Unit14 limits and tolerances

DimensioningThe design of a machine includes many factors other than those of determining the loads and stresses and selecting the proper materials. Before construction or manufacture can begin, it is necessary to have complete assembly and detail drawings to convey all necessary information to the shop men. The designer frequently is called upon to check the drawings before they are sent to the shop. Much experience and familiarity with manufacturing processes are needed before one can become conversant with all phase s of production drawings. [1]Drawings should be carefully checked to see that the dimensioning is done in a manner that will be most convenient and understandable to the production departments. It is obvious that a drawing should be made in such a way that it has one and only one interpretation. In particular, shop personnel should not be required to make trigonometric or other involved calculations before the production machines can be set up. [2]Dimensioning is an involved subject and long experience is required for its mastery. [3]Tolerance s must be placed on the dimensions of a drawing to limit the permissible variation s in size because it is impossible to manufacture a part exactly to a given dimension. Although small tolerances give higher quality work and a better operating mechanism, the cost of manufacture increases rapidly as the tolerances are reduced, as indicated by the typical curve of Fig 14.1. It is therefore important that the tolerances be specified at the largest values that the operating or functional considerations permit.Tolerances may be either unilateral or bilateral. In unilateral dimensioning, one tolerance is zero, and all the variations are given by the other tolerance. In bilateral dimensioning, a mean dimension is used which extends to the midpoint of the tolerance zone with equal plus and minus variations extending each way from this dimension.The development of production processes for large-volume manufacture at low cost has been largely dependent upon interchangeability of component parts. Thus the designer must determine both the proper tolerances for the individual parts, and the correct amount of clearance or interference to permit assembly with the mating parts. The manner of placing tolerances on drawings depends somewhat on the kind of product or type of manufacturing process. If the tolerance on a dimension is not specifically stated, the drawing should contain a blanket note which gives the value of the tolerance for such dimensions. [4] However, some companies do not use blanket notes on the supposition that if each dimension is considered individually, wider tolerances than those called for in the note could probably be specified. [5] In any event it is very important that a drawing be free from ambiguities and be subject only to a single interpretation.Dimension and ToleranceIn dimensioning a drawing, the numbers placed in the dimension lines represent dimension that are only approximate and do not represent any degree of accuracy unless so stated by the designer. [6] To specify a degree of accuracy, it is necessary to add tolerance figure s to the dimension. Tolerance is the amount of variation permitted in the part or the total variation allowed in a given dimension. A shaft might have a nominal size of 2.5 in. (63.5 mm), but for practical reasons this figure could not be maintain ed in manufacturing without great cost. Hence, a certain tolerance would be added and, if a variation of±0.003 in. (±0.08 mm) could be permitted, the dimension would be stated 2.500±0.003 (63.5±0.08 mm).Dimensions given close tolerance s mean that the part must fit properly with some other part. Both must be given tolerances in keeping with the allowance desired, the manufacturing processes available, and the minimum cost of production and assembly that will maximize profit. Generally speaking, the cost of a part goes up as the tolerance is decreased. If a part has several or more surfaces to be machined, the cost can be excessive when little deviation is allowed from the nominal size. Allowance, which is sometimes confused with tolerance, has an altogether different meaning. [7] It is the minimum clearance space intended between mating parts and represents the condition of tightest permissible fit. If a shaft, size, is to fit a hole of size l.500±， the minimum size hole is l. 500 and .1000.0003.0+-498the maximum size shaft is l. 498. Thus the allowance is 0. 