外文文献
毕业论文(设计)外文文献翻译及原文
金融体制、融资约束与投资——来自OECD的实证分析R．SemenovDepartment of Economics，University of Nijmegen，Nijmegen（荷兰内梅亨大学，经济学院）这篇论文考查了OECD的11个国家中现金流量对企业投资的影响.我们发现不同国家之间投资对企业内部可获取资金的敏感性具有显著差异,并且银企之间具有明显的紧密关系的国家的敏感性比银企之间具有公平关系的国家的低.同时，我们发现融资约束与整体金融发展指标不存在关系.我们的结论与资本市场信息和激励问题对企业投资具有重要作用这种观点一致，并且紧密的银企关系会减少这些问题从而增加企业获取外部融资的渠道。
一、引言各个国家的企业在显著不同的金融体制下运行。
金融发展水平的差别(例如，相对GDP的信用额度和相对GDP的相应股票市场的资本化程度），在所有者和管理者关系、企业和债权人的模式中，企业控制的市场活动水平可以很好地被记录.在完美资本市场,对于具有正的净现值投资机会的企业将一直获得资金。
然而，经济理论表明市场摩擦，诸如信息不对称和激励问题会使获得外部资本更加昂贵，并且具有盈利投资机会的企业不一定能够获取所需资本.这表明融资要素，例如内部产生资金数量、新债务和权益的可得性，共同决定了企业的投资决策.现今已经有大量考查外部资金可得性对投资决策的影响的实证资料（可参考，例如Fazzari（1998）、 Hoshi(1991)、 Chapman（1996）、Samuel(1998））.大多数研究结果表明金融变量例如现金流量有助于解释企业的投资水平。
这项研究结果解释表明企业投资受限于外部资金的可得性。
很多模型强调运行正常的金融中介和金融市场有助于改善信息不对称和交易成本，减缓不对称问题,从而促使储蓄资金投着长期和高回报的项目,并且提高资源的有效配置（参看Levine（1997)的评论文章）。
因而我们预期用于更加发达的金融体制的国家的企业将更容易获得外部融资.几位学者已经指出建立企业和金融中介机构可进一步缓解金融市场摩擦。
毕业论文 外文文献
毕业论文外文文献毕业论文外文文献随着全球化的发展和信息技术的迅猛进步，外文文献在学术研究中扮演着重要的角色。
对于撰写毕业论文来说，外文文献的引用和参考是必不可少的。
本文将探讨外文文献在毕业论文中的重要性以及如何有效地利用外文文献进行研究。
首先，外文文献在毕业论文中的重要性不言而喻。
毕业论文是学生在大学期间最重要的研究项目之一，是对所学知识的综合应用和创新能力的体现。
而外文文献作为国际学术界的重要资源，可以为研究者提供最新的研究成果、理论观点和方法论。
通过引用外文文献，可以增强毕业论文的学术性和权威性，提高研究水平和质量。
其次，如何有效地利用外文文献进行研究是撰写毕业论文的关键。
首先，要选择合适的外文文献。
在选择外文文献时，应根据研究课题的特点和需求，选择与之相关的文献。
同时，要注意选择具有权威性和可信度的文献，避免引用低质量或不可靠的文献。
其次，要善于阅读和理解外文文献。
外文文献通常使用英语或其他外语撰写，对于非英语专业的学生来说，阅读和理解外文文献可能存在一定的困难。
因此，研究者应提前做好相关的语言准备，掌握基本的外语阅读技巧和方法。
同时，可以借助翻译工具或请教专业人士的帮助，确保对外文文献的准确理解。
此外，要善于提取和整理外文文献中的信息。
阅读外文文献时，要有目的地提取和整理其中的关键信息，包括研究目的、方法、结果和结论等。
可以使用笔记本或电子工具进行记录和整理，以便后续的论文写作和引用。
最后，要合理引用和参考外文文献。
在毕业论文中引用外文文献时，应遵循学术规范和引用格式的要求，确保引用的准确性和规范性。
同时，要注明引用文献的出处和作者，以避免抄袭和知识盗用的问题。
此外，还可以通过参考文献的引用，为自己的研究提供更多的支持和论证。
综上所述，外文文献在毕业论文中的重要性不可忽视。
通过合理利用外文文献，可以提高研究的深度和广度，增强论文的学术性和权威性。
因此，学生在撰写毕业论文时，应注重外文文献的引用和参考，善于利用外文文献进行研究，以提高论文的质量和水平。
外文文献分享
外文文献分享标题：外文文献分享：探索火星上的生命迹象引言：火星一直被视为人类未来的居住地，但是关于火星上是否存在生命的问题一直备受争议。
本文分享一篇关于探索火星上生命迹象的外文文献，带您一起进入这个神秘的世界。
I. 火星：人类探索的新目标自从人类第一次登陆月球以来，我们的目光便开始投向更远的星球，火星成为了新的探索目标。
火星表面的地貌特征以及存在的水冰构成了科学家们研究生命存在的基础。
II. 火星上的液态水证据外文文献中指出，火星上存在液态水的证据。
通过探测器拍摄到的图像显示，火星表面的某些区域呈现出流动的痕迹，这被认为是液态水的迹象。
这一发现引发了科学家们对火星上是否存在生命的更大疑问。
III. 火星土壤中的有机物外文文献还提到了火星土壤中发现的有机物。
探测器在火星表面采集的样本中发现了一些有机化合物的存在。
这些有机物被认为是生命存在的重要标志之一，这进一步增加了火星可能存在生命的可能性。
IV. 火星上的微生物化石外文文献中还提到了火星表面发现的微生物化石的可能性。
科学家们认为，火星上的水和有机物的存在为微生物生存提供了可能性。
探测器在火星土壤中观察到了一些微小结构，这被认为可能是微生物化石的迹象。
V. 未来的探索计划外文文献中还提及了未来探索火星的计划。
科学家们计划派遣更多的探测器和甚至是人类登陆火星，以进一步研究火星上的生命存在与发展。
这些计划将帮助我们更好地了解火星的生命历史和未来的可居住性。
结论：通过这篇外文文献的分享，我们了解到了火星上的生命迹象的研究进展。
虽然还没有确凿的证据证明火星上存在生命，但是液态水、有机物和微生物化石的发现都使科学家们相信火星上可能存在生命。
未来的探索计划将进一步揭示这个谜团，带给人类更多关于宇宙中生命的惊喜。
毕业论文的外文文献
毕业论文的外文文献毕业论文的外文文献在撰写毕业论文时，外文文献的引用和参考是不可或缺的一部分。
外文文献提供了国际学术界的最新研究成果和观点，对于论文的深度和广度都起到了重要的推动作用。
本文将探讨毕业论文中外文文献的重要性以及如何有效引用和使用。
首先，外文文献在毕业论文中的重要性不言而喻。
随着全球化的发展，学术界的研究成果越来越国际化。
通过引用外文文献，我们可以了解到国际学术界对于某一领域的最新研究进展和观点，从而使我们的论文更加全面和具有说服力。
外文文献还可以为我们提供一些新的研究方法和理论框架，帮助我们拓展研究思路，提升论文的学术水平。
其次，如何有效引用和使用外文文献也是我们需要关注的问题。
首先，我们需要选择合适的外文文献。
在选择外文文献时，我们应该注重其权威性和可靠性。
一些知名的学术期刊和会议论文集是我们获取高质量外文文献的重要途径。
其次，我们需要理解和掌握外文文献的内容。
阅读外文文献可能会面临语言障碍，但我们可以通过查阅词典、翻译工具以及与他人的讨论来克服这一困难。
理解外文文献的内容是有效引用和使用的前提。
最后，我们需要在论文中恰当地引用外文文献。
引用外文文献时，我们应该注明作者、题目、出版年份等信息，并在参考文献列表中列出完整的引用信息。
同时，我们还应该注意避免过度引用外文文献，以免论文显得过于依赖他人的研究成果而缺乏创新性。
除了以上的一些基本要求之外，我们还可以通过一些技巧和策略来更好地利用外文文献。
首先，我们可以通过引用外文文献来支持自己的观点和论证。
外文文献往往能够提供更多的证据和数据，从而增强我们的论点的可信度。
其次，我们可以通过对比和分析多个外文文献的观点来得出自己的结论。
不同的学者和研究者可能对同一个问题有不同的看法和解释，我们可以通过比较和综合不同的观点来得出自己的独立见解。
此外，我们还可以通过对外文文献的引用来扩大论文的国际影响力。
一些知名的外文文献的引用可以为我们的论文增加学术声望和影响力，提升我们的研究的知名度。
外文文献评语
外文文献评语外文文献评语是对某篇外文文献进行评论和分析的内容，主要包括对文献的质量、观点、方法、结论等方面的评述。
以下是示范性的外文文献评语，供参考：Title: "The Impact of Climate Change on Biodiversity"This article provides a comprehensive analysis of the impact of climate change on biodiversity. The authors present a solid review of existing literature on the subject and highlight the major findings in this field. The paper is well-structured and covers a range of key aspects, including the effects of rising temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and sea-level rise on various ecosystems.The authors have effectively summarized the current state of scientific knowledge in this area and have provided a clear and concise overview of how climate change is affecting biodiversity. They have made good use of figures and tables to illustrate their main points and have included a comprehensive reference list at the end, which further enhances the reliability and credibility of the article.One of the strengths of this paper is the authors' thorough analysis of the underlying mechanisms through which climate change influences biodiversity. They have presented compelling evidence for the direct and indirect impacts of climate change on species distribution, population dynamics, and ecosystem functioning. The discussion of potential management strategies and conservationmeasures is