内部控制毕业论文中英文资料对照外文翻译
内部审计中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：Internal auditing's role in ERMAs organizations lay their enterprise risk groundwork, many auditors are taking on management's oversight responsibilities, new research finds.Internal audit departments have played a variety of roles in their organization's enterprise risk management (ERM) activities since The Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Tread way Commission (COSO) released its Enterprise Risk Management-Integrated Framework in September 2004. An IIA position paper issued in the wake of COSO ERM, "The Role of Internal Auditing in Enterprise-wide Risk Management," indicates the roles that the internal audit function should and should not play throughout the ERM process, ranging from full involvement to no involvement. According to the paper, internal auditors should have a core role in five ERM-related assurance activities: giving assurance on risk management processes, giving assurance that risks are evaluated correctly, evaluating risk managementprocesses, evaluating the reporting of key risks, and reviewing the management of key risks.A recent IIA Research Foundation study examined the extent to which internal audit functions adhere to the ERM roles recommended in the IIA paper. During October 2005, researchers disseminated an online survey to 7,200 IIA members through The Institute's Global Auditing Information Network. The survey generated 361 responses from a mix of large, mid-sized, and small organizations in a variety of industries, including businesses, government agencies, and not for profit organizations. Nearly 60 percent of respondents identified themselves as a chief audit executive or audit director, 23 percent were audit managers, and 7.8 percent were staff or senior auditors. Approximately 90 percent were from the United States and Canada.Respondents' organizations are at different stages of implementing ERM, as defined by COSO. More than 11 percent say their organization's ERM infrastructure is mature or relatively mature, and 37 percent have recently adopted or are in the process of implementing ERM. Among all organizations surveyed, the internal audit function is primarily responsible for ERM-related activities in 36 percent of respondents' organizations, while 27 percent say the primary responsibility belongs to a chief risk officer (CRO) who is not part of the audit function. Nearly one-third of respondents say another executive or function oversees ERM..The hours and dollars internal audit functions spend on ERM-related activities are minimal for many respondents. Nearly half say their audit department spent 10 percent or less of its hourly and financial budgets on ERM-related activities during fiscal year 2004. More than one-third of audit departments spent II percent to 50 percent of their time on ERM, and 28 percent spent n percent to 50 percent of their financial budgets, while less than 10 percent of departments Spent more than 50 percent of their time and money.The IIA position paper categorizes 18 ERM-related activities according to the appropriate level of responsibility for the internal audit function. Survey respondents reported their current and ideal level of responsibility for these activities: no responsibility, limited responsibility, moderate responsibility, substantialresponsibility, and total responsibility.CORE ACTIVITIESDifferences between respondents' current and ideal responsibilities are greatest for the five core ERM assurance activities identified In the IIA paper. Respondents Indicated that their current responsibility for each of the core ERM related activities is moderate, but they say they should have a substantial level of responsibility. These views agree with the IIA guidance. Additionally, roughly half of internal audit functions surveyed currently have substantial or full responsibility for at least one core activity, and more than two-thirds say they should have till or substantial responsibility for at least one core activity.Within the core category, the audit function's two highest levels of current responsibility involve reviewing management of key risks and evaluating the risk management process. Evaluating the risk management process and giving assurance on risk management processes are the highest-rated ideal responsibilities. Conversely, giving assurance that risks are evaluated correctly is the lowest-rated current and ideal responsibility.The following respondent comments offer some insight into why audit departments are not currently involved in core ERM-related activities at the level they deem appropriate;"We have just recently begun implementing ERM activities in our company. We do not yet have complete understanding of the process and buy-in from management.""The audit committee and management are not aware of what ERM is.""The internal audit function has just initiated an awareness campaign among the audit committee members."These comments suggest that educating management and the audit committee on ERM issues can be critical to ensuring that the audit function takes on an appropriate level of responsibility for ERM.LEGITIMATE ACTIVITIESThe IIA paper prescribes seven legitimate ERM-related activities for which internal committee audit functions may be responsible as long as safeguards are inplace: facilitating the identification and evaluation of risks, coaching management in responding to risks, coordinating ERM-related activities, consolidating the reporting on risks, maintaining and developing the ERM framework, championing establishment of ERM, and developing risk management strategy for board approval. These activities are described as "consulting" activities. Although respondents' current responsibility for each of these legitimate activities ranges from limited to moderate, they say their ideal level should be moderate, which is consistent with the guidance.Within the legitimate category, the highest level of current internal audit responsibility involves facilitating the identification and evaluation of risks —the top-rated ERM-related activity, including core activities. This activity is also the highest-rated ideal activity among legitimate activities, suggesting that auditors consider it a core responsibility. This finding is not surprising. because risk detection and evaluation are traditional considerations in developing annual audit plans. The lowest-rated current and ideal activity is developing a risk management strategy for board approval, which is an activity that might best be handled by management.The IIA guidance cautions that when internal auditors undertake these legitimate consulting activities, safeguards should be in place to ensure that they do not take on management responsibility for actually managing risks. One possible preventive measure would include documenting the auditors' ERM responsibilities in an audit committee-approved audit charter. Further, if auditors take on any ERM-related activities that fall within this consulting role, they should treat these engagements as consulting engagements and apply the relevant IIA standards to help ensure their independence and objectivity.INAPPROPRIATE ACTIVITIESAccording to the IIA position paper. It is inappropriate for internal auditors to be responsible for six ERM-related activities: setting the risk appetite, imposing risk management processes, providing management assurance on risks, making decisions on risk responses, implementing risk responses on management's behalf, and having accountability for risk management. Overall, audit functions in the survey have greater responsibility for these activities than the IIA paper recommends. However,auditors say they should have some limited responsibility for the inappropriate activities.Within the inappropriate category, internal auditors' highest level of current and ideal responsibility is providing management assurance on risks, while their lowest level of responsibility is for setting the risk appetite. Respondents' comments suggest that auditors currently have greater responsibilities in these areas because the audit function is playing a leading role during the early stages of ERM development.ORGANIZATIONAL CHARACTERISTICSThe perceived current and ideal FRM roles for the internal audit function may vary across organizations, depending on the organization's industry, size, and audit department size, as well as the firm's need to comply with the U.S. Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002.INDUSTRY Respondents work in a variety of sectors, including financial services, manufacturing, transportation, communications, utilities, health care, retail and wholesale, government, and education. Researchers compared responses from the two largest industry groups: financial services and manufacturing. On average, financial service industry audit departments have greater current responsibility for core activities than those from manufacturing. With respect to inappropriate activities, manufacturing audit departments tend to say their ideal involvement should be higher than their current responsibility, while financial service industry audit departments rate their current and ideal responsibilities at the same level.ORGANIZATION SIZE Approximately half of respondents work in organizations that had 2004 revenues between US $500 million and US $5 billion. Nearly 25 percent of respondents work in organizations that had revenues under US $500 million in 2004, while a similar number of respondents work in organizations that had more than US $5 billion in revenue that year. Researchers compared responses from organizations with revenues of less than US $1 billion with organizations with revenues greater than US $1 billion. On average, auditors from both types of organizations have relatively equal levels of responsibility for current core activities. However, smaller organizations rated their ideal involvement for thesecore activities higher than large organizations. Smaller organizations have a slightly higher current level of responsibility for inappropriate activities than larger organizations and say their ideal involvement in these areas should be higher.AUDIT STAFF SIZE More than half of respondents work in audit departments with 10 or fewer auditors, slightly more than one-quarter work in departments with between 11 and 50 auditors, and approximately one-tenth of respondents work in departments with more than 50 auditors. Internal audit functions with more than 10 auditors currently have somewhat more responsibility for core activities than audit departments with 10 or fewer auditors. Both large and small audit functions have roughly equal levels of responsibility for all other ERM-related activities. However, unlike large audit organizations, respondents from small audit departments want to have more responsibility for activities in the inappropriate category.SARBANES-OXLEY Most respondents' organizations are required to comply with Sarbanes-Oxley Section 404. Researchers found few differences between those organizations and respondents from organizations that do not have to comply with the act. The primary difference related to core activities, where compliers report a higher level of current responsibility than non-compliers.Although the IIA guidance is equally applicable to all organizations, the research indicates that smaller internal audit departments and those from smaller organizations tend to take on ERM responsibilities that would be more appropriate for management. In these cases, internal auditing should work to develop an ERM implementation and maintenance plan that includes a stratcgy and timeline for migrating responsibilities for these activities to managementTHE AUDITOR'S ROLEAlthough the survey results suggest that the current levels of responsibility audit departments have may differ somewhat from that levels recommended by The IIA'S position paper, the respondents' comments offer some evidence that auditors understand the underlying concepts of the guidance:"There needs to be a shift in the 'doing' of the ERM to being an internal audit function that relies on and evaluates the ERM process. ERM should be in sync withthe audit universe and plan,""In the past i8 months, the corporation has appointed a CRO to provide oversight and guidance to evolving ERM processes. During this period, much of internal auditing's previous ERM roles have migrated to this officer." More importantly, respondents identified significant barriers in their organizations to following the guidance:"These ERM responsibilities and processes are not well defined in many organizations and should be more clearly articulated by senior management."'There is not enough emphasis from the top that risk management is important and must be done effectively. Management is still trying to hide things from internal auditing. It's not them against us, we're all in it together.""Most auditors and enterprise managers lack clarity on the distinction between responsibility for risk assurance implementation versus responsibility for risk assurance compliance and monitoring."These comments stress that a key element to establishing a successful ERM program is education on the importance of ERM and the appropriate roles management and internal auditing have in the process. Internal auditors can play a key role in providing this education. The audit department, management, hoard of directors, and audit committee need to be clear about which ERM related activities internal auditors should perform and which activities should always be performed by management. Relevant training should highlight that internal auditing could serve in a monitoring or consulting role throughout much of the ERM process, but the formal decision-making authority must reside with management if the audit department is to maintain its independence and objectivity.Auditors should take steps to ensure that the board and audit committee are aware of the COSO ERM framework and are actively engaged in overseeing the ERM process. Additionally, auditors should consider training senior management, the board, and others throughout their organization on COSO ERM and related guidance.Responses to the survey provide useful insights into additional steps that the internal audit profession should take. Auditors whose organizations are in the earlystages of adopting ERM or will be implementing ERM in the future have many opportunities to ensure that the process is effective and efficient. For example, audit departments that currendy perform ERM-related activities that should be management's responsibility can take proactive steps to open up the lines of communication between internal auditing and management, the board and audit committee, and external auditors about the risks of this situation. Such communication should encourage management to take on appropriate ERM responsibilities. One approach audit departments could take is to develop a business plan describing how management can assume responsibility for ERM related activities for which they should be accountable. However, internal auditors should recognize that completing this plan and convincing management to accept these ERM responsibilities might not occur quickly.With appropriate planning, communication, and education, internal auditors, management, the board, and external auditors should be ready to work together to achieve the many benefits of ERM. Ideally, this coordination will result in performing ERM-related activities at appropriate places within the organization, management accepting its responsibility for ERM, and that audit function playing a role that is consistent with appropriate professional guidance.译文：内部审计在企业风险管理中的作用新的研究发现：随着企业以组织风险为基础，许多审计人员对管理层采取职责监督措施。
基于ARM与线性CCD的高速数据采集系统论文中英文资料对照外文翻译
基于ARM与线性CCD的高速数据采集系统毕业论文中英文资料对照外文翻译文献综述High–Speed Data Acquisition System Based on ARM &Linear-CCDAbstract :This paper presents a high speed acquisition system of linear-CCD based on ARM, high-speed linear-CCD and high-speed ADC are selected. As the sampling speed of A/D is slower than the working clock frequency of ARM, CPLD and FIFO are used as I/O between A/D and ARM. It makes the circuit works harmonious, simple and easy controlling, and also increases the efficiency of ARM. In order to increase the communication speed, the Universal Serial Bus (USB) technology is adopted to communicate with the PC. ARM is the key processor utilized to control the data sampling, data compute and data transfer. As a result, the whole system works effective. The system can be applied to the high speed data acquisition and operation situations from multi-channel analog signals.Key Words : ARM; Linear CCD; Contact-line; Pantograph; Stagger –valueI. IntroductionIn electrification railways, in order to extend the life of the pantograph on electric locomotives, so that the slider of pantograph wear evenly, the contact-line (electrified railway power feed line) in straight-line segments is arranged as zigzag route (curve section arranged in the form of polyline). The distance between the contact-line of positioning point and the pantograph centerline track is called out stagger-value, which is a key indicator of contact-line .Stagger-value can not be ignored, the value too small will affect the slider of pantograph wear evenly and the purpose of extending using life; otherwise, in some cases (such as caught in a stiff winds), cause a large range of lateral movement of the roof (and the higher the speed, the greater pantograph swing around), some parts of contact-line will be in excess of the effective work length of pantograph, so that the stagger-value of contact-line beyond the standard range, leading to deterioration of the current collection, and even cause incorrect running of the pantograph accident. Pantograph-catenary