002 and the maximum clearance is 0.008 as based on the minimum shaft size and maximum hole dimension. Tolerances may be either unilateral or bilateral. Unilateral tolerance means that any variation is made in only one direction from the nominal or basic dimension. Referring to the previous example, the hole is dimensioned l.500±, which represents a unilateral tolerance. If the dimensions were given as l.500±0.003, the tolerance would be bilateral; that is, it would vary both over and under the nominal dimension. The unilateral system permits changing the tolerance while still retain ing the same allowance or type of fit. With the bilateral system, this is not possible without also changing the nominal size dimension of one or both of the two mating pats. In mass production, where mating parts must be interchangeable, unilateral tolerances are customary. To have an interference or force fit between mating parts, the tolerances must be such as to create a zero or negative allowance. Tolerances， Limits and FitsThe drawing must be a true and complete statement of the designer’s requirements expressed in such a way that the part is convenient to manufacture. Every dimension necessary to define the product must be stated once only and not repeated in different views. Dimensions relating to one particular feature, such as the position and size of a hole, should, where possible, appear on the same view.There should be no more dimensions than are absolutely necessary, and no feature should be located by more than one dimension in any direction. [8] It may be necessary occasionally to give an auxiliary dimension for reference, possibly for inspection. When this is so, the dimension should be enclosed in a bracket and mark ed for reference. Such dimensions are not govern ed by general tolerances. [9]Dimensions that affect the function of the part should always be specified and not left as the sum or difference of other dimensions. If this is not done, the total permissible variation on that dimension will form the sum or difference of the other dimensions and their tolerances, and this will result in these tolerances having to be made unnecessarily tight. [10] The overall dimension should always appear. All dimensions must be governed by the general tolerance on the drawing unless otherwise stated. Usually, such a tolerance will be governed by the magnitude of the dimension. Specific tolerances must always be stated on dimensions affecting function or interchangeability.A system of tolerances is necessary to allow for the variations in accuracy that are bound to occur during manufacture, and still provide for interchangeability and correct function of the part.A tolerance is the difference in a dimension in order to allow for unavoidable imperfections in workmanship. The tolerance range will depend on the accuracy of the manufacturing organisation, the machining process and the magnitude of the dimension. The greater the tolerance range, the cheaper the manufacturing process.A bilateral tolerance is one where the tolerance range is disposed on both sides of the nominal dimension. A unilateral tolerance is one where the tolerance zone is on one side only of the nominal dimension, in which case the nominal dimension may form one of the limits.Limits are the extreme dimensions of the tolerance zone. For example, nominal dimension30 mm tolerance ± limits ±Fits depend on the relationship between the tolerance zones of two mating parts, and may be broadly classified into a clearance fit with positive allowance, a transition fit where the allowance may be either positive or negative (clearance or interference), an interference fit where the allowance is always negative. Type of Limits and FitsThe ISO System of Limits and Fits, widely used in a number of leading metric countries, is considerably more complex than the ANSI system.In this system, each part has a basic size. Each limit of size of a part, high and low, is defined by its deviation from the basic size, the magnitude and sign being obtained by subtracting the basic size from the limit in question. The difference between the two limits of size of a part is called the tolerance, an absolute amount without sign.There are three classes of fits: 1) clearance fits, 2) transition fits (the assembly may have either clearance or interference), and 3) interference fits. Either a shaft-basis system or a hole-basis system may be used. For any given basic size, a range of tolerances and deviations may be specified with respect to the line of zero deviation, called the zero line. The tolerance is a function of the basic size and is designated by a number symbol, called the grade——thus the tolerance grade. The position of the tolerance with respect to the zero line also a function of the basic size——is indicated by a letter symbol (or two letters), a capital letter for holes and a lowercase letter for shafts. Thus the specificationfor a hole and shaft having a basic size of 45mm might be 45 H8/g7.Twenty standard grades of tolerances are provided, called IT 01, IT 0, IT l - 18, providing numerical values for each nominal diameter, in arbitrary steps up to 500 mm (for example 0 - 3, 3 - 6, 6 - 10, …, 400 - 500 mm). [11] The value of the tolerance unit, i, for grades 5 - 16 isi = ……where i is in microns and D in millimeters.Standard shaft and hole deviations similarly are provided by sets of formulas, however, for practical application, both tolerances and deviations are provided in three sets of rather complex tables. Additional tables give the values for basic sizes above 500 mm and for “Commonly Used Shafts and Holes” in two categories ——“General Purpose” and “Fine Mechanisms and Horology”.。