《学术英语综合》 季佩英版 课文翻译
学术综合英语1-6课课文及翻译
学术综合英语1-6课课文及翻译Presenting a speech（做演讲）Of all human creations, language may be the most remarkable. Through在人类所有的创造中，语言也许是影响最为深远的。
我们用语言language we share experience, formulate values, exchange ideas, transmit来分享经验，表达(传递？)价值观，交换想法，传播知识，knowledge, and sustain culture. Indeed, language is vital to think itself.传承文化。
事实上，对语言本身的思考也是至关重要的。
[Contrary to popular belief], language | does not simply mirror reality butalso helps to create our sense of reality [by giving meaning to events].和通常所认为的不同的是，语言并不只是简单地反映现实，语言在具体描述事件的时候也在帮助我们建立对现实的感知。
——语序的调整。
Good speakers have respect for language and know how it works. Words are the tools of a speaker’s craft. They have special uses, just like the tools of any other profession. As a speaker, you should be aware of the meaning of words and know how to use language accurately, clearly,vividly,and appropriately.好的演讲者对语言很重视，也知道如何让它发挥更好的效果。
学术英语综合Unit10-译文
第十单元语言习得Text A习得艺术的本能史蒂芬•平克当你在阅读这些文字时，便已经置身于自然界的一大奇观之中，因为你我都同属于这个拥有非凡能力的物种：我们能够精确无误地在彼此的大脑中塑造事件。
在这里，我并不是在谈论心灵感应，精神控制或者边缘科学所沉迷的事件；甚至根据它的信仰者所描述的，如果与每个人身上都拥有的无可争议的那些能力相比，它像是一把钝器。
我所谈论的就是，语言。
只是通过动动嘴巴和发出声音，我们就能够让他人的脑海中涌现清晰表达的各种新想法。
因为这种能力是与生俱来的，所以人们常常会忘记它是多么的神奇。
近年来人们对语言能力的研究在人类对语言的理解，它在人类世界中的角色，以及人类对人性的看法这三方面都产生了革命性的影响。
很多受过教育的人都知道语言是人类最重要的文化产物，是人类可以运用符号的典型例证，也是人类在生理上不可逆转地区别于其他动物的前所未有的大事件。
这些人也知道语言总是与思想相伴，使用不同的语言能够使说话者从不同角度来解读现实。
他们还知道孩子们从他们的榜样和看护者那里学习说话。
学校里曾经教授复杂的语法规则，但是由于教育水平以及大众文化水准的不断下降，普通人构造语法句子的能力已经出现了可怕的下滑。
他们还知道英语这种语言充满了滑稽以及不符合逻辑的现象，就像是开车开在绿化带，停车停在行驶道，在朗诵会上演奏，在演奏会上朗诵一般可笑。
英语的拼写更是把这种不可理喻上升到了更高的高度——萧伯纳曾经抱怨说鱼类—fish[fɪʃ]这个单词完全可以拼写成ghoti（gh是来自tough的[f]，o来自women的[ɪ]，ti来自nation的[ʃ]），他认为这也是讲得通的——而正是这种语言制度的惰性阻碍了英语采用“一种拼写配一种发音”的更加合理的系统。
而我要说服你们的是，以上这些他们所知道的常识都是错的！这种错误都可以归结为一个原因，那就是，语言并非文化的产物。
并不是像我们所学的那样，要去学习如何用语言表述时间，或者表述联邦政府是如何运作的。
学术综合英语1-3-6课课文及翻译
Presenting a speech（做演讲）Of all human creations, language may be the most remarkable. Through language we share experience, formulate values, exchange ideas, transmit knowledge, and sustain culture. Indeed, language is vital to think itself. [Contrary to popular belief], language | does not simply mirror reality but also helps to create our sense of reality [by giving meaning to events].在人类所有的创造中，语言也许是影响最为深远的。
我们用语言来分享经验，表达(传递？)价值观，交换想法，传播知识，传承文化。
事实上，对语言本身的思考也是至关重要的。
和通常所认为的不同的是，语言并不只是简单地反映现实，语言在具体描述事件的时候也在帮助我们建立对现实的感知。
——语序的调整。
Good speakers have respect for language and know how it works. Words are the tools of a speaker’s craft. They have special uses, just like the tools of any other profession. As a speaker, you should be aware of the meaning of words and know how to use language accurately, clearly,vividly,and appropriately.好的演讲者对语言很重视，也知道如何让它发挥更好的效果。
研究生学术综合英语上册Unit1-4课文及翻译全---请叫我雷锋教程文件
研究生学术综合英语上册U n i t1-4课文及翻译全---请叫我雷锋Unit1Presenting a SpeechStephen Lucas Of all human creations, language may be the most remarkable. Through language we share experiences, formulate values, exchange ideas, transmit knowledge, and sustain culture. Indeed, language is vital to thinking itself. Contrary to popular belief,language does not simply mirror reality but also helps to create our sense of reality by giving meaning to events.Good speakers have respect for language and know how it works. Words are the tools of a speaker’s craft. They have special uses, just like the tools of any otherprofession. As a speaker, you should be aware of the meanings of words and know how to use language accurately, clearly, vividly, and appropriately.Using