外文翻译2
毕设外文翻译是什么意思(两篇)
引言概述：在现代高等教育中，毕业设计（或称为毕业论文、学士论文等）是学生完成学业的重要环节。
而对于一些特定的专业，例如翻译专业，有时候还需要完成外文翻译这一项任务。
本文将探讨毕设外文翻译的意义和目的，以及为什么对翻译专业的学生而言这一任务极其重要。
正文内容：1.提高翻译能力和技巧外文翻译是一项对翻译专业学生而言十分重要的任务，通过进行外文翻译，学生们可以通过实践提高自己的翻译能力和技巧。
在这个过程中，他们可以学习如何处理不同类型的外文文本，熟悉不同领域的专业术语，并掌握一些常用的翻译技巧和策略。
2.扩展语言和文化知识毕设外文翻译要求学生们对翻译语言的相关知识和背景有一定的了解。
在进行翻译时，学生们需要遵循目标语言的语法规则，并确保所翻译的内容准确、清晰地传达源语言的意义。
通过这一过程，学生们可以进一步扩展自己的语言和文化知识，提高自己的跨文化沟通能力。
3.提供实践机会毕设外文翻译为学生们提供了一个实践的机会，让他们能够将在课堂上所学到的理论知识应用于实际操作中。
通过实践，学生们可以对所学知识的理解更加深入，同时也可以发现并解决实际翻译过程中的问题和挑战。
这对于学生们将来从事翻译工作时具备更好的实践能力和经验具有重要意义。
4.培养翻译专业素养毕设外文翻译要求学生们具备良好的翻译专业素养。
在进行翻译过程中，学生们需要保持专业的态度和责任心，严谨地对待每一个翻译任务。
他们需要学会如何进行翻译质量的评估和控制，以确保最终翻译稿的准确性和流畅性。
这一系列的要求和实践，可以帮助学生们培养出色的翻译专业素养。
5.提升自我学习和研究能力毕设外文翻译要求学生们进行广泛的文献阅读和研究，以便更好地理解所翻译的内容，并找到适当的翻译方法和策略。
在这个过程中，学生们需要培养自己的自主学习和研究能力，提高对学术和专业领域的敏感性，并能够独立思考和解决问题。
这将对学生们未来的学术研究和进一步的职业发展产生积极的影响。
总结：引言概述:毕业设计外文翻译（Thesis Translation）是指在毕业设计过程中，对相关外文文献进行翻译，并将其应用于研究中，以提供理论支持和参考。
外文文献及翻译
外文文献原稿和译文原稿DATABASEA database may be defined as a collection interrelated data store together with as little redundancy as possible to serve one or more applications in an optimal fashion .the data are stored so that they are independent of programs which use the data .A common and controlled approach is used in adding new data and in modifying and retrieving existing data within the data base .One system is said to contain a collection of database if they are entirely separate in structure .A database may be designed for batch processing , real-time processing ,or in-line processing .A data base system involves application program, DBMS, and database.THE INTRODUCTION TO DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMSThe term database is often to describe a collection of related files that is organized into an integrated structure that provides different people varied access to the same data. In many cases this resource is located in different files in different departments throughout the organization, often known only to the individuals who work with their specific portion of the total information. In these cases, the potential value of the information goes unrealized because a person in other departments who may need it does not know it or it cannot be accessed efficiently. In an attempt to organize their information resources and provide for timely and efficient access, many companies have implemented databases.A database is a collection of related data. By data, we mean known facts that can be recorded and that have implicit meaning. For example, the names, telephone numbers, and addresses of all the people you know. You may have recorded this data in an indexed address book, or you may have stored it on a diskette using a personalcomputer and software such as DBASE Ⅲor Lotus 1-2-3. This is a collection of related data with an implicit meaning and hence is a database.The above definition of database is quite general. For example, we may consider the collection of words that made up this page of text to be usually more restricted. A database has the following implicit properties:● A database is a logically coherent collection of data with some inherent meaning. A random assortment of data cannot be referred to as a database.● A database is designed, built, and populated with data for a specific purpose. It has an intended group of user and some preconceived applications in which these users are interested.● A database represents some aspect of the real world, sometimes called the miniworld. Changes to the miniworld are reflected in the database.In other words, a database has some source from which data are derived, some degree of interaction with events in the real world, and an audience that is actively interested in the contents of the database.A database management system (DBMS) is composed of three major parts: (1) a storage subsystem that stores and retrieves data in files; (2)a modeling and manipulation subsystem that provides the means with which to organize the data and to add, delete, maintain, and update the data; and (3) an interface between the DBMS and its users. Several major trends are emerging that enhance the value and usefulness of database management systems.●Managers who require more up-to-date information to make effective decisions.●Customers who demand increasingly sophisticated information services and more current information about the status of their orders, invoices, and accounts.●Users who find that they can develop custom applications with database systems in a fraction of the time it takes to use traditional programming languages.●Organizations that discover information has a strategic value; they utilize their database systems to gain an edge over their competitors.A DBMS can organize, process, and present selected data elements from the database. This capability enables decision makers to search, probe, and query database contents in order to extract answers to nonrecurring and unplanned questions that aren’t available in regular reports. These questions might initially be vague and/or p oorly defined, but people can “browse” through the database until they have the needed information. In short, the DBMS will “mange” the stored data items and assemble the needed items from the common database in response to the queries of those who aren’t programmers. In a file-oriented system, user needing special information may communicate their needs to a programmer, who, when time permits, will write one or more programs to extract the data and prepare the information. The availability of a DBMS, however, offers users a much faster alternative communications path.DATABASE QUERYIf the DBMS provides a way to interactively enter and update the database ,as well as interrogate it ,this capability allows for managing personal database. However, it does not automatically leave an audit trail of actions and does not provide the kinds of controls necessary in a multi-user organization .There controls are only available when a set of application programs is customized for each data entry and updating function.Software for personal computers that perform some of the DBMS functions has been very popular .Individuals for personal information storage and processing intended personal computers for us .Small enterprises, professionals like doctors, architects, engineers, lawyers and so on have also used these machines extensively. By the nature of intended usage ,database system on there machines are except from several of the requirements of full-fledged database systems. Since data sharing is not intended, concurrent operations even less so ,the software can be less complex .Security and integrity maintenance are de-emphasized or absent .as data volumes will be small, performance efficiency is also less important .In fact, the only aspect of a database system that is important is data independence. Data independence ,as stated earlier ,means that application programs and user queries need not recognize physical organization of data on secondary storage. The importance of this aspect , particularly for the personal computer user ,is that this greatly simplifies database usage . The user can store ,access and manipulate data at ahigh level (close to the application)and be totally shielded from the low level (close to the machine )details of data organization.DBMS STRUCTURING TECHNIQUESSpatial data management has been an active area of research in the database field for two decades ,with much of the research being focused on developing data structures for storing and indexing spatial data .however, no commercial database system provides facilities for directly de fining and storing spatial data ,and formulating queries based on research conditions on spatial data.There are two components to data management: history data management and version management .Both have been the subjects of research for over a decade. The troublesome aspect of temporal data management is that the boundary between applications and database systems has not been clearly drawn. Specifically, it is not clear how much of the typical semantics and facilities of temporal data