释Word a word is a minimal free form of a language that has a giving sound and meaning and syntactic function.Native w ords are words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes. They are neutral in style and frequent in use.Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into English language. In other words they have come to comfort to the English way of pronunciation and spelling.Translation-loans are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modelled on the patterns taken from another language.Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling.Semantic-loans refers to words whose meanings are borrowed and whose forms are not borrowed. Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing material, namely roots, affixes and other elements.Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meetthe new need.Mopheme the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.Free mophemes are independent of other mophemes and have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammarical units in sentences. They are identical with root words.Bound mophemes A mopheme that occurs with at least one other mopheme.Stem is a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.Inflectional affix is an affix that indicates grammatical relationships.Derivational affix is an affix that forms new words with a stem or a root.Affixation It is also called derivation, is the formation of new words by adding affix to stems.Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning.Conversion the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.Blending the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. Clipping to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.Back-formation is the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.Initialisms are words pronunced letter by letter.Semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the lieral sense and figurative sense of the word..Morphological motivation accounts for the connection between the meaning of the word and the me aning of each morpheme in the word.Onomatopoeic motivation indicates the relationship between sound and meaning of a word . I ts sound suggests its meaning.Grammarical meaning refers to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammarical concept or relationships.Conceptual meaning the meaning giveb in the dictionary forms the core of word meaning.Connotation (Connotative meaning ) refers to the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning.Affective meaning indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question.Collocative meaning the word meaning which is suggested by t he words before or after the word in discussion.Reference is the relationship between language and the world.Concept Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Radiation a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre secondary meaning proceed out of it in every direction like rays.Concatenation a process where each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains.Polysemy words that have two or more than two sense.Homonymy words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or meaning.Perfect homonyms are words identical both in sound and in spelling, but different in meaning.Synonym one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning.Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word.Primary meaning is the only first meaning that a word had when it was created.Extension (Generalization) A process by which a word which originally had a specialized me aning has now become generalized.Narrowing (Specialication) It is also called specialication. It is the opposite of widening meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense.Degradation is a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense..Amelioration ( Elevation ) is also called elevation, a term referring to the process by which words rise from humble beginning to positions of importance..Transfer words which were used to designate one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.Linguistic context refers to the words, clauses, sentenses in which a word appears.Extra-linguistic context is also called non-linguistic context, which includes people, time, place, even the whole cultural background..Lexical context refers to the word occur together with the word in question.Grammatical context In some cases, the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs.Metonymy the name of one thing is used for that of another associated with it.Synecdoche is that of substituting part for the whole and vice versa.Idioms strictly speaking, idioms are expr essions that are not readily understandable from their literal meanings of individual elements.Idioms nominal in nature idioms of this class have a noun as the key word in each and function as a noun in sentences.Specialized dictionary is a dictionary concentrationg on a particular area of language or knowledge. Unabridged dictionary As the name indicates, an unabridged dictionary is an unshortened one. Theoretically, it is a complete record of all the words in use ( actually no dictionariy can contain all the words in the language ).Desk dictionaries are medium-sized ones containing words ranging from 50,000 to 150,000. As they are dictionaries that one finds most used on desks, th ey are called desk dictionaries.。

自考英语词汇学名词解释(54个全)