language accurately is as vital to a speaker as using numbers accurately is to an accountant. Never use a word unless you are sure of its meaning. If you are not sure, look up the word in a dictionary. As you prepare your speeches, ask yourself constantly, “What do I really want to say? What do I really mean?” Choose words thatare precise and accurate.Using language clearly allows listeners to grasp your meaning immediately. You can ensure this by using familiar words that are known to the average person and require no specialized background; by choosing concrete words in preference to more abstract ones, and by eliminating verbal clutter.Using language vividly helps bring your speech to life. One way to make your language more vivid is through imagery, or the creation of word pictures. You can develop imagery by using concrete language, simile, and metaphor. Simile is an explicit comparison between things that are essentially different yet have something in common; it always contains the words “like”or “as.”Metaphor is an implicitcomparison between things that are different yet have something in common; it does not contain the words “like” or “as.”Another way to make your speeches vivid is by exploiting the rhythm of language. Four devices for creating rhythm are parallelism, repetition, alliteration, and antithesis. Parallelism is the similar arrangement of a pair or series of related words, phrases, or sentences. Repetition is the use of the same word or set of words at the beginning or end of successive clauses or sentences. Alliteration comes from repeating the initial consonant sounds of close or adjoining words. Antithesis is the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, usually in parallel structure.Using language appropriately means adapting to the particular occasion, audience, and topic at hand. It also means developing your own language style instead of trying to copy someone else’s. If your language is appropriate in all respects, your speech is much more likely to succeed.Good speeches are not composed of hot air and unfounded assertions. They need strong supporting materials to bolster the speaker’s point of view. In fact, the skillfuluse of supporting materials often makes the difference between a good speech and a poor one. The three basic types of supporting materials are examples, statistics and testimony.In the course of a speech you may use brief examples —specific instances referred to in passing — and sometimes you may want to give several brief examples in a row to create a stronger impression. Extended examples —often called illustrations, narratives, or anecdotes —are longer and more detailed. Hypotheticalexamples describe imaginary situations and can be quite effective for relating ideas to the audience. All three kinds of examples help to clarify ideas, to reinforce ideas, or to personalize ideas.To be more effective, though, they should be vivid and richly textured.Statistics can be extremely helpful in conveying your message, as long as you use them sparingly and explain them so they are meaningful to your audience. Above all, you should understand your statistics and use them fairly. Numbers can easily be manipulated and distorted. Make sure that your figures are representative of what they claim to measure, that you use statistical measures correctly, and that you take statistics only from reliable sources.Testimony is especially