management can and should be directly incorporated in a database system, and how much should be left to applications and users. In this section, we will provide a list of short-term research issues that should be examined to shed light on this fundamental question.The focus of research into history data management has been on defining the semantics of time and time interval, and issues related to understanding the semantics of queries and updates against history data stored in an attribute of a record. Typically, in the context of relational databases ,a temporal attribute is defined to hold a sequence of history data for the attribute. A history data consists of a data item and a time interval for which the data item is valid. A query may then be issued to retrieve history data for a specified time interval for the temporal attribute. The mechanism for supporting temporal attributes is to that for supporting set-valued attributes in a database system, such as UniSQL.In the absence of a support for temporal attributes, application developers who need to model and history data have simply simulated temporal attributes by creating attribute for the time interval ,along with the “temporal” attribute. This of course may result in duplication of records in a table, and more complicated search predicates in queries. The one necessary topic of research in history data management is to quantitatively establish the performance (and even productivity) differences betweenusing a database system that directly supports attributes and using a conventional database system that does not support either the set-valued attributes or temporal attributes.Data security, integrity, and independenceData security prevents unauthorized users from viewing or updating the database. Using passwords, users are allowed access to the entire database of the database, called subschemas. For example, an employee database can contain all the data about an individual employee, but one group of users may be authorized to view only payroll data, while others are allowed access to only work history and medical data.Data integrity refers to the accuracy, correctness, or validity of the data in the database. In a database system, data integrity means safeguarding the data against invalid alteration or destruction. In large on-line database system, data integrity becomes a more severe problem and two additional complications arise. The first has to do with many users accessing the database concurrently. For example, if thousands of travel agents book the same seat on the same flight, the first agent’s booking will be lost. In such cases the technique of locking the record or field provides the means for preventing one user from accessing a record while another user is updating the same record.The second complication relates to hardware, software or human error during the course of processing and involves database transaction which is a group of database modifications treated as a single unit. For example, an agent booking an airline reservation involves several database updates (i.e., adding the passenger’s name and address and updating the seats-available field), which comprise a single transaction. The database transaction is not considered to be completed until all updates have been completed; otherwise, none of the updates will be allowed to take place.An important point about database systems is that the database should exist independently of any of the specific applications. Traditional data processing applications are data dependent.When a DMBS is used, the detailed knowledge of the physical organization of the data does not have to be built into every application program. The application program asks the DBMS for data by field name, for example, a coded representationof “give me customer name and balance due” would be sent to the DBMS. Without a DBMS the programmer must reserve space for the full structure of the record in the program. Any change in data structure requires changes in all the applications programs.Data Base Management System (DBMS)The system software package that handles the difficult tasks associated with creating ,accessing and maintaining data base records is called a data base management system (DBMS). A DBMS will usually be handing multiple data calls concurrently.It must organize its system buffers so that different data operations can be in process together .It provides a data definition language to specify the conceptual schema and most likely ,some of the details regarding the implementation of the conceptual schema by the physical schema.The data definition language is a high-level language, enabling one to describe the conceptual schema in terms of a “data model “.At the present time ,there are four underling structures for database management systems. They are :List structures.Relational structures.Hierarchical (tree) structures.Network structures.Management Information System(MIS)An MIS can be defined as a network of computer-based data processing procedures developed in an organization and integrated as necessary with manual and other procedures for the purpose of providing timely and effective information to support decision making and other necessary management functions.One of the most difficult tasks of the MIS designer is to develop the information flow needed to support decision making .Generally speaking ,much of the information needed by managers who occupy different levels and who have different levels and have different responsibilities is obtained from a collection of exiting information system (or subsystems)Structure Query Language (SQL)SQL is a data base processing language endorsed by the American NationalStandards Institute. It is rapidly becoming the standard query language for accessing data on relational databases .With its simple ,powerful syntax ,SQL represents a great progress in database access for all levels of management and computing professionals.SQL falls into two forms : interactive SQL and embedded SQL. Embedded SQL usage is near to traditional programming in third generation languages .It is the interactive use of SQL that makes it most applicable for the rapid answering of ad hoc queries .With an interactive SQL query you just type in a few lines of SQL and you get the database response immediately on the screen.译文数据库数据库可以被定义为一个相互联系的数据库存储的集合。
外文翻译中英对照版
VOLUME 30 ISSUE 2 October 2008Journal of Achievements in Materials and Manufacturing EngineeringCopyright by International OCSCO World Press. All rights reserved.2008 151 Research paper 2008年十月期2卷30材料与制造工程成果期刊版权所有：国际OCSCO 世界出版社。
一切权利保有。
2008 ？？151研究论文1. Introduction Friction stir welding (FSW) is a new solid-state welding method developed by The Welding Institute (TWI) in 1991 [1]. The weld is formed by the excessive deformation of the material at temperatures below its melting point, thus the method is a solid state joining technique. There is no melting of the material, so FSW has several advantages over the commonly used fusion welding techniques [2-10].1.导言摩擦搅拌焊接（FSW）是焊接学？会于1991年研发的一种新型固态焊接方法。
这种焊接？是由材料在低于其熔点的温度上过量变形形成，因此此技术是一种固态连接技术。
材料不熔化，所以FSW 相比常用的熔化焊接技术有若干优势。
例如，在焊接区无多孔性或破裂，工件（尤其薄板上）没有严重扭曲，并且在连接过程中不需要填料、保护气及昂贵的焊接准备there is no significant distortion of the workpieces (particularly in thin plates), and there is no need for filler materials, shielding gases and costly weld preparation during this joining process. FSW被认为是对若干材料例如铝合金、镁合金、黄铜、钛合金及钢最显著且最有潜在用途的焊接技术FSW is considered to be the most remarkable and potentially useful welding technique for several materials, such as Al-alloys, Mg-alloys, brasses, Ti-alloys, and steels [1-16]. 然而，在FSW过程中，用不合适的焊接参数能引起连接处失效，并且使FSW连接处的力学性能恶化。
毕业论文外文翻译要求
毕业论文外文翻译要求
外国文献翻译是撰写毕业论文的重要环节之一，下面是一份要求700字的毕业论文外文翻译要求：
1. 翻译时间: 需在规定时间内完成翻译任务，以确保毕业论文
后续工作的顺利进行。
2. 原文准确性: 翻译必须准确无误，不得对原文进行任何删节、增补或变动。
3. 语言流畅度: 翻译应当具有良好的语言流畅度，不得过于生
硬或呆板。
4. 专业术语准确性: 翻译时要确保专业术语的准确性，避免词
义的混淆。
5. 语法错误及标点符号: 翻译应符合英文的语法规范，避免语
法错误和标点符号的错误使用。
6. 翻译风格: 翻译应当符合学术论文的要求，措辞恰当，语气
客观中立。
7. 格式要求: 翻译部分应与论文正文的格式一致，包括字体、
字号、行间距等。
8. 校对: 完成翻译后，需要进行一次仔细的校对工作，确保翻
译的正确性。
9. 原文附录: 翻译部分要同时附上原文，以便审查人员对翻译的准确性进行核对。