particularly valuable, as it highlights the need for proactive adaptation in the face of ongoing climate change.However, while the paper is generally well-written, there are a few areas that could be further improved. The authors could have provided more specific examples and case studies to support their arguments and make the content more relatable to readers. Additionally, some sections of the article could benefit from a more critical analysis of the limitations and uncertainties in the research, as this would enhance the overall robustness of their findings.In conclusion, this article makes a significant contribution to the field of climate change biology. It provides a comprehensive overview of the impacts of climate change on biodiversity and offers insights into potential management approaches. With some minor revisions and additions, this paper has the potential to be an even more valuable resource for researchers, policymakers, and conservation practitioners seeking a better understanding of the complex relationship between climate change and biodiversity.。
外文文献的导出方法
外文文献的导出方法
外文文献的导出方法可以使用多种工具和平台，包括在线数据库、文献管理软件和浏览器插件等。
1. 在线数据库：许多在线数据库（如PubMed、Web of Science 和Google Scholar）允许用户通过导出功能直接将文献保存为电子
文件或引用格式。
用户可以选择使用标准引用格式（如APA或MLA）或指定自定义格式。
2. 文献管理软件：文献管理软件（如EndNote、Mendeley和Zotero）可以帮助用户收集、组织和管理文献。
这些软件通常包括导出功能，允许用户将文献导出为多种引用格式，以及进行批量导出。
3. 浏览器插件：有些浏览器插件（如Unpaywall和Open Access Button）可以帮助用户找到免费的全文或预印本，同时提供导出功能，以便将文献保存到计算机或文献管理软件中。
总之，外文文献的导出方法应根据具体需求选择合适的工具和平台，以便高效地管理和保存文献。
- 1 -。
外文文献的引用格式
外文文献的引用格式一、APA格式1. 文献列表作者姓，名字首字母.（出版年份）. 文献. 期刊名称，卷号（期号），页码范围。
例如：Smith, J. (2020). The impact of climate change on biodiversity. Journal of Environmental Science, 35(2), 123145.2. 引用在中引用文献时，需要在相应内容后加上作者姓氏和出版年份，用括号括起来。
例如：According to Smith (2020), climate change has asignificant impact on biodiversity.二、MLA格式1. 文献列表作者姓，名字首字母. “文献.” 期刊名称，卷号（期号），页码范围，出版年份。
例如：Smith, J. “The impact of climate change on biodiversity.” Journal of Environmental Science 35, no. 2 (2020): 123145.2. 引用在中引用文献时，需要在相应内容后加上作者姓氏和页码，用括号括起来。
例如：According to Smith (123), climate change has asignificant impact on biodiversity.三、Chicago格式Chicago格式是美国芝加哥大学推荐的引用格式，广泛应用于历史、艺术、哲学等领域。
Chicago格式有两种引用方式：脚注和尾注。
具体格式如下：1. 脚注/尾注作者姓，名字首字母. 文献. 期刊名称，卷号（期号），页码范围，出版年份.例如：Smith, J. “The impact of climate change on biodiversity.” Journal of Environmental Science 35, no. 2 (2020): 123145.2. 引用在中引用文献时，需要在相应内容后加上脚注或尾注编号，如：1。
外文参考文献及翻译稿的要求与格式
百度文库- 让每个人平等地提升自我！外文参考文献及翻译稿的要求及格式一、外文参考文献的要求1、外文原稿应与本研究项目接近或相关联；2、外文原稿可选择相关文章或节选章节，正文字数不少于1500字。
3、格式：外文文献左上角标注“外文参考资料”字样，小四宋体。
1.5倍行距。
标题：三号，Times New Roman字体加粗，居中，行距1.5倍。
段前段后空一行。
作者（居中）及正文：小四号，Times New Roman字体，首行空2字符。
4、A4纸统一打印。
二、中文翻译稿1、中文翻译稿要与外文文献匹配，翻译要正确；2、中文翻译稿另起一页；3、格式：左上角标“中文译文”，小四宋体。
标题：宋体三号加粗居中，行距1.5倍。
段前、段后空一行。
作者（居中）及正文：小四号宋体，数字等Times New Roman字体，1.5倍行距，首行空2字符。
正文字数1500左右。
4、A4纸统一打印。
格式范例如后所示。
百度文库 - 让每个人平等地提升自我！外文参考文献Implementation of internal controls of small andmedium-sized pow erStephen Ryan The enterprise internal control carries out the strength to refer to the enterprise internal control system execution ability and dynamics, it is the one whole set behavior and the technical system, is unique competitive advantage which the enterprise has; Is a series of …………………………标题：三号，Times New Roman字体加粗，居中，行距1.5倍。
英文文献参考文献引用格式
英文文献参考文献引用格式英文文献的参考文献引用格式可以根据不同的学术领域和出版机构的要求有所不同。
以下是一般常见的几种引用格式：1. MLA格式（现代语言协会格式）：作者姓氏，作者名字。
文章标题。
期刊名称，卷号，期号，出版年份，页码范围。
例如：Smith, John. "The Impact of Climate Change on Biodiversity." Environmental Science Journal, vol. 25, no. 3, 2020, pp. 45-60.2. APA格式（美国心理学协会格式）：作者姓氏，作者名字（出版年份）。
文章标题。
期刊名称，卷号（期号），页码范围。
例如：Smith, J. (2020). The Impact of Climate Change on Biodiversity. Environmental Science Journal, 25(3), 45-60.3. Chicago格式（芝加哥格式）：作者姓氏，作者名字。
"文章标题。
" 期刊名称卷号，期号（出版年份），页码范围。
例如：Smith, John. "The Impact of Climate Change on Biodiversity." Environmental Science Journal 25, no. 3 (2020): 45-60.4. IEEE格式（电气和电子工程师协会格式）：作者名字，作者姓氏. "文章标题." 期刊名称，卷号，期号，页码范围，出版年份.例如：J. Smith, "The Impact of Climate Change on Biodiversity," Environmental Science Journal, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 45-60, 2020.请注意，以上仅为常见的几种引用格式示例，具体引用格式还应根据所使用的学术领域和出版机构的要求进行调整。
外文文献原文