helpful for student speakers, because they are seldom recognized as experts on their speech topics. Citing the views of people who are experts is a good way to make your ideas more credible. When you include testimony in a speech, you can either quote someone verbatim or paraphrase their words. As with statistics, there are guidelines for using testimony. Be sure to quote or paraphrase accurately and to cite qualified unbiased sources. If the source is not generally known to your audience, be certain to establish his or her credentials.The impact of a speech is strongly affected by how the speech is delivered. You cannot make a good speech without having something to say. But having something to say is not enough. You must also know how to say it. Good delivery does not call attention to itself. It conveys the speaker’s ideas clearly, interestingly, and withoutdistracting the audience.There are four basic methods of delivering a speech: reading verbatim from a manuscript, reciting a memorized text, speaking with PowerPoint, and speaking extemporaneously, or impromptu. The last of these － speaking extemporaneously －is the method you probably will use for classroom speeches and for most speeches outside the classroom. When speaking extemporaneously, you will have only a brief set of notes or a speaking outline. Speaking with PowerPoint is widely used now andvery effective indeed.Certainly there are other factors you should consider, such as personal appearance, bodily action, gestures, eye contact, volume, pauses and so on. By paying enough attention to what is mentioned above, you may present an effective speech.第一单元如何发表演说斯蒂芬·卢卡斯在人类创造的万物中，语言可能是最卓越的一项创造。
学术综合英语1-6课课文及翻译
Presenting a speech（做演讲）Of all human creations, language may be the most remarkable. Through在人类所有的创造中，语言也许是影响最为深远的。
我们用语言language we share experience, formulate values, exchange ideas, transmit来分享经验，表达(传递？)价值观，交换想法，传播知识，knowledge, and sustain culture. Indeed, language is vital to think itself.传承文化。
事实上，对语言本身的思考也是至关重要的。
[Contrary to popular belief], language | does not simply mirror reality butalso helps to create our sense of reality [by giving meaning to events].和通常所认为的不同的是，语言并不只是简单地反映现实，语言在具体描述事件的时候也在帮助我们建立对现实的感知。
——语序的调整。
Good speakers have respect for language and know how it works. Words are the tools of a speaker’s craft. They have special uses, just like the tools of any other profession. As a speaker, you should be aware of the meaning of words and know how to use language accurately, clearly,vividly,and appropriately.好的演讲者对语言很重视，也知道如何让它发挥更好的效果。
学术综合英语1-5课课文及翻译
Presenting a speech （做演讲）Of all human creations, language may be the most remarkable. Through language we share experience, formulate values, exchange ideas, transmit knowledge, and sustain culture. Indeed, language is vital to think itself. Contrary to popular belief], language | does not simply mirror reality but also helps to create our sense of reality [by giving meaning to events]. 在人类所有的创造中，在人类所有的创造中，语言也许是影响最为深远的。
语言也许是影响最为深远的。
语言也许是影响最为深远的。
我们用语言来分享经验，我们用语言来分享经验，我们用语言来分享经验，传传递价值观，交流思想，传播知识，传承文化。
事实上，对语言本身的思考也是至关重要的。
和通常所认为的不同的是，语言并不只是简单地反映现实，语言在 具体描述事件的时候也在帮助我们建立对现实的感知。
——语序的调整。
——语序的调整。
Good speakers have respect for language and know how it works. Words are the tools of a speaker ’s craft. They have special uses, just like the tools of any other profession. As a speaker, you should be aware of the meaning of words and know how to use language accurately, clearly,vividly,and appropriately. 好的演讲者对语言很重视，好的演讲者对语言很重视，也知道如何让它发挥更好的效果。