10. 翻译文档: 翻译文档要以电子文档的形式提交，确保方便审查人员查看。
以上要求旨在保证翻译的质量和准确性，对于撰写毕业论文非常重要。
翻译过程中，建议使用专业的翻译工具，如翻译记忆软件、专业词典等，以提高翻译的效率和准确性。
同时，积极与导师和专业领域的人进行交流和讨论，以解决翻译中的问题和困惑。
毕业论文外文翻译范例
外文原文(一)Savigny and his Anglo-American Disciple s*M. H. HoeflichFriedrich Carl von Savigny, nobleman, law reformer, champion of the revived German professoriate, and founder of the Historical School of jurisprudence, not only helped to revolutionize the study of law and legal institutions in Germany and in other civil law countries, but also exercised a profound influence on many of the most creative jurists and legal scholars in England and the United States. Nevertheless, tracing the influence of an individual is always a difficult task. It is especially difficult as regards Savigny and the approach to law and legal sources propounded by the Historical School. This difficulty arises, in part, because Savigny was not alone in adopting this approach. Hugo, for instance, espoused quite similar ideas in Germany; George Long echoed many of these concepts in England during the 1850s, and, of course, Sir Henry Sumner Maine also espoused many of these same concepts central to historical jurisprudence in England in the 1860s and 1870s. Thus, when one looks at the doctrinal writings of British and American jurists and legal scholars in the period before 1875, it is often impossible to say with any certainty that a particular idea which sounds very much the sort of thing that might, indeed, have been derived from Savigny's works, was, in fact, so derived. It is possible, nevertheless, to trace much of the influence of Savigny and his legal writings in the United States and in Great Britain during this period with some certainty because so great was his fame and so great was the respect accorded to his published work that explicit references to him and to his work abound in the doctrinal writing of this period, as well as in actual law cases in the courts. Thus, Max Gutzwiller, in his classic study Der einfluss Savignys auf die Entwicklung des International privatrechts, was able to show how Savigny's ideas on conflict of laws influenced such English and American scholars as Story, Phillimore, Burge, and Dicey. Similarly, Andreas Schwarz, in his "Einflusse Deutscher Zivilistik im Auslande," briefly sketched Savigny's influence upon John Austin, Frederick Pollock, and James Bryce. In this article I wish to examine Savigny's influence over a broader spectrum and to draw a picture of his general fame and reputation both in Britain and in the United States as the leading Romanist, legal historian, and German legal academic of his day. The picture of this Anglo-American respect accorded to Savigny and the historical school of jurisprudence which emerges from these sources is fascinating. It sheds light not only upon Savigny’s trans-channel, trans-Atlantic fame, but also upon the extraordinarily*M.H.Hoeflich, Savigny and his Anglo-American Disciples, American Journal of Comparative Law, vol.37, No.1, 1989.cosmopolitan outlook of many of the leading American and English jurists of the time. Of course, when one sets out to trace the influence of a particular individual and his work, it is necessary to demonstrate, if possible, precisely how knowledge of the man and his work was transmitted. In the case of Savigny and his work on Roman law and ideas of historical jurisprudence, there were three principal modes of transmission. First, there was the direct influence he exercised through his contacts with American lawyers and scholars. Second, there was the influence he exercised through his books. Third, there was the influence he exerted indirectly through intermediate scholars and their works. Let us examine each mode separately.I.INFLUENCE OF THE TRANSLATED WORKSWhile American and British interest in German legal scholarship was high in the antebellum period, the number of American and English jurists who could read German fluently was relatively low. Even those who borrowed from the Germans, for instance, Joseph Story, most often had to depend upon translations. It is thus quite important that Savigny’s works were amongst the most frequently translated into English, both in the United States and in Great Britain. His most influential early work, the Vom Beruf unserer Zeitfur Rechtsgeschichte und Gestzgebung, was translated into English by Abraham Hayward and published in London in 1831. Two years earlier the first volume of his History of Roman Law in the Middle Ages was translated by Cathcart and published in Edinburgh. In 1830, as well, a French translation was published at Paris. Sir Erskine Perry's translation of Savigny's Treatise on Possession was published in London in 1848. This was followed by Archibald Brown's epitome of the treatise on possession in 1872 and Rattigan's translation of the second volume of the System as Jural Relations or the Law of Persons in 1884. Guthrie published a translation of the seventh volume of the System as Private International Law at Edinburgh in 1869. Indeed, two English translations were even published in the far flung corners of the British Raj. A translation of the first volume of the System was published by William Holloway at Madras in 1867 and the volume on possession was translated by Kelleher and published at Calcutta in 1888. Thus, the determined English-speaking scholar had ample access to Savigny's works throughout the nineteenth century.Equally important for the dissemination of Savigny's ideas were those books and articles published in English that explained and analyzed his works. A number of these must have played an important role in this process. One of the earliest of these is John Reddie's Historical Notices of the Roman law and of the Progress of its Study in Germany, published at Edinburgh in 1826. Reddie was a noted Scots jurist and held the Gottingen J.U.D. The book, significantly, is dedicated to Gustav Hugo. It is of that genre known as an external history of Roman law-not so much a history of substantive Roman legal doctrine but rather a historyof Roman legal institutions and of the study of Roman law from antiquity through the nineteenth century. It is very much a polemic for the study of Roman law and for the Historical School. It imparts to the reader the excitement of Savigny and his followers about the study of law historically and it is clear that no reader of the work could possibly be left unmoved. It is, in short, the first work of public relations in English on behalf of Savigny and his ideas.Having mentioned Reddie's promotion of Savigny and the Historical School, it is important to understand the level of excitement with which things Roman and especially Roman law were greeted during this period. Many of the finest American jurists were attracted-to use Peter Stein's term-to Roman and Civil law, but attracted in a way that, at times, seems to have been more enthusiastic than intellectual. Similarly, Roman and Civil law excited much interest in Great Britain, as illustrated by the distinctly Roman influence to be found in the work of John Austin. The attraction of Roman and Civil law can be illustrated and best understood, perhaps, in the context of the publicity and excitement in the English-speaking world surrounding the discovery of the only complete manuscript of the classical Roman jurist Gaius' Institutes in Italy in 1816 by the ancient historian and German consul at Rome, B.G. Niebuhr. Niebuhr, the greatest ancient historian of his time, turned to Savigny for help with the Gaius manuscript (indeed, it was Savigny who recognized the manuscript for what it was) and, almost immediately, the books and journals-not just law journals by any means-were filled with accounts of the discovery, its importance to legal historical studies, and, of course, what it said. For instance, the second volume of the American Jurist contains a long article on the civil law by the scholarly Boston lawyer and classicist, John Pickering. The first quarter of the article is a gushing account of the discovery and first publication of the Gaius manuscript and a paean to Niebuhr and Savigny