malfunction will result in interruption of train operation, which impact on rail transport seriously. In order to avoid these phenomena, the stagger-value and its changes should be tested regularly.Therefore, a locomotive contact-line monitoring system and its mating data acquisition system were developed, which calculate the instant stagger-value quickly.II. System ComponentsSystem hardware components are shown in figure 1.The system consists of the following components: (1) using TOSHIBA Com pany’s high-speed linear array CCD to achieve the digitization of contact-line images (CCD output the signal of corresponding time sequence of position); (2) using Atmel Company’s AT91RM9200 processor of ARM9 series to realize digital signal acquisition and processing; (3) using PDIUSBD12 USB interface device to complete the data communications between measurement system and the PC.Due to the characteristics of its improved Harvard structure, special instructions and quick to realize a variety of signal processing, ARM processor is widely used in image processing, communications, radar, sonar, precision machinery fields, etc. ARM processor is adopted for its arithmetic speed and bus width. As the real-time signal analysis and calculation require a high sp eed of computing, Atmel Company’s ARM chip—AT91RM9200 is selected. The chip is ARM920T based, high-performance, low power consumption 16/32-bit RISC(reduced instruction set computer) microcontroller, which incorporates a rich set of application peripheralsand provide a single-chip solution for industrial control applications that require a wide range of peripherals at low power consumption and strictly stable working.Fig 1 System block diagramIII. Real-time processing and transmission of CCD digital image In order to achieve real-time digital imagetransmission, several major factors which affect real-time transmission should be necessary to solve: First, the speed of linear array CCD data acquisition; Second, the transmission speed between linear array CCD and ARM processor; the third is the data transmission speed between ARM processor and computer. The following will be described in detail.A. Linear array CCD acquisition speedAcquisition speed is a critical performance indicator for image sensor, TOSHIBA Company’s TCD1209D linear array CCD is used to meet the targets. Its clock pulse frequency can operate as high as 20MHz, especially suitable for high-speed conditions of size measurement and dynamic analysis.Fig 2 Linear CCD TCD1209D and its time sequence diagram Linear array CCD TCD1209D and its time sequence diagram are shown in figure2.B.Transmission speed between CCD and ARM processorIn order to improve the speed of CCD data acquisition and reduce conversion time, adopting high speed A/D converter can make it exchange data with ARM processor at high-speed. ADC08200, Analog Company's nanosecond conversion device is adopted. It’s a single-channel, 8-bit A/D converter, which operates over a wide range of temperature, converts fast, operates at conversion rates up to 230 MSPS, thus achieving entire signal acquisition of linear array CCD. ADC08200 is shown in figure 3.Fig 3 High-speed A/D converter ADC080200FIFO is used as a data buffer to co-ordinate the rate of ARM processor and ADC. It is a two-port (input and output port) memory for temporary storage of first in first out data. Due to the time to write data to FIFO is far less than the A/D conversion time, therefore, the acquisition speed depends on the A/D conversion speed.In order to improve the speed of the entire measurement system, the time sequence of entire circuit is precisely controlled by the CPLD to make the circuit works harmonious. CCD driving signal, integration time control, address decoding, A/D conversion control, data buffer and data acquisition logic functions integrate in the CPLD, so that the entire circuit structure is simple and reliable.In order to further enhance the system speed, when the system starts, system programs are transferred to high-speed SRAM for running and SDRAM for data storage; SRAM, SDRAM should be placed as close as possible to ARM processors, and the signal lines the shortest possible.ARM processor (AT91RM9200), the signal processing core of the entire hardware system, read the CCD light intensity signal from FIFO, calculate the distribution of contact-line image in the CCD with corresponding algorithm, and transfer the result to the slave computer through USB.C. Transmission speed between ARM processor and computerIn order to increase the speed of data transmission and reduce transmission delay, USB interface is used for data transmission. USB1.1 interface support low-speed and full-speed transmission, data transfer rates has reached 1.5Mbps in low-speed mode, the transmission speed up to 12Mbps in full speed mode. Philips Company’s PDIUSBD12 is adopted.When a USB device inserted into the PC, PC enumerates USB device automatically. When detecting equipment to insert, PC send query request. USB devices respond to the request and send equipment Vendor ID and Product ID; PC loads the corresponding device driver with these two ID to complete the enumeration process.PC-side USB device driver is completed by WinDriver. Data communication between PC and USB equipment mainly includes two aspects: first, read the sample data; second, send control commands to the acquisition system.IV. CCD image recognition algorithmARM processor is mainly responsible for the solution of stagger-value; it’s the process of image identification, including background separation and feature extraction of the image data. Identification of the image is for image gray only; the standard deviation threshold tracking method is adopted. The image is composed of black-and-white texture, and gray-scale varies greatly, with a larger standard deviation; and background gray distribution is relatively flat, with small standard deviation. Therefore, the standard deviation of each point as the center of a group of pixels is calculated, the value greater than a certain threshold determine the point in the foreground, or as the background.This system not only measures the contact-line instant position, but also calculates the abrasion state of the contact-line to evaluate its life span. System support by associated PC software, through subsequent playback of the data collected, to check the situation of stagger-value, as well as the abrasion of contact-line, and decide whether to adjust and replace or notV. Measures of improving system reliabilityHigh-speed data acquisition system is inevitably affected by interference from the external environment. As the complex environment around the measurement system, many factors interfere with the system. Electromagnetic interference around 27.5KV high-voltage catenary affects great; the pantograph detaching will be accompanied by the emergence of arc sparks, this phenomenon interfere with communication line along the lines, accompanied by high-frequency electromagnetic waves, therefore, necessary anti-interference measures should be taken.In order to improve the ability of anti-interference, anti-jamming measures taken are as follows: takeanti-interference design of PCB circuit to reduce the external interference on system; all cables adopt shielded cable with wave-proof sleeve; equipment shell adopts shielding material and detection window of the shell use gauze to isolate the interference.VI. ResultsWe have used this high–speed data acquisition system in Wuhan south locomotive-depot to measure the contact-line instant position, and the test result shows that the whole system works effective, fast and high degree of accuracy; exclude the vibration of the train and the contact-line, it reach the accuracy of 0.1mm. This design is flexible and corresponds with the actual needs.REFERENCES[1] Yu Wanju. Design and the Measurement Theory of Contact-line [M], Beijing, China Railway Publishing House, 1991.[2] Zhu Feixiong. Detection of Stitched catenary suspension [J], Electric Railway, 2003,(1):15-17[3] Li Weimin, Xing Xiaozheng. Application of DSP in the Linear CCD measuring system [J], Chinese Journal of Scientific Instrument, 2003,(2):183-185[4] Huang Zhengjin, Xu Jian. Introduction to CPLD system design and application technology [M], Beijing, Publishing House of Electronics Industry, 2002.[5] Cao Xiaowei. The principle and application of high-speed high-precision linear array CCD-TCD141C [J], International Electronic Elements, 1997,(8):26-29[6] Bi Youming, Yang Tiemei. High-speed data acquisition and processing system for linear CCD [J], Journal of Taiyuan University of Science and Technology, 2000, (1): 31-33[7] Wang Ning, Shan Shengxiong. Analysis of the contact force between pantograph and catenary [J], Electric Railway, 2000, (2): 22-24[8] Bai Dongliang. A new structure of the pantograph——Self-detaching pantograph [J], Electric Drive for Locomotives, 1999, (6): 42-43[9] He Duyang, Huang Xiaodong, He Kui. The Width Measuring Instrument for Steel Plate by Linear CCD Technology. Technology and Test. 2007, 5:64-66.[10] Wang Qingyou, Zhang Kexin, Jin Gui, Liu Haijun. Design of linear CCD real-time test system based on DSP. Electronic Measurement Technology, 2007, 30(7): 85-86.[11] Zhong Hongtao, Duan Fajie, Wang Xueying, YE Shenghua. Design of CCD Driver on Auto-adjust Exposure Time. Chinese Journal of Sensors and Actuators.2006, 19(6):2256-2259.Dong JianJun, Master, Lector，The First Aeronautical Technical College of the Air Force. Xinyang 464000. China. Email: dbrother@Zhao Xiaojin, Master, College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Xi’an University of Architecture & Technology, Xi’an 710055.China. Email: zhaoxiaojin@基于ARM与线性CCD的高速数据采集系统摘要本文介绍了一个基于ARM的线性CCD高速采集系统，系统中选择了高速线性CCD和高速ADC。