学术英语管理季佩英听力原文
学术英语管理季佩英听力原文1.Unit 1Businesses are structured in different ways to meet different needs.The simplest form of business is called an individual or sole proprietorship. The proprietor(经营者) owns all of the property of the business and is responsible for everything. 。
Another kind of business is the partnership.Two or more people go into business together. An agreement is usually needed to decide how much of the partnership each person controls.One kind of partnership is called a limited liability partnership. These have full partners and limited partners. Limited partners may not share as much in the profits, but they also have less responsibilities for the business. 。
Doctors, lawyers and accountants often form partnerships to share their risks and profits. A husband and wife can form a business partnership together.Partnerships exist only for as long as the owners remain alive. The same is true of individual proprietorships. 。
学术综合英语1_5课课文与翻译
Presenting a speech（做演讲）Of all human creations, language may be the most remarkable. Throughlanguage we share experience, formulate values, exchange ideas, transmit knowledge, and sustain culture. Indeed, language is vital to think itself. Contrary to popular belief], language | does not simply mirror reality but also helps to create our sense of reality [by giving meaning to events].在人类所有的创造中，语言也许是影响最为深远的。
我们用语言来分享经验，传递价值观，交流思想，传播知识，传承文化。
事实上，对语言本身的思考也是至关重要的。
和通常所认为的不同的是，语言并不只是简单地反映现实，语言在具体描述事件的时候也在帮助我们建立对现实的感知。
——语序的调整。
Good speakers have respect for language and know how it works. Words are the tools of a speaker’s craft. They have special uses, just like the tools of any other profession. As a speaker, you should be aware of the meaning of words and know how to use language accurately, clearly,vividly,and appropriately.好的演讲者对语言很重视，也知道如何让它发挥更好的效果。
(完整word版)学术综合英语1-6课课文及翻译
Presenting a speech（做演讲）Of all human creations， language may be the most remarkable。
Through在人类所有的创造中，语言也许是影响最为深远的。
我们用语言language we share experience， formulate values, exchange ideas, transmit来分享经验，表达(传递？）价值观,交换想法，传播知识，knowledge, and sustain culture. Indeed， language is vital to think itself.传承文化。
事实上，对语言本身的思考也是至关重要的。
［Contrary to popular belief］, language ｜ does not simply mirror reality butalso helps to create our sense of reality ［by giving meaning to events］。
和通常所认为的不同的是，语言并不只是简单地反映现实，语言在具体描述事件的时候也在帮助我们建立对现实的感知。
——语序的调整.Good speakers have respect for language and know how it works。
Words are the tools of a speaker’s craft。
They have special uses, just like the tools of any other profession。
As a speaker， you should be aware of the meaning of words and know how to use language accurately， clearly，vividly，and appropriately。
(完整版)学术英语综合课后答案季佩英
Unit 1Language building-upTask 1/Specialized vocabulary1. 饲料经销商；饲料批发商2. 为他自己的收益而工作3. 技能与劳动力4. 制造塑料5. 私人交易6. 包装并定价7. 无形之手1. priced2. labor3. transactions4. gain5. labor; manufactured6. invisible hand7. distributorTask 2/Signpost language1. Today, in millions of homes across the nation, God will be thanked for many gifts, for the feast on the table and the company of loved ones, for health and good fortune in the year gone by, for peace privilege of having been born, or having become —American(Line 2, Para.1).2. And yet, isn't there something wondrous, —something almost inexplicable in the way your Thanksgiving weekend is made possible by