for their role in this. Similarly, in an article published in the London Law Magazine in 1829 on the civil law, the author contemptuously refers to a certain professor who continued to tell his students that the text of Gaius' Institutes was lost for all time. What could better show his ignorance of all things legal and literary than to be unaware of Niebuhr's great discovery?Another example of this reaction to the discovery of the Gaius palimpsest is to be found in David Irving's Introduction to the Study of the Civil Law. This volume is also more a history of Roman legal scholarship and sources than a study of substantive Roman law. Its pages are filled with references to Savigny's Geschichte and its approach clearly reflects the influence of the Historical School. Indeed, Irving speaks of Savigny's work as "one of the most remarkable productions of the age." He must have been truly impressed with German scholarship and must also have been able to convince the Faculty of Advocates, forwhom he was librarian, of the worth of German scholarship, for in 1820 the Faculty sent him to Gottingen so that he might study their law libraries. Irving devotes several pages of his elementary textbook on Roman law to the praise of the "remarkable" discovery of the Gaius palimpsest. He traces the discovery of the text by Niebuhr and Savigny in language that would have befitted an adventure tale. He elaborates on the various labors required to produce a new edition of the text and was particularly impressed by the use of a then new chemical process to make the under text of the palimpsest visible. He speaks of the reception of the new text as being greeted with "ardor and exultation" strong words for those who spend their lives amidst the "musty tomes" of the Roman law.This excitement over the Verona Gaius is really rather strange. Much of the substance of the Gaius text was already known to legal historians and civil lawyers from its incorporation into Justinian's Institutes and so, from a substantive legal perspective, the find was not crucial. The Gaius did provide new information on Roman procedural rules and it did also provide additional information for those scholars attempting to reconstruct pre-Justinianic Roman law. Nevertheless, these contributions alone seem hardly able to justify the excitement the discovery caused. Instead, I think that the Verona Gaius discovery simply hit a chord in the literary and legal community much the same as did the discovery of the Rosetta Stone or of Schliemann’s Troy. Here was a monument of a great civilization brought newly to light and able to be read for the first time in millenia. And just as the Rosetta Stone helped to establish the modern discipline of Egyptology and Schliemann's discoveries assured the development of classical archaeology as a modern academic discipline, the discovery of the Verona Gaius added to the attraction Roman law held for scholars and for lawyers, even amongst those who were not Romanists by profession. Ancillary to this, the discovery and publication of the Gaius manuscript also added to the fame of the two principals involved in the discovery, Niebuhr and Savigny. What this meant in the English-speaking world is that even those who could not or did not wish to read Savigny's technical works knew of him as one of the discoverers of the Gaius text. This fame itself may well have helped in spreading Savigny's legal and philosophical ideas, for, I would suggest, the Gaius "connection" may well have disposed people to read other of Savigny's writings, unconnected to the Gaius, because they were already familiar with his name.Another example of an English-speaking promoter of Savigny is Luther Stearns Cushing, a noted Boston lawyer who lectured on Roman law at the Harvard Law School in 1848-49 and again in 1851- 1852.Cushing published his lectures at Boston in 1854 under the title An Introduction to the Study of Roman Law. He devoted a full chapter to a description of the historical school and to the controversy betweenSavigny and Thibaut over codification. While Cushing attempted to portray fairly the arguments of both sides, he left no doubt as to his preference for Savigny's approach:The labors of the historical school have established an entirely new and distinct era in the study of the Roman jurisprudence; and though these writers cannot be said to have thrown their predecessors into the shade, it seems to be generally admitted, that almost every branch of the Roman law has received some important modification at their hands, and that a knowledge of their writings, to some extent, at least, is essentially necessary to its acquisition.译文(一)萨维尼和他的英美信徒们*M·H·豪弗里奇弗雷德里奇·卡尔·冯·萨维尼出身贵族，是一位出色的法律改革家，也是一位倡导重建德国教授协会的拥护者，还是历史法学派的创建人之一。
外文参考文献及翻译稿的要求与格式
百度文库- 让每个人平等地提升自我！外文参考文献及翻译稿的要求及格式一、外文参考文献的要求1、外文原稿应与本研究项目接近或相关联；2、外文原稿可选择相关文章或节选章节，正文字数不少于1500字。
3、格式：外文文献左上角标注“外文参考资料”字样，小四宋体。
1.5倍行距。
标题：三号，Times New Roman字体加粗，居中，行距1.5倍。
段前段后空一行。
作者（居中）及正文：小四号，Times New Roman字体，首行空2字符。
4、A4纸统一打印。
二、中文翻译稿1、中文翻译稿要与外文文献匹配，翻译要正确；2、中文翻译稿另起一页；3、格式：左上角标“中文译文”，小四宋体。
标题：宋体三号加粗居中，行距1.5倍。
段前、段后空一行。
作者（居中）及正文：小四号宋体，数字等Times New Roman字体，1.5倍行距，首行空2字符。
正文字数1500左右。
4、A4纸统一打印。
格式范例如后所示。
百度文库 - 让每个人平等地提升自我！外文参考文献Implementation of internal controls of small andmedium-sized pow erStephen Ryan The enterprise internal control carries out the strength to refer to the enterprise internal control system execution ability and dynamics, it is the one whole set behavior and the technical system, is unique competitive advantage which the enterprise has; Is a series of …………………………标题：三号，Times New Roman字体加粗，居中，行距1.5倍。
知网外文翻译
知网外文翻译
知网外文翻译是指将英语及其他外语的文献，通过专业的翻译技
巧转化为中文文献的服务。
这是因为在学术研究中，英语和其他外语
文献的数量和质量都非常丰富，但由于我国大部分学者和研究者的语
言能力有限，无法阅读和理解这些文献。
因此，知网外文翻译成为了
他们获取信息的必要渠道。
关于知网外文翻译，其主要途径为：
1.在线翻译
使用在线翻译软件或一些自动翻译网站进行翻译。
但是，由于机器翻
译的精度和质量有限，翻译结果常常出现语义不通、用词不当等问题，难以满足学术研究的要求。
2.人工翻译
通过手动翻译，将外文文献翻译为中文文献。
相比于机器翻译，人工
翻译可以更好地保持语言和内容的准确性，更加符合学术研究的要求。
在进行知网外文翻译的过程中，一些需要注意的问题：
1.翻译者的语言能力必须达到一定水平，既要熟练掌握源语言也
要精通目标语言。
2.翻译者需要了解源文背景知识和研究领域的专业术语等。
3.翻译需要准确无误，同时要保持原文的风格和语调。
总之，在知网外文翻译方面，应该选择专业的翻译机构进行翻译，以保证翻译质量和准确性。
同时，学术研究者应该对翻译结果进行审
查和修订，确保翻译结果符合学术要求。
知网外文翻译是学术研究的必要手段之一，通过专业的翻译，可
以帮助学者和研究者更好地获取全球最新的学术成果，拓宽知识视野，提高学术水平。
因此，我们应该加强对知网外文翻译的认识，选择优
秀的翻译机构，提高我们的学术水平。
外文翻译撰写规范
第一部分：格式篇
1.外文翻译封面中从“院系”——“指导老师”旁边的下划线请保持长度一致。
2.封面中“原文出处”信息应该完整，同参考文献中的外文文献格式。
3.先中文后英文，中文页码为阿拉伯数字，英文页码为罗马数字。
4.中英文上方第一行都是文章或者书的名称，第二行是出处。
5.字间距为标准，行距为固定值，设置值为23。
如标题与标题、标题与段落之
间间距明显较大时，请选定标题并选择“段落”检查间距中“段前”、“段后”
是否是0行。
6.中文文章段落中出现除序号外的阿拉伯数字或英文应用Times New Roman字
体。
第二部分：内容篇
1．必须是英文文献翻译成中文，不能中文翻译成英文。
2. 英文文献必须是外国人写的，不能只是中国人发表的外文论文。
3．外文文献只要和所写课题相关即可，不用完全一致。
如课题为审计风险，如果找不到审计风险的外文，也可以找审计相关的外文即可。
4．关键词前后翻译必须一致，英文缩写在中文翻译中第一次出现时必须翻译出全称。
5．不能仅仅依靠翻译软件，翻译的中文应检查是否语句通顺，是否有词不达意的情况。
毕业设计外文文献翻译【范本模板】
毕业设计（论文)外文资料翻译系别：专业：班级:姓名：学号:外文出处:附件： 1. 原文; 2。
译文2013年03月附件一：A Rapidly Deployable Manipulator SystemChristiaan J。
J。
Paredis, H. Benjamin Brown，Pradeep K. KhoslaAbstract:A rapidly deployable manipulator system combines the flexibility of reconfigurable modular hardware with modular programming tools，allowing the user to rapidly create a manipulator which is custom-tailored for a given task. This article describes two main aspects of such a system，namely，the Reconfigurable Modular Manipulator System （RMMS)hardware and the corresponding control software。
1 IntroductionRobot manipulators can be easily reprogrammed to perform different tasks, yet the range of tasks that can be performed by a manipulator is limited by mechanicalstructure。
Forexample，a manipulator well-suited for precise movement across the top of a table would probably no be capable of lifting heavy objects in the vertical direction. Therefore，to perform a given task,one needs to choose a manipulator with an appropriate mechanical structure.We propose the concept of a rapidly deployable manipulator system to address the above mentioned shortcomings of fixed configuration manipulators。
外文翻译