Psychrophilic microorganisms as important source for biotechnological processes1 IntroductionThe major parts of Earth’s environments are cold and have temperatures below 5 C(Gounot 1999; Russell and Cowan 2005). About 70% of the freshwater is ice and about 14% from the Earth’s biosphere is represented by terrestrial and aquatic polar areas (Priscu and Christner 2004). The depth of the oceans, the poles, and high mountains are themost important cold regions on Earth (Russell and Cowan 2005). Global ice, for example, covers 6.5 million km2 which increases to 14.4 million km2 in wintertime (Perovich et al. 2002). Here we can meet representatives from all domains of the living world. Two categories of microorganisms were discovered in such cold environments. First, the psychrophiles with an optimum growth temperature of about 15C or even less, which cannot grow above 20C (Moyer and Morita 2007); second, the psychrotolerants with an optimum growth temperature of 20–30C, which are able to grow and exhibit activity at temperatures close to the freezing point of water (Madigan and Jung 2003). Th e lowest temperature for life’s activities is 20C under certain defined conditions (Rivkina et al. 2000; Gilichinsky 2002; D’Amico et al. 2006); others consider the temp erature limits for reproduction as 12C and for metabolism as20C (Bakermans 2008). Colwellia psychrerythraea strain 34H is motile at 10C, as observed by transmitted light microscopy (Junge et al. 2003). Psychrophilic microorganisms are dominant in permanently cold environments such as Antarctic waters and have important roles in the biogeochemical cycles in the polar zones (Helmke and Weyland 2004). Not only are prokaryotes adapted to the cold, but also are many eukaryotes such as algae (Takeuchi and Kohshima 2004) and macroorgan isms from crustaceans to fishes. The present work will focus on prokaryotes and some microscopic eukaryotes of biotechnological importance.2 Diversity of cold-adapted microorganismsThe psychrophilic and psychrotolerant microorganisms belong to all three of life’s principal domains, Archaea, Bacteria and Eukarya. It is interesting to note that viruses are omnipresent and even so in those inhospitable places. Viruses from the families Podoviridae, Siphoviridae, and Myoviridae were identified in cold environ ments (Wells 2008). Bacteriophages were identified i n inner polar waters and in ice(S€ awstr€ om et al. 2007) infecting psychrophilic mic roorganisms; for example, phage 9A of Colwellia psychrerythrea strain 34 is capable of forming plaques at low temperatures, but not at 13C (Wells 2008).Archaea found in cold environments are methanogens for example, from genera Methanogenium,Methanococcoides andMethanosarcina, but halophilic (Halorubrum) and other strains can also occur (Cavicchioli 2006).Bacteria. The majority of isolates from polar areas belong to the groups of Beta-, Gamma-, Delta-Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Acidobacteria, the Cytophaga–Flexi-bacter–Bacteroides group, and green nonsulfur bacteria. Many strains of Bacteria as well as Archaea and Eukarya were revealed by 16S rRNA and 18S rRNA gene clone libraries (Tian et al. 2009). Soils of the McMurdo Dry Valleyshost species of Pseudonocardia, Nocardioides, Geodermatophilus, Modestobacter, Sporichthya and Streptomyces (Babalola et al. 2008). Cyanobacteria as photoautotrophs were retrieved from ice, soils, rocks, lakes, ponds, marine ecosystems, and alpine areas(Zakhia et al. 2008). Chamaesiphon sp., Chroococcidiopsis (from sandstone) and Synechococcus sp. (from lakes, marine water, and others) are examples of cyano-bacterial genera with cold-adapted strains. Algae. Species of Chlamydomonas were retrieved from water derived from melting glacier ice and from some layer species of Rhodomonas and Chromulina. Species of Tribonemataceae were found in Antarctic terrestrial environments (Rybalka et al. 2008). Several microalgae can be found in all known cold environments as in snow (Chlamydomonas and Chloromonas), seawater (diatoms), sea ice (diatoms and dinoflagellates), on rocks as endoliths (Hemichloris antarctica), ice-covered lakes (Chloromonas sp., Chlamydomonas intermedia, and Chlamydomonas raudensis) and at high altitudes (reviewed by Mock and Thomas 2008). Samples from the Tyndall Glacier in Patagonia, Chile contained algal species of the genera Mesotaenium, Cylindrocystis, Ancylonema, Closterium, Chloromonas, and some cyanobacteria (Takeuchi and Kohshima 2004).Yeasts. Yeast strains such as Sporobolomyces, Cryptococcus, and Rhodotorula sp. Were isolated from Lake Vanda (Goto et al. 1969) and from other Antarctic and alpine environments, including psychrophilic yeasts such as the novel species Mrakia robertii, M. blollopis, and M. niccombsi (Thomas-Hall et al. 2010). Several yeasts, which are producers of lipases and proteases, were isolated from cold marine water and freshwater (Rashidah et al. 2007), such as Cryptococcus antarcticus and Cryptococcus albidosimilis, Basidioblastomycetes (Vishniac and Kurtzman 1992), Cryptococcus nyarrowii (Thomas-Hall and Watson 2002), Cryptococcus watticus (Guffogg et al. 2004), and Leucosporidium antarcticum – the latter from Antarctic waters (Turkiewicz et al. 2005) – and Mrakia strains (Thomas-Hall et al. 2010). Fungi were isolated from many