词汇学名词解释1. Word --- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic funtion.2. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the minimal significant element in the composition of words.3. Free morphemes or Content morphemes (Free root) --- They are morphemes that may constitute words by themselves : cat, walk.4. Bound Morphemes or Grammatical morphemes --- They are morphemes that must appear with at least one other morpheme, either bound or free : Catts, walk+ing.5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. T ake -dict- for example: it conveys the meaning of "say or speak" as a Latin root, but not as a word. With the prefix pre-(=before) we obtain the verb predict meaning "tell beforehand".6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or funtion.7. Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes --- Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional ,thus known as inflectional morphemes.There is the regular plural suffix -s(-es) which is added to nouns such as machines, desks.8. Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes --- Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words.9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word, such as, pre+war.10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word, for instance, blood+y.Derivational morphemes/ derivational affixes --- A process of forming new words by the addition of a word element. Such as prefix, suffix, combing form to an already existing word.Prefixation ---- is the formation of new words by adding prefix or combing form to the base. (It modify the lexical meaning of the base)Suffixation--- is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or combing form to the base and usually changing the word-class of the base. Such as boy. Boyish (noun- adjective)11. Root --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity.12. Opaque Words--Words that are formed by one content morpheme only and cannot be analysed into parts are called opaque words, such as axe, glove.13. Transparent Words--Words that consist of more than one morphemes and can be segmented into parts are called transparent words: workable(work+able), door-man(door+man).14. Morphs--Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs. They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning.15. Allomorps--Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs. For instance, the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a number of allomorphs in different sound context, e.g. in cats /s/, in bags /z/, in match /iz/.16. Derivation or Affixation--Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. This process is also known as derivation.17. Prefixation--Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.18. Suffixation--Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.19. Compounding（Compositon）--Compounding is a process of word- formation by which two independent words are put together to make one word. E.g. hen-packed; short-sighted.20. Conversion--Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. This process of creating new words without adding any affixes is also called zero-derivation. E.g. dry (a.)-->to dry.21. Back-formation-- is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by the deletion of a supposed affix. E.g. editor entered the language before edit.22. Abbreviation ( shortening )-- is a process of word-formation by which the syllables of words are abbreviated or shortened.23. Abbreviation includes four types : I. Clipped words II. Initialisms III. Acronyms IV. Blends.I. Clipped words--are those created by clipping part of a word, leaving only a piece of the old word. E.g. telephone-->phone, professional-->pro.II. Initialisms--are words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as letters. E.g. IMF/ai em ef/=International Monetary Fund.III. Acronyms--are words formed from the initial letters of word and pronounced as words. E.g. NATO/'neito/=North Atlantic Treaty Organization.IV. Blends--are words that are combined by parts of other words. E.g. smoke+fog=smog.24. Polysemy--The same word may have two or more different meanings. This is known as "polysemy". The word "flight", for example, may mean "passing through the air", "power of flying", "air of journey", etc.Two approaches to polysemy: Diachronic and SynchronicDiachronically, we study the growth or change in the semantic structure of a word , or how the semantic structure of a word has developed from primary meaning to the present polysemic state .Synchronically, we are interested in the comparative value of individual meanings and the interrelation between the central meaning and the secondary meanings.Two processes leading to polysemy: Radiation and concatenationRadiation : Semantically, radiation is the process in which the primary or central meaning stands at the center while secondary meanings radiate from it in every direction like rays. Concatenation : is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts, like the links of a chain, untill there is no connection between the sense that is finally developed and the primary meaning.25. Homonyms--are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical『a.同一的，完全相同的』only in sound or spelling.26. Perfect Homonyms--are words identical both in sound and spelling,but different in meaning。

《词汇学》名词解释总汇

《词汇学》名词解释总汇1.Conversion（转换）is a word-formation whereby a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another without the addition of an affix. It is also called zero derivation.2.Neologisms（新词用法）are newly coined words or words that are given new meaning to fit new situation because of social, economic, political, cultural, scientific and technological changes in human society.3. Lexicology（词汇学）is a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a given language. It deals with words, their origin, development, structure, formation, meaning and usage.4.the elevation of meaning（词义的升格）refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance.5.Acronyms（首字母拼音词）words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as words. They differ from initialisms in that they are pronounced as words rather than as sequencesof letters.6.Hyponymy (上下义关系)deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. It refers to the relationship which obtains between the genus (general lexical item)and the species(specific lexical items).7.Analogy（类比）is a process by which words or phrases are created or re-formed according to the existing patterns in the language.8.Motivation（理据）deals with the connection between name (word-symbol) and its sense (meaning). It is the relationship between the word structure and its meaning. 9.Metaphor（隐喻）is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison. It is a simile without like or as.10.Antonymy (反义关系)is concerned with semantic opposition. It can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.11.Suffix（后缀）: an affix attached to the end of a base (root or stem)12. synecdoche（提喻）means using a part for a whole, an individual for a class, a material for a thing, or vice versa, the whole for a part.13. prefix（前缀）: an affix attached to the beginning of a base (root or stem)14. initialism（首字母连写词）: a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase; it is pronounced letter by letter. 15.morpheme(词素): the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not dividable or analyzable into smaller forms.16.the degradation of meaning（词义的降格）: is the opposite of semantic elevation. It is a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense.17.Derivational affixes (派生词缀)Affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. They can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes。