Green International Wine MarketingGreen International Wine MarketingMary Pugh & Richard FletcherAbstract The Banrock Station brand, owned by wine producer BRL Hardy, has been highly successful in the UK and USA, and in the Australian premium wine market. In part, success has arisen from the positive attributes of being a ‘new world’ wine, but the case study shows that it is branding as a ‘green’ wine that supports conservation activities that has given Banrock Station a distinctive edge. The experience of BRL Hardy points to a number of key lessons in international marketing that may help other companies break free from the competitive pack. Keywords: Wine marketing, green brands, international marketingIntroduction One of the major challenges facing Australian firms in the international marketplace is how to differentiate their products from those of competitors. This case explores the challenges facing BRL Hardy Ltd. of Australia and how they met the challenge in a global wine market that is highly competitive and characterised by multiple players, labels and products. Although Australia has captured only 5% of the world’s wine market, Australian wines are the fastest growing import category in key markets such as the UK and USA, stealing market share from traditional ‘old world’ wine producers such as France, Italy, Germany and Spain. Australia’s success to date stems not only from its comparative advantage of producing quality wines at reasonable prices, but the ability of Australian wine companies to build brands to compete internationally. This case study demonstrates BRL Hardy has identified a unique global market segment of a wine targeted at the environmentally conscious. The case covers the initial stages of the implementation of the strategy to position its BRL Hardy’s Banrock Station brand of wines in the environmentally conscious segment, through to a promotional program of ‘green’ international wine marketing. Background BRL Hardy Ltd. was formed after a 1992 merger ofSouth Australian-based wineries, Berri Renmano Ltd. and Thomas Hardy and Sons Pty Ltd. It is now one of the top four wine producers in Australia and one of the top 10 largest wine groups in the world. Its Banrock Station brand, produced from grapes mostly grown in the Riverland region of South Australia, is the rising star of the company’s wine portfolio. The first wine stock was produced as recently as 1995, and now production is 2.4 million cases a year. In 1994 BRL Hardy acquired Banrock Station with 250 hectares of good soil for producing premium grape varieties. The rest of the property is made up of 900 hectares of wetland and 600 hectares of protected Mallee Woodland eco system. The property was suffering from the impact of prolonged farming and grazing. BRL Hardy, together with Wetland Care Australia undertook a huge revegetation program to remove stock, install fish barriers and reintroduce natural wetting and drying cycles in the wetland. This has resulted in the native birds and fish, water plants, frogs, and insects returning to restore the health of the River Murray. The 250 hectares of new vineyard is used to produce five major wine varieties. As Figure 1 shows, red wines are more favoured than white wine varieties. The vineyard’s total yield per year is 5,000 tonnes which converts to 3,500,000 litres of wine or 380,000 cases. The additional tonnage required to meet domestic and export76Australasian Marketing Journal 10 (3), 2002Green International Wine MarketingWine Variety 20 33 43 48 59 0 20 No of Hectares 40 60Merlot Chardonnay Semillon Cabernet Sauvignon ShirazFigure 1: Banrock Station Major Wine Varieties (Source: BRL’s Banrock Station)demand of over two million cases comes from purchasing other grapes from local producers in the Riverland. Australia and the Global Wine Market Market conditions are ripe for Australian wine producers to increase exports. The ‘old world’ wine producers such as France and Italy, which have historically held a large market share of the global export market, are in decline. In 1997, France held 26% of export volume, Italy 23% and Spain 14%. In total these ‘old world’ producers represented 67% of the export wine market. However, it is the ‘new world’ wine producers such as Australia, New Zealand, Chile and South Africa who are experiencing growth. While only holding a relatively small market share of export volume, they are stealing share from the ‘old world’ producers. Following centuries of quality wine being associated with ‘old world’ wine producers, Australian wines are now at the forefront of a new consumer trend led by ‘new world’ producers – the supply of good quality, good value, ready to drink now, good tasting, fruity wines. As Table 1 shows, Australia is ranked Number 4 on exportvalue and is the market leader in ‘new world’ wines. Australia’s remarkable success in the UK market is being demonstrated by delivering wine products that are relevant to everyday living and enjoyed by all. The wine brand ‘Australia’ is leveraging the effect of country of origin image (Abmed & D’Astous 1996) in transferring favourable perceptions of quality fruit and a relaxed lifestyle to its food and wine. This positioning in the UK and USA markets has stimulated demand for ‘premium’ category wines (i.e., those that are categorised above basic ‘good quality/good value’ wines). Australian wine exports have grown substantially since the mid 1980s. At the end of the 2000/01 financial year, Australia exported 339 million litres which was a 17% increase on the previous year. The export market volume for Australian wine is projected to double in size over the next ten years to 676 million litres accounting for 61% of production compared to 47% at present. This is illustrated in Figure 2. There are five key quality/price segments in the wine industry. The principal driving force behind increasedAustralasian Marketing Journal 10 (3), 200277Green International Wine MarketingTable 1: 1997 World Wine Export Value (Source: Berger, Spahini and Anderson 1999) Country Export Value as a % of world wine exports 41.7 17.2 9.2 4.8 4.3 3.8 3.6 3.3 3.2 1.5 Old or New World Wines1. France 2. Italy 3. Spain 4. Australia 5. Portugal 6. Germany 7. Chile 8. USA 9. Fomer Soviet Union 10. South AfricaOld Old Old New Old Old New New Old Newexport sales is considered to be in the branded premium wine segment estimated to account for 34% of world wine sales. Australian brands in relation to these segments are shown in Figure 3. As the graph shows, Banrock Station falls into the premium category (above ‘basic’, and below ‘super-premium’). Developing an International Strategy The challenge for BRL Hardy is how to secure additional export sales in an increasingly competitive market. Application of Porter’s ‘Five Forces Model’ (1990) to the global marketplace for Australian wines indicates: New Entrants: There is a likely threat from new entrants, especially from large global liquor giants such as Diageo and Allied Domecq of the UK and LVMH and Pernod Ricard of France, who see the wine sector as a faster growing business compared to other liquor categories such as spirits, beer and champagne with which they were historically associated. They are aggressively embarking on acquisitions and are interested in Australian wineries. Suppliers: There is a low threat from suppliers of grapesas these have little bargaining power apart from those supplying Merlot and Verdelho who have more clout due to some shortage of these varieties. Over-planting of red wine grapes has given Australian wineries scope to obtain higher quality product at a competitive price. Buyers: The threat from buyers is high as securing distribution in a crowded market is difficult, especially when the distribution channels in major overseas markets are largely dominated by supermarket and major liquor chains. There is some evidence that distributors are becoming more favourably disposed towards Australian wines due to their consistent quality and availability. Substitutes: Although there are other alcoholic products that compete with wine, wine is the fastest growing alcoholic beverage on a global basis. Australia has a comparative advantage in producing innovative, high quality wines which, because they can be consumed without aging, attract new