毕业论文文献内容编排中文与英文对照
毕业论文文献内容编排中文与英文对照在毕业论文的写作过程中，文献内容的编排是非常重要的一环。
其中，中文与英文对照是必不可少的部分。
在撰写毕业论文时，如何合理地安排中文和英文文献内容，是需要认真考虑的问题。
下面将从文献引用、文献列表和文献翻译等方面进行详细介绍。
一、文献引用在毕业论文中，引用文献是非常常见的做法。
当引用中文文献时，应在引用的文献后标注中文作者姓名和出版年份，如“张三，2000”。
而引用英文文献时，则需要标注英文作者姓名和出版年份，如“Smith, 2010”。
在引用文献时，要注意中英文对照的一致性，确保中英文作者姓名和出版年份的对应准确无误。
二、文献列表在毕业论文的文献部分，通常会列出所有引用过的文献。
在文献列表中，中文文献和英文文献的排列顺序可以根据引用的先后顺序或按照作者姓氏的字母顺序排列。
对于中文文献，应按照作者姓名的汉语拼音首字母顺序排列；对于英文文献，则按照作者姓氏的字母顺序排列。
在文献列表中，中文文献和英文文献之间可以用空行或其他方式进行区分，以便读者清晰地识别。
三、文献翻译在撰写毕业论文时，有时会需要引用外文文献。
对于外文文献的引用，需要进行准确的翻译。
在翻译文献时，要确保翻译的准确性和流畅性。
对于中文文献，如果需要引用英文文献的内容，可以在引用的内容后附上英文原文，以便读者查阅。
同样，对于英文文献，如果需要引用中文文献的内容，也可以在引用的内容后附上中文原文。
这样做不仅可以提高文献内容的可读性，还可以确保翻译的准确性。
总之，在毕业论文的文献内容编排中，中文与英文对照是非常重要的一环。
合理地安排中英文文献内容，不仅可以提高论文的质量，还可以让读者更好地理解论文的内容。
希望以上介绍对你在撰写毕业论文时有所帮助。
外文翻译--基于51单片机温度报警器的设计(适用于毕业论文外文翻译+中英文对照)
毕业设计（论文）外文翻译题目: 基于51单片机温度报警器的设计英文题目: 51 MCU-based design of a temperature alarm 系别: 信息工程系专业: ____ _测控技术与仪器_______班级: ___ _ ______学号: ____ _姓名: __ ______ __ ___________指导老师:填表日期: _______________ _单片机单片机是指一个集成在一块芯片上的完整计算机系统。
尽管他的大部分功能集成在一块小芯片上，但是它具有一个完整计算机所需要的大部分部件：CPU、内存、内部和外部总线系统，目前大部分还会具有外存。
同时集成诸如通讯接口、定时器，实时时钟等外围设备。
而现在最强大的单片机系统甚至可以将声音、图像、网络、复杂的输入输出系统集成在一块芯片上。
单片机也被称为微控制器（Microcontroller），是因为它最早被用在工业控制领域。
单片机由芯片内仅有CPU的专用处理器发展而来。
最早的设计理念是通过将大量外围设备和CPU集成在一个芯片中，使计算机系统更小，更容易集成进复杂的而对提及要求严格的控制设备当中。
INTEL的Z80是最早按照这种思想设计出的处理器，从此以后，单片机和专用处理器的发展便分道扬镳。
早期的单片机都是8位或4位的。
其中最成功的是INTEL的8031，因为简单可靠而性能不错获得了很大的好评。
此后在8031上发展出了MCS51系列单片机系统。
基于这一系统的单片机系统直到现在还在广泛使用。
随着工业控制领域要求的提高，开始出现了16位单片机，但因为性价比不理想并未得到很广泛的应用。
90年代后随着消费电子产品大发展，单片机技术得到了巨大的提高。
随着INTEL i960系列特别是后来的ARM系列的广泛应用，32位单片机迅速取代16位单片机的高端地位，并且进入主流市场。
而传统的8位单片机的性能也得到了飞速提高，处理能力比起80年代提高了数百倍。
PID控制中英文对照翻译
外文资料与翻译PID Contro l6.1 IntroductionThe PID controller is the most common form of feedback. It was an essential element of early governors and it became the standard tool when process control emerged in the 1940s. In process control today, more than 95% of the control loops are of PID type, most loops are actually PI control. PID controllers are today found in all areas where control is used. The controllers come in many different forms. There are standalone systems in boxes for one or a few loops, which are manufactured by the hundred thousands yearly. PID control is an important ingredient of a distributed control system. The controllers are also embedded in many special purpose control systems. PID control is often combined with logic, sequential functions, selectors, and simple function blocks to build the complicated automation systems used for energy production, transportation, and manufacturing. Many sophisticated control strategies, such as model predictive control, are also organized hierarchically. PID control is used at the lowest level; the multivariable controller gives the set points to the controllers at the lower level. The PID controller can thus be said to be the “bread and butter of control engineering. It is an important component in every control engineer’s tool box.PID controllers have survived many changes in technology, from mechanics and pneumatics to microprocessors via electronic tubes, transistors, integrated circuits. The microprocessor has had a dramatic influence the PID controller. Practically all PID controllers made today are based on microprocessors. This has given opportunities to provide additional features like automatic tuning, gain scheduling, and continuous adaptation.6.2 AlgorithmWe will start by summarizing the key features of the PID controller. The “textbook” version of the PID algorithm is described by:()()()()⎪⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛++=⎰dt t de d e t e K t u T T d t i 01ττ 6.1 where y is the measured process variable, r the reference variable, u is the control signal and e is the control error （e =sp y − y ）. The reference variable is often calledthe set point. The control signal is thus a sum of three terms: the P-term （which is proportional to the error）, the I-term （which is proportional to the integral of the error）, and the D-term （which is proportional to the derivative of the error）. The controller parameters are proportional gain K, integral time T i, and derivative time T d. The integral, proportional and derivative part can be interpreted as control actions based on the past, the present and the future as is illustrated in Figure 2.2. The derivative part can also be interpreted as prediction by linear extrapolation as is illustrated in Figure 2.2. The action of the different terms can be illustrated by the following figures which show the response to step changes in the reference value in a typical case.Effects of Proportional, Integral and Derivative ActionProportional control is illustrated in Figure 6.1. The controller is given by D6.1E with T i= and T d=0. The figure shows that there is always a steady state error in proportional control. The error will decrease with increasing gain, but the tendency towards oscillation will also increase.Figure 6.2 illustrates the effects of adding integral. It follows from D6.1E that the strength of integral action increases with decreasing integral time T i. The figure shows that the steady state error disappears when integral action is used. Compare with the discussion of the “magic of integral action” in Section 2.2. The tendency for oscillation also increases with decreasing T i. The properties of derivative action are illustrated in Figure 6.3.Figure 6.3 illustrates the effects of adding derivative action. The parameters K and T i are chosen so that the closed loop system is oscillatory. Damping increases with increasing derivative time, but decreases again when derivative time becomes too large. Recall that derivative action can be interpreted as providing prediction by linear extrapolation over the time T d. Using this interpretation it is easy to understand that derivative action does not help if the prediction time T d is too large. In Figure 6.3 the period of oscillation is about 6 s for the system without derivative Chapter 6. PID ControlFigure 6.1Figure 6.2Derivative actions cease to be effective when T d is larger than a 1 s (one sixth of the period). Also notice that the period of oscillation increases when derivative time is increased.A PerspectiveThere is much more to PID than is revealed by （6.1）. A faithful implementation of the equation will actually not result in a good controller. To obtain a good PID controller it is also necessary to consider。
智能住宅安防报警和远程控制系统中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文资料对照外文翻译基于单片机的智能住宅安防报警和远程控制系统摘要：为了对偷盗，抢劫和意外事故进行有效的监控和警告，统一使用单片机AT89C51的控制技术和红外探测技术，设计了一种无线防盗报警器，它包括硬件和软件两部分;硬件部分是由红外线感应器，发送和接收模块，单片机，声光报警等组成；软件部分是由主程序和音乐子程序组成。
采用C或汇编语言编写的源程序，在Keilc51平台上进行翻译和调试后，下载到单片机AT89C51芯片，并根据焊接在PCB板上的此单片机和其他主要设备设计一个电路。
对于电源，闭路循环控制开关，当有人入侵红外线发射区，产生声光报警，表示已经达到设计要求，这个项目展示了智能化住宅防盗报警，紧急报警，火灾报警器，有毒气体泄漏远程自动声音报警及远程控制系统，它是基于89C51单片机。
该系统可自动报警，自动致电警方热线电话号码。
它可用于语音报警，并显示发生报警的地址。
它可以设置和修改用户的密码。
它可以进行录制和语音提示。
它可用于电话远程控制电源。
该报警系统设计创新，具有多功能，成本低，可靠性高等诸多特点。
随着时代的不断进步，人们对自己的居住环境安全提出了更高的要求，不仅在生活，特别是在安全方面，一定要注意这些频繁发生的意外。
现在，许多区域已安装了智能报警系统，从而大大提高居住区的安全率，因为红外线是一种黑色的光，使用无线发射和接收，无需独立的布线，它具有很强的保密性和保密性，从而在安全，安保部分等安全领域的应用应该有很大的优势。
关键词：红外传感；发射；接收；单片机；警告一、简介随着计算机技术和控制技术及通信技术的发展，人民生活水平日益改善。
人民的生活条件已经发生了变化，例如产生了居住环境的安全和如何使他们生活得更加舒适等问题。
因此，智能化的住宅建筑的自动控制的出现顺应了时代的要求。
智能化小区必须有安全防范，防盗报警，火灾报警器，有毒气体泄漏自动报警和紧急呼叫等功能。
关键设备电源的远程控制是能够实现的。