cold environments. For example, Penicillium, Aspergillus, Paecilomyces, Cladosporium, Mortierella, Candida, and Rhodotorula were isolated from soils of Terra Nova Bay and Edmonson Point, Antarctica (Gesheva 2009). Some authors described isolates fromsoils, such as Chrysosporium sp., Phoma exigua, Heterocephalum aurantiacum, Aureobasidium pullulans, Fusarium oxysporum, Trichoderma viride, and Penicillium antarcticum (Negoiţă et al. 2001a). Fromthe soils of Schirmacher Oasis, Antarctica, fungi such as Acremonium, Aspergillus, and Penicillium were isolated, the majority surviving as spores in those harsh environments, and some species possess unique features of theirmycelia (Singh et al. 2006). Frisvad (2008b) reviewed the fungi from cold ecosystems and indicated their isolation from soils and permafrost, caves, rocks, mosses and lichens, glacier ice, freshwater, as well as from frozen foods. The fungi belong to the Ascomycetes (Acremonium antarcticum, A. psychrophilum, and Penicillium antarcticum), Zygomy- cetes (Mortierella alpina and Absidia psychrophila) and basidiomycetous yeasts, which are very rare in cold areas. Endolithic fungi resistant to low temperature and low water activity were isolated by Onofri et al. (2007).3 Ecology and biologySome of the microorganisms are polyextremophiles, for example halo-psychrophiles, or piezo-psychrophiles, which tolerate high pressure (Nogi 2008) and cannot grow at atmospheric pressure and at temperatures above 20C, such as strains of Shewanella, Colwellia, Moritella, and Psychromonas. In these categories all the physiological and metabolic types can be found –anaerobes and aerobes, methanogens, methanotrophs, chemolithotrophs, sulfate reducers, and organotrophs. Anaerobic cold-adapted Clostridium sp. (e.g., C. frigoris, C. bowmannii, and C. psychrophilum) were isolated from Antarctic microbial mats (Spring et al. 2003) or some psychrotolerants, such as C. frigidicarnis and C. algidixylanolyticum, from frozen products (Finster 2008). Sulfate-reducing psychrophiles Desulfotalea, Desulfofaba, and Desulfofrigus (Knoblauch et al. 1999), sulfur-oxidizing bacteria (SOB), occurring in such organic carbon depleted environments as subglacial waters (Sattley and Madigan 2006), as well as denitrifying microorganisms in sea ice (Rysgaard et al. 2008) were found. Ammonia oxidizers were identified by geneticmethods in all of the samples taken from lakes Fryxell, Bonney, Hoare, Joyce, and Vanda in Antarctica, belonging to the Proteobacteria (V oytek et al. 1999). Aceto- genic bacterial sequences originating fromAcetobacterium tundrae and others related to Acetobacterium bakii (Sattley andMadigan 2007) were isolated fromsediments of Lake Fryxell. From the same lake different phototrophic purple bacteria were iden tified with molecular methods (Karr et al. 2003) as well as methanogenic and other Archaea (Karr et al. 2006). Biological methane oxidation and sulfate reduction by Archaea occur in alpine lakes (such as Lake Lugano deeps) in anoxic zones (Blees et al. 2010). Methanogens were detected in soils, water sediments, sea and lake waters from cold environments (Cavicchioli 2006). Methanotrophy was detected indirectly in Lake Untersee (Antarctica) by ide ntification of hopanoids and two steroids (4-methyl steroid and 4,4-dimethyl steroid), one hopanoid (diplopterol) having a specific low isotopic 13C content, and originating from the aerobic methylotroph Methylococcus sp. (Niemann et al. 2010). Some Shewanella and Pseudomonas strains from Antarctic lakes are able to mediate redox reactions of manganese under stimulation by Co and Ni (Krishnan et al. 2009).4 Cold environments Cold deserts.There are cold deserts in Antarctica where the precipitation is very low, the temperatures range between 55C and 10C, UV radiation is high and water activity is low; these are some of the most extreme environments on Earth. Many microorganisms can be found in endolithic communities composed of cyanobacteria such as Acaryochloris marina and Gloeocapsa speci es (de los Rıos et al. 2007). Endolithic bacteria, fungi, archaea, green algae, yeasts, and lichens were found in McMurdoDry Valley (Gounot 1999), analyzed by staining with the BacLight LIVE/ DEAD kit and observed with confocal laser scanning microscopy to demonstrate their survival (Wierzchos et al. 2004).Soils covered with snow. From Arctic wetland soil methanotrophic bacteria were retrieved such as Methylocystis rosea (Wartiainen et al. 2006). In soils of Lapland microbial communities were discovered, similarly as in soils from alpine zones, where the temperatures can reach 25C in wintertime. Inaddition, soils from Spitsbergen contained many fungi such as Mucor, Mortierella, Alternaria, Fusarium, and