wine consumers and young drinkers in ‘old world’ countries. As illustrated in Figure 4, BRL countered the reaction of industry competitors to overseas market entry. BRL differentiated themselves by pursuing a niche market78Australasian Marketing Journal 10 (3), 2002Green International Wine Marketingstrategy in their target overseas markets. This was achieved by positioning the Banrock Station brand initially in the two major markets of the UK and USA as a ‘green’ wine that supports conservation activities. This involved looking at the market from a different perspective and looking at areas to create value to differentiate the selected brand from the competitive pack. The key to discovering new value was asking four basic questions, as outlined in the Kim and Mauborgne Model (1999) shown in Table 2. Addressing these key questions has allowed BRL to create Banrock Station - a wine that can be simply positioned as “good wine, good earth, good living”. Kim and Mauborgne (1999) suggest ‘The Value Curve’ – a graphic depiction of the way a company or industry configures its offering to customers – is a powerful tool for creating new market space. It is drawn by plotting the performance of the offering relative to other alternatives along the key success factors that define competition inthe industry. Identified in Figure 4, the creation of a new value curve would appear to be possible for Banrock Station wine, by adopting a marketing positioning strategy based on a ‘green’ wine that supports conservation activities. Creating a ‘Green’ Brand Creating a ‘green brand’ meant tapping into the values and beliefs of wine buyers. As a starting point, BRL Hardy recognised that their investment in and achievement of restoring the magnificent Banrock Station wetlands might be shared with their customers. This strategy has proven to be successful in Australia. With every bottle of Banrock Station wine sold, a portion of the sale proceeds is donated to conservation projects to ensure environmental havens are restored and preserved for future generations. All proceeds in Australia go to Wetland Care Australia and Landcare Australia. An analysis of the demographics of wine consumption inYear 676 437 Forecast20102001 Current339 3691990 Historical 042 301200400 Million Litres600800International Markets Australian DomesticFigure 2: Australian Domestic Market vs International Market Growth (Data Source: Wine Federation of Australia & Australian Wine and Brandy Corporation, 2000)Australasian Marketing Journal 10 (3), 200279Green International Wine MarketingPrice Price range ICON USD 50 AU 50 UK 20 Indicative brandsPenfolds Grange Henschke Hill of Grace Leeuwin Chardonnay Petaluma Coonawarravolume market share: 1%Price range ULTRAPREMIUMUSD 14-49.99 Indicative brands AU 15-49.99 Wolf Blass Grey Label Orlando St Hugo UK 7-19.99 BrokenwoodDe Bortoli Yarra Valley Pipers Brookvolume market share: 5%Price rangeUSD 8-13.99 Indicative brands AU 10-14.99 Penfolds Koonunga Hill Jamieson's Run UK 5-6.99 Rosemount Diamond LabelLeasingham Bin Rangevolume market share: 10%SUPER PREMIUMPrice rangeUSD 5-7.99 AU 5-9.99 UK 3-4.99Indicative brandsBarramundi Banrock Station Jacobs Creek Lindeman's Bin Range Oxford Landing Hardy's Nottage Hillvolume market share: 34%PREMIUM Price range < USD 5volume market share: 50%BASICVolumeFigure 3: Quality Segments in the Wine Industry (Source: Wine Federation of Australia & Australian Wine and Brandy Corporation, 2000) developed country markets such as Australia indicates that the bulk of wine consumers typically fall into the age group 40 and 60 years with a skew towards women. This generation is often referred to as ‘Baby Boomers’ and represents about 24% of the Australian population and around 33% of the US population. It is a group that is sensitive to environmental concerns. They were the original activists and are pro environmentalists. They created the first Earth Day back in 1970. However, the values of this group have not previously been tapped as far as wine marketing is concerned. For this strategy to be implemented, it must be conveyed to the customer via the brand. The brand is a bond with the customer. Keegan, Moriarty and Duncan (1992, p. 448) defines it as a “perception in the mind of consumers who ascribe beliefs, values and personalities to products” and Kotler (2000, p. 404) as a “seller’s promise to deliver a specific set of features, benefits and services consistently to buyers”. Strategically, it has been brands that have made Australian wine producers successful over other market competitors - not the name of the wine producer. Successful wine, the brand and the attitude it engenders, must relate to the wine consumer’s own sense of individuality and unique style. For a ‘green’ wine, the brand image should appeal to consumer’s who are seek-80Australasian Marketing Journal 10 (3), 2002Green International Wine MarketingSource: Banrock Station Wine postcarding a product that fits with their values of good living, being healthy and their desire to act in an environmentally friendly way. Wine buyers are thinking about the quality connection with where the product comes from and what they are purchasing. Ottman (1992) claimed that while quality, price and convenience are still uppermost in consumers’ purchasing decisions, a fourth attribute, environmental compatibility, that is a product’s greenness, is fast becoming a tie-breaker at the shelf.By linking Banrock Station’s brand attributes of good value, quality wines, that are ready to drink now, with a conservationist personality it is intended to create a new source of competitive advantage for BRL Hardy’s Banrock Station brand. The brand slogan “good earth, fine wine” easily identifies Banrock Station with supporting the environment. Additional in-store promotional material highlights Banrock Station Wines conservation initiatives – for example, a bottle flyer with a pelican. This saves the consumer time in evaluating otherTable 2: Creating a New Value Curve Key Questions 1. Reduce – What factors should be reduced well below the industry standard? Areas for innovation – Price – Length of time to markets from the vine to the table – Alcohol content – A representation of healthy living – An environment friendly wine – A relationship with the brand – Flavour and wine quality – Innovative wine styles – Interesting brands – Standard labels/packaging – Snob Factor – Wine speak2. Create – What factors should be created that the industry has never offered?3. Raise – What factors should be raised well above industry standards?4. Eliminate – What factors should be eliminated that the industry takes for granted?Australasian Marketing Journal 10 (3), 200281Green International Wine MarketingHighRelative valueNealu wVeCLow Price Quality Taste Ready to drink Environment friendlyKey elements of the wine industry product, service and deliveryTraditional bottled wine value curve Banrock Station wine's new value curveFigure 4: The New Value Curve for Banrock Station Winebrands and helps them to easily distinguish the point of difference in retail outlets. In addition, Banrock Station’s green brand image is reflected in the advertising, good news stories about conservation projects, packaging, point of purchase promotions, wine shows and on the website where consumers can take a virtual tour of Banrock Station (see: .au). Application of ‘Green’ Brand Equity to International Markets As the ‘green’ marketing approach was successful in Australia, BRL Hardy decided to apply it to selected overseas markets which were considered to offer longterm growth potential. The eight selected international wine markets were the USA, Netherlands, Canada, Sweden, New Zealand, UK, Finland and Denmark. All are developed markets with environmentally sensitive ‘Baby Boomers’. In these markets, BRL aimed to build strategic alliances with local conservation groups, as they did in Australia. A key to the market entry strategywas establishing strategic alliances with ‘green’ groups so as to increase consumer’s confidence in and credibility of the brand’s environmental