词汇学知识点总结

词汇学知识点总结词汇学是研究词汇的学科，它是语言学的一个重要分支，涉及了语言的构成、变化和使用等方面。

词汇学对于语言的理解和应用具有重要的意义，它不仅可以帮助我们更好地掌握语言知识，还可以帮助我们提高语言运用能力。

在这篇文章中，我们将对词汇学的知识点进行总结，帮助读者更好地理解和掌握这一学科。

一、词的定义和分类词是语言中的最小意义单位，是构成句子和表达意思的基本单位。

按照在句子中的功能和语法特征，词可以分为实词和虚词两大类。

实词包括名词、动词、形容词、副词等，它们能够表示具体的事物或抽象的概念；虚词包括代词、连词、介词、助词等，它们通常用来连接或修饰实词，没有明确的词义。

二、词汇的构成词汇的构成是指词的组成方式和形态特征。

在词汇的构成中，我们可以看到一些常见的构词法，如前缀、后缀、派生、合成、转化等。

通过这些构词法，我们可以对词汇进行灵活组合和创造，丰富语言的表达能力。

1.前缀前缀是指加在词根前面的一个字，可以改变词的词义或语法特征。

比如，“un-”表示否定，“re-”表示再次，“pre-”表示在前面等。

2.后缀后缀是指加在词根后面的一个字，同样可以改变词的词义或语法特征。

比如，“-ing”表示进行时，“-ful”表示充满的意思，“-ment”表示名词化等。

3.派生派生是指通过词根和词缀的组合来创造和衍生新的词。

比如，“happy”是一个形容词，通过加上“-ness”后缀就可以派生出名词“happiness”。

4.合成合成是指两个或多个词汇组合在一起，形成一个新的词。

比如，“blackboard”由“black”和“board”两个实词组合而成。

5.转化转化是指一个词汇的词类发生改变，但词形不变。

比如，“work”可以作为动词，也可以作为名词，它的词形都不发生变化。

词汇的构成方式是多种多样的，通过学习这些构词法，我们可以更好地理解和掌握词汇的形态特征，有助于提高我们的语言表达能力。

三、词汇的语义特征语义是指词汇所携带的意义，它是语言交流和理解的基础。

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1、英语词汇概述：（8%）（1）英语词汇的谱系关系及其历史发展：英语的谱系关系；英语的三个发展阶段。

（2）英语词汇的构成：基本词汇与专用词汇；英语词汇中的本族词与外来词。

（3）英语词汇的三大特点：数量大、来源广、变化多。

‘Indo-European’印欧语系With Vikings’ invasion, many Scandinavian words at least 900 words of Scandinavian origin have survived in modern English. Old English has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like modern German.1. Word词--- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2．Vocabulary词汇——Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect，a given book，a given subject and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history.3. basic word stock 基本词汇i s the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though words of the basic word stock constitute a small percentage of the English vocabulary, yet it is the most important part of it. These words have obvious characteristics. （1）All national character全民性. Words of the basic word stock denote themost common things and phenomena of the world around us, which are indispensable to all the people who speak the language。

They include words relating to the following respects:Natural phenomena/Human body and relations/Names of plants andanimals/Action, size, domain, state/Numerals, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions（2）Stability稳定性. Words of the basic word stock have been in use for centuries.（3）Productivity 多产性. Words of the basic word stock are mostly root words or monosyllabic words. They can each be used alone, and at the same time can form new words with other roots and affixes.（4）Polysemy多义性. Words belonging to the basic word stock often possess more than one meaning because most of them have undertone semantic changes in the course of use and become polysemous.（5）Collocability搭配性. Many words of the basic word stock quite a number of set expressions, idiomatic usages, proverbial sayings and the like.4.nonbasic words stock非基本词汇Words, void of the stated characteristics, do not belong to the common core of the language. They include the following.（1）Terminology术语consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas（2）Jargon行话refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves such as in business.（3）Slang俚语belongs to the sub-standard language, a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words like cant, jargon, and argot, all of which are associated with, or most available to, specific groups of the population. Slang is created by changing or extending the meaning of existing words though some slang words are new coinages altogether. Slang is colorful, blunt, expressive and impressive.（4）Argot黑话generally refers to the jargon of criminals.（5）Dialectal words方言词are words used only by speakers of the dialect in question.（6）Archaisms 古语词are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use.（7）Neologisms新词语are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.-。

5.Content words 实义词denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals, which denote objects, phenomena, action, quality, state, degree, quantity.6.Functional words 功能词do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words. As their chief function is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well as between sentences, they are known as form words. Prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles belong to this category.7.native words本地词——–are words brought to Britain in the 15 century by the German tribes. Anglo-Saxon Words， are small in number, amounting to roughly 50,000 to 60,000, but they form the mainstream of the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language （1. neutral in style文体中性2.frequent in use使用频繁）8.borrowed words借词——words taken over from foreign languages are know as loan words, constituting 80 percent of the modern English vocabulary. The English language has vast debts .9.Denizens同化词——are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into the English language. S uch as port from portus (L).‗Denizens‘的例子都要记：Port from portus (L), cup from cuppa (L),shift from skipta (ON), shirt from skyrta (ON), change from changier (F), pork from porc (F).10.Translation-loans译借词——Translation-loans are words and expressions formed form the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language, such as ‗ long time no see from haojiumeijian (Ch)11．Semantic-loans借义词——words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form ,But their meaning are borrowed , in other words, English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language ,such as the word dream ,which originally meant ‘joy‘ and ‗music ‘, and its modern meaning was borrowed later from the Norse.12.Aliens 异形– retained their original pronunciation and spelling. Such asdécor（F）blitzkreeg（G）emir，intermez，rowtow，bazaar，rajar，status quo2、英语构词法：（27%）（1）英语单词的结构：自由语素与非自由语素；构词不达意成份，词根、词干、前缀、后缀；。