the skill and labor of vast numbers of total strangers? (Line 1, Para. 4)3. ...Thanksgiving Turkey, there would be one, —or more likely, a few dozen—waiting. (Line 3, Para.6)Task 3/Formal English1. very many2. buying or selling3. a large group of4. more huge5. understand6. troubledUnit 2Language buildingTask 1:Part 1:1)无形之手；2）自由企业制度3）股东4）经济体制5）开发产品和服务6）市场力量；市场调节作用7）金融机构8）严重衰退9）破产10）mission11）stock price12）corporate motto13）assets14）maximize profits 15）financial systemPart 2：1)market forces2）financial institutions 3）free enterprise system 4）deep institutions5）invisible hand6）stockholder7）profit maximization 8）economic system Task 2：1.and；2.Another；3. also；4. Not only；but；5. otherTask 31. understanding；2. agree with；3. forces…to be accepted;4. bad5. purpose6. charitable ;7. given;8.famous.Unit 3Language buildingTask 1: collocationPart 1:1) 充满敬畏与感激；2）与外部世界隔离3）陷入绝境4）易感抑郁5）恢复体能6）界定性特征7）暂时的挫败8）不因挫败而心烦意乱9）竞选权位10）吹着欢快的曲调Part 2：1)bout 2）validated3）squabble 4）aptitude5）platitude 6）debilitate7）reassuring 8）undermine9）ruminate 10）martialTask 2：1.contrasting；2.in contrast；3. However；4. different；5. on the other hand6. in the opposite way7.howeverTask 31. full of；2. becomes alert and energetic3. keeping thinking about4. been left in hopelessness5. likely to suffer from6. not disturbed7. saying something that people are quite familiar with8. officially approvedUnit 4Language buildingTask 1: collocationPart 1:1. green movement2. protected areas3. extinction of animals and plants4. wild fish stocks5. make clean power6. save resources7. 培育生物多样性8. 控制污染9. 阻止对生态体系的破坏10. 扩大清洁产业11. 集体世界观12. 生态经济Part 2：1. Embedding a narrative that moves us on from protecting nature from people to protecting nature for people is an essential part of this reframing. (Para.6)If such a narrative is to gain practical effect, then looking after nature must urgently be seen as not only an environmental challenge, but also an economic one. (Para.7)The author manages to bring in a new topic and maintain coherence by repeating keys words such as narrative, nature.2. So long as we continue to travel in two directions at once, promoting environmental goals on the one hand while on the other directly contradicting that with measures to achieve more economic growth, the longer we will fail to make real progress. (Para.7)When it comes to economics and ecology there is plenty of good thinking already done. (Para.8) The author manages to bring in a new topic and maintain coherence by repeating key words such as economic, economics.Task 3 Formal language1. unchangeable; increasing2. control3. effort; charitable4. pleasant detail5. complicated6. change7. Changing8. importantUnit 5Language buildingTask 1: collocationPart 1:1. having a mind2.behave as if you understand3.what and how we know4.inside;reflectsMentalist Dbehaviorist BEpistemologist Aphenomenologist CPart 21. psychological2.spiritual3.behaviour4.phenomenologist5.perplexity6.mentallyTask 2：…,classified…This class of…The class of……a less severe label…The huge classTask 31. what we imagine about computers today2.we have broken the distinction between ???3.for the sake of convenience so that it is easier to refer to the first type of response4. you have the same reason for thinking that M had a mind.5. (The reason you believe your mother has a mind is based) not on your prejudice6. as groundless as believing that computers have mindUnit 6Task 1: Specialized vocabularyPart 11. 数学化，数字处理2. 