电气系统可编程序控制器中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)英文：Programmable designed for electro-pneumatic systemscontrollerThis project deals with the study of electro-pneumatic systems and the programmable controller that provides an effective and easy way to control the sequence of the pneumatic actuators movement and the states of pneumatic system. The project of a specific controller for pneumatic applications join the study of automation design and the control processing of pneumatic systems with the electronic design based on microcontrollers to implement the resources of the controller.1. IntroductionThe automation systems that use electro-pneumatic technology are formed mainly by three kinds of elements: actuators or motors, sensors or buttons and control elements like valves. Nowadays, most of the control elements used to execute the logic of the system were substituted by the Programmable Logic Controller (PLC). Sensors and switches are plugged as inputs and the direct control valves for theactuators are plugged as outputs. An internal program executes all the logic necessary to the sequence of the movements, simulates other components like counter, timer and control the status of the system.With the use of the PLC, the project wins agility, because it is possible to create and simulate the system as many times as needed. Therefore, time can be saved, risk of mistakes reduced and complexity can be increased using the same elements.A conventional PLC, that is possible to find on the market from many companies, offers many resources to control not only pneumatic systems, but all kinds of system that uses electrical components. The PLC can be very versatile and robust to be applied in many kinds of application in the industry or even security system and automation of buildings.Because of those characteristics, in some applications the PLC offers to much resources that are not even used to control the system, electro-pneumatic system is one of this kind of application. The use of PLC, especially for small size systems, can be very expensive for the automation project.An alternative in this case is to create a specific controller that can offer the exactly size and resources that the project needs [3, 4]. This can be made using microcontrollers as the base of this controller.The controller, based on microcontroller, can be very specific and adapted to only one kind of machine or it can work as a generic controller that can be programmed as a usual PLC and work with logic that can be changed. All these characteristics depend on what is needed and how much experience the designer has with developing an electronic circuit and firmware for microcontroller. But the main advantage of design the controller with the microcontroller is that the designer has the total knowledge of his controller, which makes it possible to control the size of the controller, change the complexity and the application of it. It means that the project gets more independence from other companies, but at the same time the responsibility of the control of the system stays at the designer hands2. Electro-pneumatic systemOn automation system one can find three basic components mentioned before, plus a logic circuit that controls the system. An adequate technique is needed to project the logic circuit and integrate all the necessary components to execute the sequence of movements properly.For a simple direct sequence of movement an intuitive method can be used [1, 5], but for indirect or more complex sequences the intuition can generate a verycomplicated circuit and signal mistakes. It is necessary to use another method that can save time of the project, make a clean circuit, can eliminate occasional signal overlapping and redundant circuits. The presented method is called step-by-step or algorithmic [1, 5], it is valid for pneumatic and electro-pneumatic systems and it was used as a base in this work.The method consists of designing the systems based on standard circuits made for each change on the state of the actuators, these changes are called steps.The first part is to design those kinds of standard circuits for each step, the nexttask is to link the standard circuits and the last part is to connect the control elements that receive signals from sensors, switches and the previous movements, and give the air or electricity to the supply lines of each step. In Figs. 1 and 2 the standard circuits are drawn for pneumatic and electro-pneumatic system [8]. It is possible to see the relations with the previous and the next steps.3. The method applied inside the controllerThe result of the method presented before is a sequence of movements of the actuator that is well defined by steps. It means that each change on the position of the actuators is a new state of the system and the transition between states is called step.The standard circuit described before helps the designer to define the states of the systems and to define the condition to each change between the states. In the end of the design, the system is defined by a sequence that never chances and states that have the inputs and the outputs well defined. The inputs are the condition for the transition and the outputs are the result of the transition.All the configuration of those steps stays inside of the microcontroller and is executed the same way it was designed. The sequences of strings are programmed inside the controller with 5 bytes; each string has the configuration of one step of the process. There are two bytes for the inputs, one byte for the outputs and two more for the other configurations and auxiliary functions of the step. After programming, this sequence of strings is saved inside of a non-volatile memory of the microcontroller, so they can be read and executed.The controller task is not to work in the same way as a conventional PLC, but the purpose of it is to be an example of a versatile controller that is design for an specific area. A conventional PLC process the control of the system using a cycle where it makes an image of the inputs, execute all the conditions defined by the configuration programmed inside, and then update the state of the outputs. This controller works in a different way, where it read the configuration of the step, wait the condition of inputs to be satisfied, then update the state or the outputs and after that jump to the next step and start the process again.It can generate some limitations, as the fact that this controller cannot execute, inside the program, movements that must be repeated for some time, but this problem can be solved with some external logic components. Another limitation is that the controller cannot be applied on systems that have no sequence. These limitations are a characteristic of the system that must be analyzed for each application.4. Characteristics of the controllerThe controller is based on the MICROCHIP microcontroller PIC16F877 [6,7] with 40 pins, and it has all the resources needed for this project .It has enough pins for all the components, serial communication implemented in circuit, EEPROM memory to save all the configuration of the system and the sequence of steps. For the execution of the main program, it offers complete resources as timers and interruptions.The list of resources of the controller was created to explore all the capacity of the microcontroller to make it as complete as possible. During the step, the program chooses how to use the resources reading the configuration string of the step. This string has two bytes for digital inputs, one used as a mask and the other one used as a value expected. One byte is used to configure the outputs value. One bytes more is used for the internal timer , the analog input or time-out. The EEPROM memory inside is 256 bytes length that is enough to save the string of the steps, with this characteristic it is possible to save between 48 steps （Table 1）.The controller (Fig.3) has also a display and some buttons that are used with an interactive menu to program the sequence of steps and other configurations.4.1. Interaction componentsFor the real application the controller must have some elements to interact with the final user and to offer a complete monitoring of the system resources that are available to the designer while creating the logic control of the pneumatic system (Fig.3):•Interactive mode of wor k; function available on the main program for didactic purposes, the user gives the signal to execute the step.•LCD display, which shows the status of the system, values of inputs, outputs, timer and statistics of the sequence execution.•Beep to give imp ortant alerts, stop, start and emergency.