Zygorrhinchus (Negoiţă et al. 2001b),genera which are very probably psychrotolerants.Permafrost. Permafrost soils in the geological sense stay below 0C for two consecutive years or more and are specific for arctic areas covering about 26% of the surface of the Northern Hemisphere. The average temperature is 16C; in Siberia 11C and in Antarctica 18Cto 27C were measured (V orobyovaet al. 1997). From those soils over 100 bacterial strains were isolated, also some methanogenic archaea from the families Methanomicrobiaceae, Methanosarcina-ceae,and Methanosetaceae (Ganzert et al. 2007), methane oxydizing bacteria (Liebner and Wagner 2007), sulfate-reducing bacteria, aerobic and anaerobic heterotrophs (Gilichinsky 2002), denitrifiers, and iron and sulfate reducers (Rivkina et al. 1998). The majority of strains included species of Micrococcus, Bacillus, Paenibacillus, Rhodococcus, Arthrobacter, Haloarcula,and Halobaculum (Steven et al. 2007), which were isolated in quantities of 107–109 cells per gram of dry soil. From layers of permafrost which were demonstrated to be about 3–5million years old, viable cells of bacteria were isolated (Rodrigues-Diaz et al. 2008), which have to face low temperatures and natural irradiation by radionuclides (Gilichinsky et al. 2008). From a layer of an arctic permafrost ice wedge from Canada (temperature 17.5C, pH 6.5, salt concentration 14.6 g/l, age about 25,000 years) bacteria were isolated (Katayama et al. 2007) belonging to the classes Actinobacteria and Gamma-Proteobacteria.Snow, ice, and glaciers. The ice glaciers in Antarctica contain approximately 90% of the ice of our planet according to the National Snow and Ice Data Centre of USA (/, cited by Christner et al. 2008). Some aspects of the soils covered partially with ice on the shore of the Antarctic sea are shown in Figs. 1 and 2. Sea and lake ice glaciers are hosting considerable quantities of biological material, consistingof microorganisms, bacteria, spores, and pollen grains, the majority being transported there by air. The microbiota can survive in crevices and capillary tunnels containing concentrated ionic solutions with a lower freezing point (Price 2006). The number of viable microorganisms decreases with the depth of the ice layers; there is a supraglacial community (bacteria, viruses, diatoms, tardigrades, and rotifers), a subglacial community (aerobic and anaerobic) and an endoglacial community (Hodson et al. 2008). Hollibaugh et al. (2007) studied the Sea Ice Microbial Community (SIMCO) formed of bacteria, algae, and fungi of various metabolic types: sulfate reducers, chemolithotrophs, methanogens, anaerobic nitrate reducers (Skidmore et al. 2000), and viruses (Deming 2007). In ice there is an incredible diversity of Proteobacteria, of the phylum Cytophaga–Flavobacterium–Bacteriodes, highGCGrampositives and lowGCGrampositives (Miteva 2008), and a large metabolic and physiological diversity. Some of them were entrapped for very long periods of time, such as the strain Herminimonas glaciei, a Gram-negative ultramicrobacterium, which was isolated from a 3042m deep drilling core from a Greenland glacier of about 120,000-year-old ice (Loveland-Curtze et al. 2009), orChryseobacterium greenlandense (Loveland-Curtze et al. 2010) and sequences from Pseudomonas and Acinetobacter, which stem from 750,000-year-old ice from the Qinghan-Tibetan plateau in Western China (Christner et al. 2003a). Many prokaryotes isolated from snow melt water belong to the Beta-Proteobacteria (21.3%), Sphingobacteria (16.4%), Flavobacteria (9.0%), Acidobacteria (7.7%), and Alpha-Proteobacteria (6.5%) and other groups (Larose et al. 2010). The cryoconite holes form another microhabitat containing various forms of life, such as diatoms, algae, prokaryotes, fungi, rotifers, and tardigrades (Wharton et al. 1985; Christner et al. 2003b).Cold caves. Caves represent a constant temperature environment with low organic content, sometimes only 1mg of organic matter per liter. Some strains are chemolithotrophs such as Galionella. In many cases there are more psychrotolerants than psychrotrophs. Some stenothermic bacterial strains were isolated which can grow at 10–20C and only few which grow at 2Cor28C (Gounot 1999). The strain Arthrobacter psychrophenolicum was isolated from an Austrian ice cave (Margesin et al. 2004). Cold lakes. The cold lakes in the polar and alpine zones can be covered with an ice layer (Antarctic lakes), which practically isolates the lake from the rest of the environment, and their content of organic carbon and oxygen is rather low. Christner et al. (2008) pointed out in their comprehensive review that there are 141 subglacial Antarctic lakes having a total volume of about 