claims. In each case, a certain percentage of profit from sales of each bottle of wine would go to the alliance partner to fund environmental projects. Implementation of this international approach was facilitated by hiring an environmental scientist, Tony Sharley, who manages the Banrock Station Wine and Wetland Centre in Australia. In this role, he manages conservation projects with organisations in key international markets and can verify Banrock Station’s ‘green’ credentials. High on the agenda was Australia’s number one wine market, the UK, where BRL sells a number of successful brands. In the UK, Banrock Station wines and the Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust (WWT) are working together to save wetlands and wildlife. Funds from Banrock Station wines are being used to support the continual monitoring and maintenance of 4,000 acres of WWT’s wetland reserves and their wildlife.82Australasian Marketing Journal 10 (3), 2002urveGreen International Wine MarketingIn Canada, BRL established their own organisation to coordinate environmental projects to help conserve and protect endangered birds and wetlands (the Banrock Station Wine Wetland Foundation, Canada). In the USA, Banrock Station has partnered with the Arthur R Marshall Foundation to champion restoration and preservation of America’s Greater Everglades ecosystem and sponsored Cypress Tree Planting Day in an effort to restore the Everglades ancient forest. In Europe, Banrock Station wines are working with the Swedish Wetland Fund, with proceeds supporting OsterMalma, Lida and other wetlands in the area; in Finland, with Liminganlahti Bay, a high profile and highly regarded wetland region in the north of Finland; and in Netherlands Banrock Station wines, Staatsbosbeheer and Wetlands International are working together to save wetlands. Recently, Banrock Station commenced a partnership with Danish Nature who will use the funds to restore wetland in the Langelands region. Closer to home, Banrock Station wines have combined with the environment group, Wetland Care New Zealand to sponsor wetland restoration projects throughout New Zealand. The first year’s proceeds under the sponsorshiphelped to develop a wetland within the widely acclaimed Karori Sanctuary in Wellington and this year a wetland has been created at Masterton in the Wairarapa region. International Sales Growth Figure 3 shows that Banrock Station is in the premium wine category offering good value for money. A similar price positioning has been adopted in selected overseas markets. As such, it is priced below some of its major Australian competitors. In the UK, BRL Hardy has had to contend with a distribution system where the retailers are gate-keepers and ten accounts can represent 70% of the market. Here, buyer label wines account for a considerable share of the market. To counter this it is necessary for Banrock Station to create an awareness of their own brand. This is being achieved via the use of cinema and outdoor advertising, including the London Underground. By contrast, in the USA the distribution of wines approximates that of fast moving consumer goods (FMCG) and there is little wine sold under the labels of buyers. The value for money claim is being augmented in all markets with the “support conservation theme” and point-of-sale support that reinforces the conservation image. It is this support that provides the brand with its unique selling proposition (USP).Table 3: UK Brands Top Wines 2000 Listing (Source: Macquarie Bank Research 2001) Brand Ernest & Julio Gallo Jacobs Creek Hardys Stowells of Chelsea Rosemount Lindemans Penfolds Blossom Hill Le Piat D’or Banrock Station Company E&J Gallo Winery Orlando Wyndham BRL Hardy Wine Matthew Clark Rosemount Wine Estates Southcorp Wines Southcorp Wines UDV Piat Pere Et Fils BRL Hardy Wine Off Trade % Growth 22% 24% 33% 28% 69% 53% 2% 143% (-15%) 165%Australasian Marketing Journal 10 (3), 200283Green International Wine MarketingThis approach has proved to be a deciding factor at the point-of-purchase amongst the growing number of environmentally conscious consumers in the US and the UK. Banrock Station wines are proving to be a stand out performer for BRL Hardy in international markets. They are ranked Number 7 in the Top 10 selling Australian wine brands in the US Market and 3rd in volume of the premium Australian brands exported to the US. In the 13-week period ending 17 May 2001, Banrock Station’s overall ranked position in the US market was 189th and it is the fastest growing brand in the BRL portfolio. Banrock Station is the number one fastest growing brand in the UK as shown in Table 3. There is no doubt that much of this success has been due to the ‘green’ international wine marketing of Banrock Station wines. Future growth is dependent upon maintaining and building the brand through continued investment in conservation projects and the development of new markets with significant segments of environmentally friendly wine buyers. Key Lessons The success of BRL’s Banrock station brand in the UK and US markets to date can be explained in part by its being a ‘new world’ wine, priced in the attractive ‘premium’ wine category with a country of origin image associated with sunshine, health and wide open spaces – an attractive image consistent with wine production. However, of themselves these ‘new world’ wine characteristics do not explain the rapid rise in overseas sales, nor its major market share amongst the Australian premium wine segment. Success is also due to the niche marketing strategy pursued by the firm of positioning the brand as a ‘green’ wine that supports conservation activities. This strategy has positioned the brand in a new marketspace that includes environmentally conscious consumers. This strategy appeals to a different set of values, and values not targeted by other wine producers. Although the magnitude of this segment may differ between countries, environmentally conscious consumers are a global segment that offers considerable potential for the future marketing of the Banrock Station brand. The experience of BRL Hardy points to a number of other key lessons in international marketing that may help other companies also break free from the competitive pack. The first of these is that innovative marketing approaches are a useful vehicle for companies to create new overseas markets and/or reposition themselves in existing markets. BRL’s approach was to look at their market from a new perspective and create new value forstakeholders in those markets. This was achieved by tapping into the values and beliefs of their customers and creating new product attributes to influence the purchasing decisions of customers. In this case it was by creating a brand associated with caring for the environment as illustrated by investing sales receipts back into conservation projects. The second lesson relates to the need to pursue a strategy in depth rather than superficially if it is to be effective in overseas markets. In this case a company embarking on a ‘green’ brand strategy needs to realise it has to be more than just a gimmick. The company has to excel in delivering not just the product benefits, but also the green benefits that customers truly desire. BRL’s experience shows their ‘green’ brand has to stay relevant and credible. This was achieved by ongoing restoration of its own wetland, employing an environmental scientist, and consistently communicating the brand’s environmental initiatives and project involvement via publication of ‘good news’ stories, distinctive product packaging and labelling, and through the focus of its sales team. Only in this way can a company continue to grow the market in its chosen segment. Finally, the application of brand management to overseas markets often requires the building of strategic alliances with local groups if brand equity is to be sustained or further developed in these overseas markets. In the case of BRL Hardy, the strategic alliances were with local conservation groups similar to those with whom alliances had been forged in