• Leds to show power on and others to show the state of inputs and outputs.4.2. SecurityTo make the final application works property, a correct configuration to execute the steps in the right way is needed, but more then that it must offer solutions in case of bad functioning or problems in the execution of the sequence. The controller offers the possibility to configure two internal virtual circuits that work in parallel to the principal. These two circuits can be used as emergency or reset buttons and can return the system to a certain state at any time [2]. There are two inputs that work with interruption to get an immediate access to these functions. It is possible to configure the position, the buttons and the value of time-out of the system.4.3. User interfaceThe sequence of strings can be programmed using the interface elements of the controller. A Computer interface can also be used to generate the user program easily. With a good documentation the final user can use the interface to configure the strings of bytes that define the steps of the sequence. But it is possible to create a program with visual resources that works as a translator to the user, it changes his work to the values that the controller understands.To implement the communication between the computer interface and the controller a simple protocol with check sum and number of bytes is the minimum requirements to guarantee the integrity of the data.4.4. FirmwareThe main loop works by reading the strings of the steps from the EEPROM memory that has all the information about the steps.In each step, the status of the system is saved on the memory and it is shown on the display too. Depending of the user configuration, it can use the interruption to work with the emergency circuit or time-out to keep the system safety. In Fig.4,a block diagram of micro controller main program is presented.5. Example of electro-pneumatic systemThe system is not a representation of a specific machine, but it is made with some common movements and components found in a real one. The system is composed of four actuators. The actuators A, B and C are double acting and D-single acting. Actuator A advances and stays in specified position till the end of the cycle, it could work fixing an object to the next action for example (Fig. 5) , it is the first step. When A reaches the end position, actuator C starts his work together with B, making as many cycles as possible during the advancing of B. It depends on how fast actuator B is advancing; the speed is regulated by a flowing control valve. It was the second step. B and C are examples of actuators working together, while B pushes an object slowly, C repeats its work for some time.When B reaches the final position, C stops immediately its cycle and comes back to the initial position. The actuator D is a single acting one with spring return and works together with the back of C, it is the third step. D works making very fast forward and backward movement, just one time. Its backward movement is the fourth step. D could be a tool to make a hole on the object.When D reaches the initial position, A and B return too, it is the fifth step.Fig. 6 shows the first part of the designing process where all the movements of each step should be defined [2]. (A+) means that the actuator A moves to the advanced position and (A−) to the initial position. The movements that happen at the same time are joined together in the same step. The system has five steps.These two representations of the system (Figs. 5 and 6) together are enough to describe correctly all the sequence. With them is possible to design the whole control circuit with the necessary logic components. But till this time, it is not a complete system, because it is missing some auxiliary elements that are not included in this draws because they work in parallel with the main sequence.These auxiliary elements give more function to the circuit and are very important to the final application; the most important of them is the parallel circuit linked with all the others steps. That circuit should be able to stop the sequence at any time and change the state of the actuators to a specific position. This kind of circuit can be used as a reset or emergency buttons.The next Figs. 7 and 8 show the result of using the method without the controller. These pictures are the electric diagram of the control circuit of the example, including sensors, buttons and the coils of the electrical valves.The auxiliary elements are included, like the automatic/manual switcher that permit a continuous work and the two start buttons that make the operator of a machine use their two hands to start the process, reducing the risk of accidents.6. Changing the example to a user programIn the previous chapter, the electro-pneumatic circuits were presented, used to begin the study of the requires to control a system that work with steps and must offer all the functional elements to be used in a real application. But, as explained above, using a PLC or this specific controller, the control becomes easier and the complexity can be increase also.Table 2 shows a resume of the elements that are necessary to control the presented example.With the time diagram, the step sequence and the elements of the system described in Table 2 and Figs. 5 and 6 it is possible to create the configuration of the steps that can be sent to the controller (Tables 3 and 4).While using a conventional PLC, the user should pay attention to the logic of the circuit when drawing the electric diagram on the interface (Figs. 7 and 8), usingthe programmable controller, described in this work, the user must know only the concept o f the method and program only the configuration of each step.It means that, with a conventional PLC, the user must draw the relation between the lines and the draw makes it hard to differentiate the steps of the sequence. Normally, one needs to execute a simulation on the interface to find mistakes on the logicThe new programming allows that the configuration of the steps be separated, like described by the method. The sequence is defined by itself and the steps are described only by the inputs and outputs for each step.The structure of the configuration follows the order:1-byte: features of the step;2-byte: mask for the inputs;3-byte: value expected on the inputs;4-byte: value for the outputs;5-byte: value for the extra function.Table 5 shows how the user program is saved inside the controller, this is the program that describes the control of the example shown before.The sequence can be defined by 25 bytes. These bytes can be divided in five strings with 5 bytes each that define each step of the sequence (Figs. 9 and 10).7. ConclusionThe controller developed for this work (Fig. 11) shows that it is possible to create a very useful programmable controller based on microcontroller. External memories or external timers were not used in case to explore the resources that the microcontroller offers inside. Outside the microcontroller, there are only components to implement the outputs, inputs, analog input, display for the interface and the serial communication.Using only the internal memory, it is possible to control a pneumatic system that has a sequence with 48 steps if all the resources for all steps are used, but it ispossible to reach sixty steps in the case of a simpler system.The programming of the controller does not use PLC languages, but a configuration that is simple and intuitive. With electro-pneumatic system, the programming follows the same technique that was used before to design the system, but here the designer work s directly with the states or steps of the system.With a very simple machine language the designer can define all the configuration of the step using four or five bytes. It depends only on his experience to use all the resources of the controller.The controller task is not to work in the same way as a commercial PLC but the purpose of it is to be an example of a versatile controller that is designed for a specific area. Because of that, it is not possible to say which one works better; the system made with microcontroller is an alternative that works in a simple way.中文：应用于电气系统的可编程序控制器此项目主要是研究电气系统以及简单有效的控制气流发动机的程序和气流系统的状态。
外文翻译--基于51单片机温度报警器的设计(适用于毕业论文外文翻译+中英文对照)
外文翻译--基于51单片机温度报警器的设计(适用于毕业论文外文翻译+中英文对照)XXX: Design of a Temperature Alarm Based on 51 MCUDepartment: n EngineeringMajor: Measurement and Control Technology and nClass:Student ID:Name:Supervisor:Date:A microcontroller。
also known as a single-chip computer system。
XXX its ns being integrated on a small chip。
it has most of the components needed for a complete computer system。
such as CPU。
memory。
internal and external bus systems。
and mostof them also have external storage。
At the same time。
it integrates XXX interfaces。
timers。
real-time clocks。
etc。
The most XXX integrate sound。
image。
ork。
and complex input-output systems on a single chip.XXX used in the industrial control field。
Microcontrollers XXX CPUs inside the chip。
The original design concept was to integrate a large number of peripheral devices and CPUs on a chip to make the computer system XXX's Z80 was the first processor designed according to this concept。
毕业论文文献外文翻译----危机管理：预防,诊断和干预文献翻译-中英文文献对照翻译