计算机辅助设计3. 统计4. 基因组学5. 运筹学6. 优化组合7. 概率8. 数据库Part 2：1. database2. CAD3. statistics4. probability5. optimization6. genomics7. mathematization8. Operations researchTask 2：1. Here are a few simple examples of prescriptive mathematics that extended from single numbers to exceedingly complex systems:…(Line 1,para.8,Text A)2. Admittedly this is rather vague, but it will clarify a bit as I go on and mention a few of the manyexamples that Baker gives:…(Line 8, para.10, Text A)Task 3 Formal language1. exists2. included3. explained4. model5. get6. environment7. knowledgeable person; in which8. until now9. fix ideas of (caution) in one’s mindUnit 7Task 1: Specialized vocabularyPart 11. -h2.-f3.-a4.-j5.-i6.-b7.-d8.-g9.-c10.-ePart 2：1. To achieve professional development isimportant as a means to the end of becoming an expert and gaining more flexibility and independence2. Numerous studies over the last 30 years have suggested that personality is a powerful predictor of a person's life satisfaction3. An employee's work orientation is shaped in the first instance by their understanding of “what work is about”4. The government is trying to introduce new measures to create a better social safety net and encourage better worker pay5. Money has been used as the incentive of many intelligence contests in TV programTask 2：1. The present perfect tense（现在完成时）emphasizes that people’s conception about what money can bring them has changed greatly2. The tense switches from the present to the past to manifest that an example is given3.The tense switches between the present and the past to produce a comparison of different interpretations of a “calling”in different timesTask 3 Formal language1. pour heart and soul into :spare no efforts,try one's bestwhat will stimulate\encourage a worker to try his best in making good products?2. lure：temptationgrueling：working exhaustedlyPeople are no longer so tempted by the dream of becoming rich by working exhaustedly 80 hours a week for several years in a humble position3. lowly job：humble jobrecrafted：turnedHe might be doing a humble job，but he would turn it into a great mission4. entails：requiresA career requires more devotion to work5. contributing to：being beneficial toconnotation：implicationPeople who regard their work as a calling\great mission think that what they do helps serve the public and brings benefits to our society，and therefore it's quite proper to say that a mission\calling implies something similar to religious beliefsUnit8Task 1 Specialized vocabulare1. cultural tradition 文化传统2. social stability 社会稳定3. distinct identity 鲜明特色4. edge effect 边缘效应5. organic evolution 有机界进化6. mutual respect 相互尊重7.political correctness 政治正确性anic evolution2. mutual respect3. Edge effect4. social stability5. political correctness6. cultural tradition7. distinct identityTask 2 Signpost language1. Through; through; through2. not just; but3. first4. second5. next6. final7.not only; but alsoTask 3 Formal English1. develop2. combined3. skillful performers4. obvious5. friendly6. getting rid of7. combine8. changed9. imagine10. a large number ofUnit 9Task 1 Specialized vocabulary1 D 医疗2 J 基因分型3 F 内窥镜检查4 A 生物技术5 H 诊断6 C 分子的7 I 治疗方案8 E 医生9 G 外科医生的；手术的10 B 胶囊1 diagnosis2 surgical3 Biotechnology4 healthcare5 protocols6 molecularTask 2 Signpost language1 known as2 referred to as3 call4 describe5 meanTask 3 Formal English1 increases2 marked3 arrival/ coming4 replaced5 move away6 filledUnit 10Task 1 Specialized vocabulary1 b2 k3 f4 j5 g6 i7 e8 c9 h10 a11 d1 syntactic patterns2 Language faculty3 neural system4 underlying logic5 evolutionary adaptation6 formal instruction7 mental organ8 natural selectionTask 2 Signpost language1 for2 led to3 because4 Therefore5 Therefore6 because; because7 SoTask 3 Formal English1 explanation/interpretation; impacts2 is present all over; analyze/explain/interpret。