10,000 km3 . One of the largest lakes is Lake V ostok of 14,000 km2, covered by a 4000m thick ice sheet and being 400–800m deep. The bottom is covered with a thick sediment layer. The temperature of the ice layer is about 55C, but the lake has a constant temperatureof 2.65C (Di Prisco 2007); the ice layer is about 15million years old. Alpine lakesare only temporarily covered by ice and the microbiota there are subject to seasonal fluctuations (Pernthaler et al. 1998). The cold Antarctic lake environment is chemically driven, with reactions such as sulfid e and iron oxidation (Christner et al. 2008), and contains methanogens such asMethanosarcina,Methanoculleus, and anoxic methanotrophs (Karr et al. 2006). The saline lakes host euryhalophiles related to Halomonas and Marinobacter (Naganuma et al. 2005).Cold marine waters. From marine waters of Ushuaia, a sub-Antarctic town in Argentina, many sequences were iden tified b elonging to the Alpha- and Gam- ma-Proteobacteria, Cytophaga–Flavobacterium–Bacteroidetes group, the genera Mar- inomonas, Colwellia, Cytophaga, Glacieola, Cellulophaga, Roseobacter, Staleya, Sulfitobacter, Psychrobacter, Polaribacter, Ulvibacter, Tenacibacter, Arcobacter, and Formosa (Prabagaran et al. 2007). In the depth of the ocean the temperature is about 3 C, and a considerable pressure exists (the pressure increases by 1 atm per each 10m of depth). Here a very diverse bacterial community can be retrieved, for example, from the sediments of the Japanese Trench (Hamamoto 1993). From the deep sediments were, all the domains of life are represented, an important microbiota was identified by molecular methods (Tian et al. 2009). The archaeal sequences can reach 17% from total microbiota in marine coastal waters (Murray et al. 1998).Sulfate-reducing bacteria form a large community in sediments of the Arctic ocean, being active at about 2.6 C with a sulfate reduction rate similar to that under mesophilic conditions (Knoblauch et al. 1999).Anthropic cold environments. Artificial cool ing and freezing systems can be visualized as man-made environments. Pseudomonas fluorescens is one of the lipolytic food spoiling bacteria which is active in the cold, and its hydrolytic activity at low temperatures was studied as a function of water activity (Andersson et al. 1979). The lower temperatures and lower water activity did not affect the enzymatic activity since the substrates were hydrophobic. In cooling devices the bacterium Pseudomonas fragi is frequently found, which is supported by temperatures between 2Cand35C; it possesses some cold shock proteins (Csps) and degrades frozen foods. Another bacterium from water-cooling systems is Chryseobacterium aquifrigidense (Park et al. 2008). The psychrophilic strain Lactobacillus algidus was isolated from refrigerated, packed beef meat (Kato et al. 2000).Air. From the Antarctic continent air several psychrotolerant microorganisms were isolated, such as Sphingomonas aurantiaca, Sphingomonas aerolata, and Sphingomonasfaeni sp. nov. (Busse et al. 2003).5 Adaptation to cold environmentsGrowth and activity. The temperature has a direct influence on microbial gro wth and the relationship between growth and temperature generally conforms to the Arrhenius law (Gounot 1999). Christner (2002) reported the incorporation of DNA and protein precursors by Arthrobacter and Psychrobacter at 15C. Polaromonas hydrogenivorans has a lower temperature limit of 0C for growth (Sizova and Panikov 2007), and psychrophilic methanotrophs can grow at about2C (Liebner and Wagner 2007). The psychrophilic strain Psychromonas ingrahami showed growth at 12C with a slow rate of 10 days of generation time (Breezee et al. 2004). The activity of microorganisms was proven by measurement of ATP as a result of biomass activity in soils and permafrost (Cowan and Casanueva 2007); truly psychrophilic microorganisms showed an increase of the ATP content at lower temperatures, which is the opposite reaction of mesophiles (Napolitano and Shain 2004). Other information can be obtained by determina- tion of the Indicator of Enzymatic Soil Activity Potential, the Indicator of Vital Activity Potential, and Biologic Synthetic Indicato r (Negoiţă et al. 2001b). These indicators were introduced by ¸Stefanic (1994) in order to obtain comprehensive information about the biological activity of soils and to compare them for agricultural uses.Membrane polar lipids. There are differences regarding the composition of mem- brane lipids and there are clear contributions to cold adaptation, depending also on bacterial taxonomy. The cytoplasmic membrane contains lipids with fatty acids of lengths ranging mainly between C14 and C18 Gram negatives possess in addition an