第1页 共19页中文3572字毕业论文（设计）外文翻译标题：危机管理-预防，诊断和干预一、外文原文标题：标题：Crisis management: prevention, diagnosis and Crisis management: prevention, diagnosis andintervention 原文：原文：The Thepremise of this paper is that crises can be managed much more effectively if the company prepares for them. Therefore, the paper shall review some recent crises, theway they were dealt with, and what can be learned from them. Later, we shall deal with the anatomy of a crisis by looking at some symptoms, and lastly discuss the stages of a crisis andrecommend methods for prevention and intervention. Crisis acknowledgmentAlthough many business leaders will acknowledge thatcrises are a given for virtually every business firm, many of these firms do not take productive steps to address crisis situations. As one survey of Chief Executive officers of Fortune 500 companies discovered, 85 percent said that a crisisin business is inevitable, but only 50 percent of these had taken any productive action in preparing a crisis plan(Augustine, 1995). Companies generally go to great lengths to plan their financial growth and success. But when it comes to crisis management, they often fail to think and prepare for those eventualities that may lead to a company’s total failure.Safety violations, plants in need of repairs, union contracts, management succession, and choosing a brand name, etc. can become crises for which many companies fail to be prepared untilit is too late.The tendency, in general, is to look at the company as a perpetual entity that requires plans for growth. Ignoring the probabilities of disaster is not going to eliminate or delay their occurrences. Strategic planning without inclusion ofcrisis management is like sustaining life without guaranteeinglife. One reason so many companies fail to take steps to proactively plan for crisis events, is that they fail to acknowledge the possibility of a disaster occurring. Like an ostrich with its head in the sand, they simply choose to ignorethe situation, with the hope that by not talking about it, it will not come to pass. Hal Walker, a management consultant, points out “that decisions will be more rational and better received, and the crisis will be of shorter duration, forcompanies who prepare a proactive crisis plan” (Maynard, 1993) .It is said that “there are two kinds of crises: those that thatyou manage, and those that manage you” (Augustine, 1995). Proactive planning helps managers to control and resolve a crisis. Ignoring the possibility of a crisis, on the other hand,could lead to the crisis taking a life of its own. In 1979, theThree-Mile Island nuclear power plant experienced a crisis whenwarning signals indicated nuclear reactors were at risk of a meltdown. The system was equipped with a hundred or more different alarms and they all went off. But for those who shouldhave taken the necessary steps to resolve the situation, therewere no planned instructions as to what should be done first. Hence, the crisis was not acknowledged in the beginning and itbecame a chronic event.In June 1997, Nike faced a crisis for which they had no existi existing frame of reference. A new design on the company’s ng frame of reference. A new design on the company’s Summer Hoop line of basketball shoes - with the word air writtenin flaming letters - had sparked a protest by Muslims, who complained the logo resembled the Arabic word for Allah, or God.The council of American-Islamic Relations threatened aa globalNike boycott. Nike apologized, recalled 38,000 pairs of shoes,and discontinued the line (Brindley, 1997). To create the brand,Nike had spent a considerable amount of time and money, but hadnever put together a general framework or policy to deal with such controversies. To their dismay, and financial loss, Nike officials had no choice but to react to the crisis. This incident has definitely signaled to the company that spending a little more time would have prevented the crisis. Nonetheless,it has taught the company a lesson in strategic crisis management planning.In a business organization, symptoms or signals can alert the strategic planners or executives of an eminent crisis. Slipping market share, losing strategic synergy anddiminishing productivity per man hour, as well as trends, issues and developments in the socio-economic, political and competitive environments, can signal crises, the effects of which can be very detrimental. After all, business failures and bankruptcies are not intended. They do not usually happen overnight. They occur more because of the lack of attention to symptoms than any other factor.Stages of a crisisMost crises do not occur suddenly. The signals can usuallybe picked up and the symptoms checked as they emerge. A company determined to address these issues realizes that the real challenge is not just to recognize crises, but to recognize themin a timely fashion (Darling et al., 1996). A crisis can consistof four different and distinct stages (Fink, 1986). The phasesare: prodromal crisis stage, acute crisis stage, chronic crisisstage and crisis resolution stage.Modern organizations are often called “organic” due tothe fact that they are not immune from the elements of their surrounding environments. Very much like a living organism, organizations can be affected by environmental factors both positively and negatively. But today’s successfulorganizations are characterized by the ability to adapt by recognizing important environmental factors, analyzing them, evaluating the impacts and reacting to them. The art of strategic planning (as it relates to crisis management)involves all of the above activities. The right strategy, in general, provides for preventive measures, and treatment or resolution efforts both proactively and reactively. It wouldbe quite appropriate to examine the first three stages of acrisis before taking up the treatment, resolution or intervention stage.Prodromal crisis stageIn the field of medicine, a prodrome is a symptom of the onset of a disease. It gives a warning signal. In business organizations, the warning lights are always blinking. No matter how successful the organization, a number of issues andtrends may concern the business if proper and timely attentionis paid to them. For example, in 1995, Baring Bank, a UK financial institution which had been in existence since 1763,ample opportunitysuddenly and unexpectedly failed. There wasfor the bank to catch the signals that something bad was on thehorizon, but the company’s efforts to detect that were thwarted by an internal structure that allowed a single employee both to conduct and to oversee his own investment trades, and the breakdown of management oversight and internalcontrol systems (Mitroff et al., 1996). Likewise, looking in retrospect, McDonald’s fast food chain was given the prodromalsymptoms before the elderly lady sued them for the spilling ofa very hot cup of coffee on her lap - an event that resulted in a substantial financial loss and tarnished image of thecompany. Numerous consumers had complained about thetemperature of the coffee. The warning light was on, but the company did not pay attention. It would have been much simplerto pick up the signal, or to check the symptom, than facing the consequences.In another case, Jack in the Box, a fast food chain, had several customers suffer intestinal distress after eating at their restaurants. The prodromal symptom was there, but the company took evasive action. Their initial approach was to lookaround for someone to blame. The lack of attention, the evasiveness and the carelessness angered all the constituent groups, including their customers. The unfortunate deaths thatptoms,occurred as a result of the company’s ignoring thesymand the financial losses that followed, caused the company to realize that it would have been easier to manage the crisis directly in the prodromal stage rather than trying to shift theblame.Acute crisis stageA prodromal stage may be oblique and hard to detect. The examples given above, are obvious prodromal, but no action wasWebster’s New Collegiate Dictionary, an acute stage occursacutewhen a symptom “demands urgent attention.” Whether the acutesymptom emerges suddenly or is a transformation of a prodromalstage, an immediate action is required. Diverting funds and other resources to this emerging situation may cause disequilibrium and disturbance in the whole system. It is onlythose organizations that have already prepared a framework forthese crises that can sustain their normal operations. For example, the US public roads and bridges have for a long time reflected a prodromal stage of crisis awareness by showing cracks and occasionally a collapse. It is perhaps in light of the obsessive decision to balance the Federal budget that reacting to the problem has been delayed and ignored. This situation has entered an acute stage and at the time of this writing, it was reported that a bridge in Maryland had just collapsed.The reason why prodromes are so important to catch is thatit is much easier to manage a crisis in this stage. In the caseof most crises, it is much easier and more reliable to take careof the problem before it becomes acute, before it erupts and causes possible complications (Darling et al., 1996). In andamage. However, the losses are incurred. Intel, the largest producer of computer chips in the USA, had to pay an expensiveprice for initially refusing to recall computer chips that proved unreliable o n on certain calculations. The f irmfirm attempted to play the issue down and later learned its lesson. At an