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翻译,U1
U1
A 感谢看不见的手
感谢全能的上帝是感恩节的主题,并自清教徒带来在他们的第一个丰收的朝圣
者…直到今天,在全国各地的数以百万计的家庭,上帝会感谢许多礼物,桌上的盛宴
和亲人的公司,健康和好运,在过去的一年,和平时期的家庭,为无数特权出生或成为
-美国人。
但这可能不会发生在我们太多的感谢的事实,本周当地超市有大量的火鸡出
售。即使不虔诚感谢上帝的航班安排,使得某些亲人飞回家过感恩节。或为当地的
电影院在周末的时间掌握和(电影名)到来。或者是报纸上伟大的越橘苹果派食谱的
食品部分。
这些东西我们采取更多或更少的理所当然。这几乎不需要一个奇迹来解释为
什么杂货店的股票在感恩节前火鸡的股票,或者为什么好莱坞电影在大假期的时间
释放。这就是他们所做的。上帝在哪里,然而,在那里,没有什么奇妙的东西-几乎是
无法解释的-在你的感恩节周末的方式是可能的技能和劳动力的大量的陌生人
把火鸡的餐桌,例如,需要成千上万的人努力的家禽农户养的鸟,当然,也提供
营养,谁把它带到农场的卡车司机的饲料经销商,更不用说建筑师设计的孵化场,工
人建造它,并保持它的运行技术人员。这只鸟已经被宰杀、拔毛和检查运输和卸载
包售价并显示。完成这些任务的人是由其他人的军队来完成的,其他人完成了其他
的任务--从精炼的汽油,燃料的卡车,制造塑料的肉类包装。
无数的活动遥远的男人和女人经过结婚几个月必须精心设计和精确定时,使
v'nen结果你买新鲜的感恩节火鸡,会有一个或更多的可能,几十个等待。协调水平,
需要把它关闭是令人难以置信的。但更令人难以置信的是:没有一个协调。没有火
鸡沙皇坐在指挥所的地方,咨询硕士计划。发号施令。没有人骑着所有的人,迫使他
们合作,为你的利益。然而他们合作。当你到达超市的时候,四只火鸡在那里。你不
必做任何事情,但如果出现买thatisrit,奇迹。那我们应该称之为?
亚当斯密称它为“看不见的手”导致无数人的神秘力量,各为自己的利益工作,
推动结束,受益多。出于对不协调的私下交易,数以百万计的混乱出现自发的市场秩
序。自由人自由地互动,结果是一系列的商品和服务,比人类的心灵更能理解。没有
独裁者,没有官僚机构,没有超级计算机提前计划。事实上,越是计划经济,就越是困
扰着短缺的错位和失败…自由的社会秩序,如财富和进步,这是一个非同寻常的礼
物。在这个感恩的日子,每一天,我们都要心存感激。
B 作为信号的礼物
一个男人正讨论给女友的生日礼物。”我知道;”他自言自语,“我给她现
金。毕竟,我不知道她有什么品味,有了钱,她可以买任何她想要的东西,”但是当他
交给她钱的时候,她很生气。他并不真的爱她,她打破了关系。这个故事背后的经济
学是什么?在某些方面,送礼是一种奇怪的风俗。作为男人,在我们的故事中,人们通
常都知道自己的喜好比人做的更好,所以我们可以期望每个人都喜欢现金的实物转
移支付。如果你的雇主用替代的商品支付你的薪水,你可能会反对支付手段。但是
你的反应是非常不同的,当有人(你希望)爱你做同样的事情。
送礼的一种解释是,它反映了非对称信息和信令。我们故事里的男人有私人信
息,女朋友想知道:他是否真的爱她,选择一个好的礼物给她是他的爱的信号。当然,
挑选一份礼物,有正确的特性是一个信号。它是昂贵的(需要时间),它的成本取决于
私人信息(多少他爱她)。如果他真的爱她,选择一个好礼物很容易,因为他一直在想
着她。如果他不爱她,找
到合适的礼物就更难了。因此,给了一个适合女友的礼物,是他传达他对她的
爱的私人信息的一种方式。给现金表明他甚至不想尝试。
送礼的最具信号原理的理论是一致的另一个观察:人们关心的惯例是,喜爱的
优点是最大的问题。因此,给现金给一个女朋友或男友是个坏举动。但是当学生从
家长那得到支票,他们不太经常生气。父母的爱不可能会有疑问,那么收件人可能不
会将现金礼物当做喜爱缺乏的信号。
微软案件
近年来最重要和最有争议的反垄断案是美国政府控告微软公司一案,于1998
年提交。当然,这并不是缺少戏剧。它使世界上最富有的人之一(比尔盖茨)对抗一
个世界上最强大的监管机构(美国司法)。为政府辩护的是一个杰出的经济学家(麻
省理工学院的教授富兰克林fisher,为微软辩护的是一个同样杰出的经济学家(麻
省理工学院教授李察…岌岌可危的是世界上最有价值的公司(微软)是一个经济最快
发展的产业(计算机软件)。微软案涉及的一个核心问题,特别是,微软是否应该被允
许将其网络浏览器整合到其视窗操作系统中。政府声称,微软将这两种产品捆绑在
一起共同开拓市场支配力'到已经在电脑操作系统无关的市场(网络浏览器)。允许
微软将这样的产品进入其操作系统,政府称,这将阻止其他软件公司如网景公司进入
市场,推出新产品。微软回应指出,把新功能加进老产品是技术进步的自然部分。今
天,包括汽车音响和空调,曾经单独出售,还有相机内置闪光灯。同样的操作系统是
正确的。随着时间的推移,微软已经增加了许多功能给Windows窗口,它以前是独立
的产品。这使得计算机更可靠,更容易使用,因为消费者可以确定这些部件一起工
作。微软认为,互联网技术的融合是自然的下一步。
意见分歧一点是微软的市场权力。注意到超过80%以上的新个人电脑使用微
软的操作系统,政府认为该公司有大量的垄断权力,它在试图扩大。微软说,软件市
场是不断变化的,微软的Windows不断地被竞争对手挑战,如苹果mac和Linux操作
系统。它也认为,以50美元的低价格收取Windows ,或只有典型电脑价格的3%,是
它的市场控制力被严重限制的证据。
C传统的亚当史密和戴维李嘉图
经济学家早已了解贸易收益。这里是最伟大的经济学家亚当斯密提出的论
点:“这是一句格言对每一个精明的家长,不要试图怒,可在家里将花费什么他比
买。裁缝不想制作自己的鞋子,但买他们的鞋匠。鞋匠不想制作自己的衣服,但采用
一个裁缝。农夫既不会去做一个也不是其他,而是雇用drjferent artficers。所
有的人都认为自己的利益,在一种方式中,他们有一些优势,他们的邻居,并购买其产
品的一部分,或什么是相同的东西,与价格的一部分,无论他们有什么机会。这个观
点来自斯密的1776年的书《探究国民财富的性质和原因》,这是一个里程碑,在分
析贸易与经济的相互依赖性。
史密斯的著作启发了戴维李嘉图,百万富翁的经纪人,成为一个经济学家。在
他的1817本书政治经济学及赋税原理,李嘉图提出了正如我们今天所知道的比较优
势原理。他提出一个例子,有2个商品(葡萄酒和布)和两国(英国和葡萄牙)。他表
明,这两个国家可以通过开放贸易和专业的比较优势的基础上获得好处。李嘉图的
理论是现代国际经济学的出发点,但他的自由贸易防御的不是单纯的学术活动。李
嘉图把自己的信念作为英国议会的一员,在那里他反对谷物法,是限制谷物进口的。
亚当史密斯和戴维李嘉图的贸易所得的结论在好长时间都经住了考验。虽然
经济学家经常在政策问题上意见分歧,但他们在自由贸易上意见一致。此外,在过去
的2个世纪中没有太多改变。虽然扩大了其范围,细化了其理论,但经济学家对贸易
限制的反对是基于比较优势理论。