outer membrane containing lipopolysaccharides, Archaea contain ether-linked glycerol alkyl lipids instead of fatty acids, and eukaryotes contain sterols (Russell 2008). Membrane fluidity depends on the degree of saturation of the polar lipids; the membranes from psychrophiles contain a higher amount of unsaturated and/orpolyunsaturated and branched fatty acids, with methyl groups and a largerpercentage of double bonds of the cis type (Chintalapati et al. 2004). The changes in amount and type of methyl-branched fatty acids of Gram-positive bacteria are a possibility for increasing membrane fluidity at low temperatures. The amount of unsaturated fatty acids contributes to the flexibili ty of the membrane structure in cold-adapted microorganisms, including eukaryotic photobionts such as diatoms and algae (Morgan-Kiss et al. 2006). The presence of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) does not completely explain the adaptation to cold environments, because there are many marine strains without them (Russell and Nichols 1999). Archaeal adaptation to the cold shows a similar increase in desaturation of their isoprenoids containing lipids; Methanococcoides burtoni for example generates unsaturated lipids during growth at low temperatures by selective saturation and not by using a desaturase such as bacteria (Cavicchioli 2006). The proteome. Cold-adapted bacterial proteins have a reduced amount of arginine, glutamic acids, and proline (salt bridge forming residues) and reduced amounts of hydrophobic clusters (Grzymski et al. 2006). A comparison of the contents of amino acids of psychrophilic enzymes was made by Gianese et al. (2001); they found that generally Arg and Glu residues in the exposed sites of alpha helices were replaced by Lys and Ala in psychrophiles. Studying the crystal structure of the b-lactamase from several psychrophilic strains (P. fluorescens and othe rs) some authors found that the enzymes from psychrophiles have a lower content of arginine in comparison with lysine and a lower proline content than mesophilic enzymes (Michaux et al. 2008). The lysine residues are of great importance for the cold adaptation mechanism in enzymes, for example in a-amylase from Pseudoalteromonas haloplanktis (Siddiqui et al. 2006). A similar replacement is observed with Archaea having a higher content of noncharged amino acids (as glutamine and threonine) and lower contents of hydrophobic amino acids such as leucine (Cavicchioli 2006). At the same time the number of hydrogen bonds (Michaux et al. 2008) and the number of disulfide bridges are reduced (Sælensminde et al. 2009). The cellulase Cel5G from P. haloplanktis possesses a catalytic domain and a carbohydrate-binding domain which are joined by a long-linker region containing three loops closed by disulfide bridges. By experimental shortening of this linker region, the enzyme became less flexible approaching the activity of its mesphilic counterpart, which suggested that a long-linker region is an appropriate adaptation of this enzyme to low temperates (Sonan et al. 2007). Studying the thermal adaptations of psychrophilic, mesophilic and thermophilic DNA ligases, the conclusion was that “the active site of the cold- enzyme is destabilized by an excess of hydrophobic surfaces and contains a decreased number of charged residues compared with its thermophilic counterpart” (Georlette et al. 2003). The proteinsmust keep a balance between their stability and。
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毕业论文材料：英文文献及译文 课题名称： 中小企业品牌战略研究
专 业 楷体_GB2312 三号 学 生 姓 名 班 级 学 号 指 导 教 师 专业系主任 完 成 日 期 二零一六年一月 1
Russian Accession To The WTO On China Textile Trade Impact DAVID E. MILLS Texdaily/ Dec /2006
on November 19,2006,Russia and the United States signed a bilateral agreement Russia, after years of efforts, Russia's accession to the WTO on the road to finally remove the greatest obstacle,if all goes well, the year 2007 is expected to become Russia's WTO membership. Textiles are China and Russia (Soviet Union) trade in traditional commodities, and China's main export commodities one. But after the breakup of the Soviet Union, by Russia gray customs clearance and other factors, the bilateral textile trade has been in chaos, I most large enterprises entered, the self-employed and SMEs to take a lead-ing role in Russia's business interests insecurity, commodities poor reputation. Russia's accession to the WTO,trade environment willbe improved, I brought large enterprises to enter the dawn. A Sino-Russian textile trade status Russian textile exports is one of the major markets, with the accelerated pace of Russia's accession to the WTO, I saw a big fluctuations. According to customs statistics, in 2005 the Sino-Russian trade volume of textiles and garments to 6.218 billion US dollars, an increase of 35%. Within this total, China's exports to 6.213 billion US dollars, increasing by 35.4% and imports 4.8 million US dollars, down 21.6%.China's textile exports to Russia 47% of the total. In 2006, bilateral trade has witnessed rapid growth runs counter to the trend, the bilateral textile trade has been a substantial drop49.8 billion dollars, a drop of 19.9%, basic for China's exports. Chinese exports to Russia share has dropped to 32%. Russia in 2005 from my first five largest export market retreated No. 7. 