acutestage, when accusations were made that the Pentium Chips were not as fast as they claimed, Intel quickly admitted the problem,apologized for it, and set about fixing it (Mitroff et al., 1996). Chronic crisis stageDuring this stage, the symptoms are quite evident and always present. I t isIt is a period of “make or break.” Being the third stage, chronic problems may prompt the company’s management to once and for all do something about the situation. It may be the beginning of recovery for some firms, and a deathknell for others. For example, the Chrysler Corporation was only marginallysuccessful throughout the 1970s. It was not, however, until the company was nearly bankrupt that amanagement shake-out occurred. The drawback at the chronic stage is that, like in a human patient, the company may get used to “quick fixes” and “band “band--aid”approaches. After all, the ailment, the problem and the crisis have become an integral partoverwhelmed by prodromal and acute problems that no time or attention is paid to the chronic problems, or the managers perceive the situation to be tolerable, thus putting the crisison a back burner.Crisis resolutionCrises could be detected at various stages of their development. Since the existing symptoms may be related todifferent problems or crises, there is a great possibility thatthey may be misinterpreted. Therefore, the people in charge maybelieve they have resolved the problem. However, in practicethe symptom is often neglected. In such situations, the symptomwill offer another chance for resolution when it becomes acute,thereby demanding urgent care. Studies indicate that today anincreasing number of companies are issue-oriented and searchfor symptoms. Nevertheless, the lack of experience in resolvinga situation and/or inappropriate handling of a crisis can leadto a chronic stage. Of course, there is this last opportunityto resolve the crisis at the chronic stage. No attempt to resolve the crisis, or improper resolution, can lead to grim consequences that will ultimately plague the organization or even destroy it.It must be noted that an unsolved crisis may not destroy the company. But, its weakening effects can ripple through the organization and create a host of other complications.Preventive effortsThe heart of the resolution of a crisis is in the preventiveefforts the company has initiated. This step, similar to a humanbody, is actually the least expensive, but quite often the mostoverlooked. Preventive measures deal with sensing potential problems (Gonzales-Herrero and Pratt, 1995). Major internalfunctions of a company such as finance, production, procurement, operations, marketing and human resources are sensitive to thesocio-economic, political-legal, competitive, technological, demographic, global and ethical factors of the external environment. What is imminently more sensible and much more manageable, is to identify the processes necessary forassessing and dealing with future crises as they arise (Jacksonand Schantz, 1993). At the core of this process are appropriate information systems, planning procedures, anddecision-making techniques. A soundly-based information system will scan the environment, gather appropriate data, interpret this data into opportunities and challenges, and provide a concretefoundation for strategies that could function as much to avoid crises as to intervene and resolve them.Preventive efforts, as stated before, require preparations before any crisis symptoms set in. Generally strategic forecasting, contingency planning, issues analysis, and scenario analysis help to provide a framework that could be used in avoiding and encountering crises.出处：出处：Toby TobyJ. Kash and John R. Darling . Crisis management: prevention, diagnosis 179-186二、翻译文章标题：危机管理：预防，诊断和干预译文：本文的前提是，如果该公司做好准备得话，危机可以更有效地进行管理。
毕业设计毕业论文电气工程及其自动化外文翻译中英文对照
毕业设计毕业论文电气工程及其自动化外文翻译中英文对照电气工程及其自动化外文翻译中英文对照一、引言电气工程及其自动化是一门涉及电力系统、电子技术、自动控制和信息技术等领域的综合学科。
本文将翻译一篇关于电气工程及其自动化的外文文献，并提供中英文对照。
二、文献翻译原文标题：Electric Engineering and Its Automation作者：John Smith出版日期：2020年摘要：本文介绍了电气工程及其自动化的基本概念和发展趋势。
首先，介绍了电气工程的定义和范围。
其次，探讨了电气工程在能源领域的应用，包括电力系统的设计和运行。
然后，介绍了电气工程在电子技术领域的重要性，包括电子设备的设计和制造。
最后，讨论了电气工程与自动控制和信息技术的结合，以及其在工业自动化和智能化领域的应用。
1. 介绍电气工程是一门研究电力系统和电子技术的学科，涉及发电、输电、配电和用电等方面。
电气工程的发展与电力工业的发展密切相关。
随着电力需求的增长和电子技术的进步，电气工程的重要性日益凸显。
2. 电气工程在能源领域的应用电气工程在能源领域的应用主要包括电力系统的设计和运行。
电力系统是由发电厂、输电线路、变电站和配电网络等组成的。
电气工程师负责设计和维护这些设施，以确保电力的可靠供应。
3. 电气工程在电子技术领域的重要性电气工程在电子技术领域的重要性体现在电子设备的设计和制造上。
电子设备包括电脑、手机、电视等消费电子产品，以及工业自动化设备等。
电气工程师需要掌握电子电路设计和数字信号处理等技术，以开发出高性能的电子设备。
4. 电气工程与自动控制和信息技术的结合电气工程与自动控制和信息技术的结合是电气工程及其自动化的核心内容。
自动控制技术可以应用于电力系统的运行和电子设备的控制，以提高系统的稳定性和效率。
信息技术则可以用于数据采集、处理和传输，实现对电力系统和电子设备的远程监控和管理。
5. 电气工程在工业自动化和智能化领域的应用电气工程在工业自动化和智能化领域的应用越来越广泛。
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中英文资料对照外文翻译 基于应急理论基础下的内部控制因素及其后果的形成 外文翻译译文：
摘要：为了保证企业需求内部控制活动的有效性和信息的可靠性以及遵守法律的适用性，每个组织要选择最适合的控制系统。因此，就必须考虑到意外事故的风险是否切合权变理论。本文研究的是检视这些风险特点的选择是否适应他们公司内部控制结构和它是否会导致一些更加优惠的有效性的评估控制管理。虽然内部控制的组成部分已进行单独控制，本文尝试阐明内部控制的关键点并将其放到更加广阔的背景中。结果证明，基于对741家芬兰公司的调查研究，表明公司用内部控制结构来应对环境的不确定性，并观测控制的有效性的战略对其内部控制结构有着显著的效果。
关键词：内部控制、成效、权变理论、结构方块建模 1. 绪论 人们普遍认为，一个内部控制系统可以帮助企业降低风险，并且使财务报表的可靠性得以保证。因此，越来越多的企业在他们具体的操作环境下更多的关注自己的内部控制。在巨大的管理压力下，如何提高内部控制的有效性以及董事会和股东之间的沟通效果，是目前企业亟待解决的重要问题。由于内部控制可能会影响长期的报告，因此审计人员、供应商、客户都对内部控制关注相当。Kinney在2000年指出，尽管内部控制对公司影响很大，但在组织环境中内部控制结构却无法实现。虽然关于内部控制的文献在国际研究上已取得进展，但迄今为止，内部控制的研究数量有限。在2004年Selte and Widener出版的专业文章中提出，在管理控制中研究较少的内部控制有着很强的实用性。 本文的研究结论有助于了解内部控制结构及其在公司环境中观察到对公司的效果。即使内部控制结构框架中提出了一个标准化的结构和内部控制目标，但仍然需要注意的是，有效地内部控制是要根据公司的不同特点来制定的。因此，即使是内部控制的框架中也无法提供一个企业的特点和其控制系统的关系。因此，本研究利用一个应急方法，审查内部控制结构的设计，并且将其放到不同的环境下观察其效果。研究报告分析了使用方程关系模型对741家芬兰公司进行实例证明并得到结果。这项研究的结果在几个重要方面增加了有限的内部控制研究的知识。首先，研究中提出了要利用内部控制及其在实践中的有效性度量模型的实证研究结果。世界上有一些组织已经将内部控制框架建立基金会来开展活动。无论如何，有一点是值得注意的，那就是除了求证时间框架外还要更加深入的求证内部控制研究模型。除了少数例子外，Stringer和Carey早在2002年就研究了在特定集中研究控制元件，如控制环境同心结构或风险评估，在这些研究中内部控制只是作为一个概念，是研究不同情况下的整体。第二，尽管在这之前控制行为关系在内部控制的了解中发挥了关键作用，但是控制行为对内部控制的应急理论尚未进行充分研究。第三，从知识管理的角度进行内部控制还不成熟，因此在我们的研究中内部控制调查研究是重点。第四，本文研究的主要特点是当一个组织注意内部控制时必须检视意外事件的特征。其目的是确定哪些特征在内部变化有助于解释控制系统和观察内部控制的有效性。然而，当对该模型进行一元或多元变量设置时，会产生不同的效果。因此，本文主要论证了，如何将SEM技术应用到内部控制的研究。在内部控制结构有效替代的情况下了解内部控制替代前后差异的共同性，这项研究将会对内部控制讨论做出很大的贡献，不仅如此，这项研究还提供了一种方法来识别不同组织对内部控制的特殊需求。 接下来的部分介绍了研究框架和部分定义的介绍，研究结构的相关问题文献。随后本文详细阐述了在SEM方法从741家芬兰公司搜集数据为基础对实例论证。最后是对结果的讨论以及对研究限制阐述。
2 研究框架 在2003年Chenhall运用控制系统设计可以协助管理人员实现其公司的目标和期望的结果。内部系统控制增强了企业的检测报告程序，也确保遵守法律法规。通过这种有效的内部控制对公司成功方面有着关键的作用。但是，正如我们观察到的，内部控制在真空下是不存在的。在1994年COCO（加拿大控制基准委员会框架）中指出，两个组织不存在类似的控制系统，除非该组织的中心组织机构系统是相同的。内部控制系统根据不同的细节需要会产生在不同的组织环境下。在1994年COSO（美国控制基准委员会）在内部控制框架中提出内部控制系统是由控制环境、风险评估、内控活动、信息与沟通、监督五要素组成，它们取决于管理层经营企业的方式，并融入管理过程本身，其相互关系可以用其模型表示。此声明类似于权变理论对每一个组织的特点采取适当的控制系统一样。（参考Chapman 1997； Chenhall 2003；Fisher1995； Luft and Shields 2003）因此，以应急理论为基础的方法提供了在实践当中对内部控制因素不同的解释。同时，以应急理论为基础的权变理论构成了一种新的方法来重新演绎有内部控制的理论和基础特点。 图1 战略尺寸组织结构预知环境的不确定性
应变特征RQ1RQ2RQ3RQ4
-控制环境- 风险评估- 控制活动- 信息和通信- 监控
内部控制结构RQ5- 效率和效力 活动- 可靠性信息- 遵守法律和 法规
内部控制评判效果
因此管理控制作为在组织制度中的一个重要控制子集一直是权变理论的研究主体。研究主要集中在上下变量对管理控制系统设计的影响，本文，是对文献回顾的研究基础上分析的。其目的是利用了解内部控制结构的特点和影响来观察成效以作为制定权变理论的基础。内部控制和权变理论共享某些元素，但是共同点和不同点的广度取决于所用的定义。在2003年Chenhall指出，以前的以应变研究为基础的管理控制研究遵循传统的协助管理人员决策，是一种被动工具。其目的是为了利用管理控制系统包含了一个会计系统这一特性，更好的管理包括个人或家族控制的控制因素，这样的控制理论如： 图1说明了研究框架和理论基础上的内部控制框架。变量之间的关系有三组，在应变特点，内部控制结构和观察成效是本文研究的终点。前四个研究问题（RQ1-RQ4）旨在测试（战略，规模，组织应变特征结构和环境的不确定性）等因素对内部控制结构的影响。这些因素前人都有所研究（例如Chenhall 2003；Donaldson 2001；Hoque and James 2000； Macintosh 1994；Simons 1987；Drazinand Van de Ven 1985；Otley 1980)指出，指出这些因素对控制结构和企业的绩效产生一定的影响。 第五个研究因素（RQ5）集中于内部控制结构与内部控制有效性的关系上。变量之间的理论关系是基于COSO（美国控制基础委员会）1994年提出的。指出根据特定的情况对内部控制的需求不尽相同，但是内部控制组成的部分功能可以引导有效地内部控制系统。Fisher 1998年指出，成功的剪裁控制系统以适应企业的特点等类似的权变理论对公司的业绩有着突出的贡献。然而企业可能有着传统性能的其他目标。因此根据Fisher1995年的建议，在模型中所设想的一个非财务目标对内部控制的有效性产生理想的效果。用内部控制因素管理大型的公司已成为关键的因素（Sutton在2006年指出）。内部控制在组织中的影响和传统性能的可靠性措施可以衡量内部控制系统的业绩，不过在过去的文献中发现了许多相关文献。
3.结构定义和研究 在本节中提出了定义的适用范围，并且给出了以前的研究对构造问题因素之间的关系。
3.1内部控制框架 根据内部控制的广泛研究，它涵盖了一个组织的方方面面，在这里运用了汇集控制器的概念将内部控制架构的方法形成一个完整的整体，明确内部需求。在著名的内部控制框架（COCO、COSO）（加拿大控制基准委员会、美国控制基准委员会）中包括有效地内部控制定义和目前内部控制结构的组成部分。举例来说，在1994年COCO（加拿大控制基础委员会）框架中提到的内部控制状态可以在董事会和管理层的理解程度上，该实体的目标在于实现公布财务报表以及保证遵守法律法规。因此，在这中间的内部控制的研究应进行有效的界定，如何控制好这三个目标在管理的观念上实现，是企业所要重点关注的问题。 因此，我认为可以在一个适当的内部控制框架结构中描述五个不同组成部分的条款，其可以确定为： 1 控制环境的界定是一个组织得以运作的精神支柱。这个组件可以给人们创造一个他们可以进行他们的活动和执行它们的责任氛围。他创建了这家公司整体控制文化。 2 风险评估部分是指，处理风险如何威胁公司实现目标的过程。他设计到对风险的识别、分析和相应的评估。 3 控制活动的组成部分，是指对政策、程序和做法对分先环节战略的实施是的管理目标得以实现的过程。 4 信息和通信组建是指确保有关信息在形式和时限上的识别，是工作人员履行其职责和责任的有效沟通过程。 5 监测组件是指评估内部控制的质量过程，谈涵盖了有管理人员进程外的其他各方面进行内部控制的外部监督和定期评估。 在本文中这五个组成部分定义了内部控制的架构。根据1994年COCO架构，为了有足够的内部控制系统使其组件部分正常运行。大部分的研究将这一部分作为重点研究领域设定控制元件（Aquila 1998; Hooks etal. 1994; Milles 1997）。在2002年Stringer and Carey研究的五个组成部分，以及单个因素对内部控制研究是在此研究领域的一个质转变。 在这项研究中观察到的内部控制原件及其有效性能分析的潜在变量。应当指出的是，理论和具体的个人控制或判断分析水平并不是主要的研究焦点。此外，分析应用水平受公司首席执行官和其他管理人员的控制。
3.2应急变量 在以前的研究中指出(Fisher1995；Gerdin2005)，控制系统可能经过调试来进行应对多种相互矛盾情形下的需求。为了研究内部结构设计的复杂性，本文选择研究四个变量的特征。该研究探讨了战略，规模，组织结构和环境的不确定性对内部控制结构的影响，并且对其有效性进行考证。早先的研究中证明，这些特征对内部控制结构的性能设计有一定的影响(比如Chenhall 2003; Donaldson 2001; Hoque and James 2000;