2, Russia textile trade the main problems (1)Gray clearance Gray clearance of the Chinese textile and apparel trade disorder causes. This directly caused the main issues include : One, in the interests of the Russian Chamber can not be guaranteed. The absence of legitimate goods clearance certificates, making the Russian Chamber of Trade as powerful departments arbitrary raids targeted heavy losses.2, the two sides statistics, the differences do not reflect the actual trade. According to Russian experts estimated that will take about a year Russia imported 15 billion US dollars of textiles and garments to meet demand on the domestic market. Russian customs statistics, in 2005 the import statistics only 1.23 billion US dollars, of which 800 million US dollars clothing, and all the imports from 2
China, imports from other countries failing basic statistics. From January to September 2006, imports of textiles and garments 1.23 billion US dollars (1 billion US dollars clothing). 3, large Chinese enterprises can not directly enter the Russian market. Lack of foreign exchange reserves and Russia's trade environment triggered worry about the market risk, and large enterprises mostly through cross-border trade, wholesale, in Russia, or through the self-employed sales, has been unable to become a bilateral textile trade mainstay. 4, commodities credibility been affected. Because no legitimate clearance certificates, the only Chinese textile products on the market, can not enter the store or conventional malls. , Is often branded as the "smuggling goods" in the hat. Leading Chinese goods on the image and credibility has not high. 5, merchants become targeted. In Russia against illegal customs clearance companies, in the course of the Russian Chamber of easily being implicated as an accomplice in the smuggling and the targets to be attacked. (2) Russia's unilateral actions have resulted in my training partner, 2006 accompanied Putin on the training of the judiciary and the WTO intensified the pace Russia to rectify the market order has gradually expanded Show. In 2006, Russia not only in the Moscow region, but also in other regions of the big market for a number of raids. Meanwhile, the replacement of the Director of Customs, Customs officials over a gray customs clearance dropped. Due to the normal clearance impeded, irregular clearance adds another surface, leading to direct Russian textile trade drop, some traders were forced to Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan by other re-exports.In particular, Russia introduced late last year against foreigners engaged in retail trade policies, the majority of the Russian Chamber of confusion in the future, not to rush into another purchase. (3)Russian accession to the WTO on bilateral textile trade impact Russia's accession to the WTO, the immediate future, China and Russia will bring about some textile trade shocks and fluctuations. The major reasons are : 1，A Russian trade environment has always been States complained that after WTO entry, to rectify the order of operation will be Russia's accession to the WTO after one of the top priorities. 2,The "China threat theory" and "Chinese immigrant" in Russian society and the officials are certain market, and foreigners are prohibited in the market for the wholesale business can be viewed as restrictions on Chinese participation in the Russian economy were the first step further measures taken remains to be seen. 3，Chinese businessmen from the Russian market after the wholesale business, in the short term, both can hardly establish new trade and way to be filled, will lead to direct bilateral textile trade has been shrinking. 4, the Russian Customs policy changes at the implementation of standards throughout. After accession to the WTO will be increased adjustment and restructuring efforts. Foreign enterprises to adapt to the changes in Russian customs needs a certain period. 5, Russia's textile exports to mainly SMEs and the self-employed, in the face of Russia's accession to the WTO after the change, low adaptive capacity of enterprises will be forced to withdraw.