Australia. The lesson from Australia was in this case applied in overseas markets – that the brand must associate itself with the projects of its alliance partner and should do this by the firm’s management maintaining an active interest in the quality of those environmental projects. Banrock Station’s environmental scientist developed quality controls to ensure that funds directed to those conservation groups from Banrock Station sales were invested in technically sound and rewarding conservation projects. If ‘green’ projects are important, well supported and understood by the consumer, the brand will build and increase its ‘green’ brand equity. In summary, BRL have shown how important a ‘green’ brand is to increasing market share and how innovation in marketing can help a company create a point of difference that redefines the attributes on which buyers base their purchasing decision. References Ahmed, S.A., D’Astous, A., 1996. Country of Origin and Brand Effects: A Multi-Dimensional and Multi-Attribute84Australasian Marketing Journal 10 (3), 2002Green International Wine MarketingStudy. Journal of International Consumer Marketing 9(2), 93-115. Berger, N., Saphini, P., Anderson, K., 1999. Bilateral Trade Patterns in the World Wine Market 1988 to 1997: A Statistical Compendium. University of Adelaide: Centre for International Economic Studies. Keegan, W., Moriarty, S., Duncan, T., 1992. Marketing. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Kim, C., Mauborgne, R, 1999. Creating New Market Space. Harvard Business Review, January-February, 83-93. Kotler, P., 2000. Marketing Management: The Millenium Edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Macquarie Bank Research, 2001. Essentials, March 2001. Ottman, J A, 1992. Green Marketing: Challenges and Opportunities for the New Marketing Age. Chicago: NTC Business Books. Porter, M., 1990. The Competitive Advantage of Nations. London: Macmillan. Wine Federation of Australia & Australian Wine and Brandy Corporation, 2000. The Marketing Decade 20002010, November (.au).Acknowledgements The authors of this case are grateful to Mr Stephen Millar (Managing Director, BRL Hardy Ltd); Mr David Woods (International Trading Director, BRL Hardy Ltd) and Mr Tony Sharley (Manager, Banrock Station Wine and Wetland Centre) for agreeing to be interviewed and for their valuable insights. Biographies Mary Pugh is a Marketing Project Manager at the NSW Police. She has recently graduated from the Masters of Business (International Marketing) program. Richard Fletcher, PhD, is an Associate Professor and Director of Post Graduate Programs in the School of Marketing, University of Technology, Sydney. Correspondence Addresses Mary Pugh, C/o School of Marketing, University of Technology, City Campus, Quay St, Haymarket, PO Box 123 Broadway, Sydney NSW 2007. Email: marygabrielle @, Richard Fletcher, School of Marketing, University of Technology, City Campus, Quay St, Haymarket, PO Box 123 Broadway, Sydney NSW 2007. Telephone: +61 (2) 9514 3537, Facsimile: +61 (2) 9514 3535, e-mail: Richard.Fletcher@.auAustralasian Marketing Journal 10 (3), 200285。
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electric generator Primary Contributor: Gordon R. Slemon ARTICLE from the Encyclopædia Britannica Get involved Share
electric generator, also called dynamo, any machine that converts mechanical energy to electricity for transmission and distribution over power lines to domestic, commercial, and industrial customers. Generators also produce the electrical power required for automobiles, aircraft, ships, and trains.
The mechanical power for an electric generator is usually obtained from a rotating shaft and is equal to the shaft torque multiplied by the rotational, or angular, velocity. The mechanical power may come from a number of sources: hydraulic turbines at dams or waterfalls; wind turbines; steam turbines using steam produced with heat from the combustion of fossil fuels or from nuclear fission; gas turbines burning gas directly in the turbine; or gasoline and diesel engines. The construction and the speed of the generator may vary considerably depending on the characteristics of the mechanical prime mover.
Nearly all generators used to supply electric power networks generate alternating current, which reverses polarity at a fixed frequency (usually 50 or 60 cycles, or double reversals, per second). Since a number of generators are connected into a power network, they must operate at the same frequency for simultaneous generation. They are therefore known as synchronous generators or, in some contexts, alternators.
Synchronous generators A major reason for selecting alternating current for power networks is that its continual variation with time allows the use of transformers. These devices convert electrical power at whatever voltage and current it is generated to high voltage and low current for long-distance transmission and then transform it down to a low voltage suitable for each individual consumer (typically 120 or 240 volts for domestic service). The particular form of alternating current used is a sine wave, which has the shape shown in Figure 1. This has been chosen because it is the only repetitive shape for which two waves displaced from each other in time can be added or subtracted and have the same shape occur as the result. The ideal is then to have all voltages and currents of sine shape. The synchronous generator is designed to produce this shape as accurately as is practical. This will become apparent as the major components and characteristics of such a generator are described below.
Rotor An elementary synchronous generator is shown in cross section in
Figure 2. The central shaft of the rotor is coupled to the mechanical prime mover. The magnetic field is produced by conductors, or coils, wound into slots cut in the surface of the cylindrical iron rotor. This set of coils, connected in series, is thus known as the field winding. The position of the field coils is such that the outwardly directed or radial component of the magnetic field produced in the air gap to the stator is approximately sinusoidally distributed around the periphery of the rotor. In Figure 2, the field density in the air gap is maximum outward at the top, maximum inward at the bottom, and zero at the two sides, approximating a sinusoidal distribution. Stator The stator of the elementary generator in Figure 2 consists of a cylindrical ring made of iron to provide an easy path for the magnetic flux. In this case, the stator contains only one coil, the two sides being accommodated in slots in the iron and the ends being connected together by curved conductors around the stator periphery. The coil normally consists of a number of turns.
When the rotor is rotated, a voltage is induced in the stator coil. At any instant, the magnitude of the voltage is proportional to the rate at which the magnetic field encircled by the coil is changing with time—i.e.,the rate at which the magnetic field is passing the two sides of the coil. The voltage will therefore be maximum in one direction when the rotor has turned 90° from the position shown in Figure 2 and will be maximum in the opposite direction 180° later. The waveform of the voltage will be approximately of the sine form shown in Figure 1.
Frequency The rotor structure of the generator in Figure 2 has two poles, one for magnetic flux directed outward and a corresponding one for flux directed inward. One complete sine wave is induced in the stator coil for each revolution of the rotor. The frequency of the electrical output, measured in hertz (cycles per second) is therefore equal to the rotor speed in revolutions per second. To provide a supply of electricity at 60 hertz, for example, the prime mover and rotor speed must be 60 revolutions per second, or 3,600 revolutions per minute. This is a convenient speed for many steam and gas turbines. For very large turbines, such a speed may be excessive for reasons of mechanical stress. In this case, the generator rotor is designed with four poles spaced at intervals of 90°. The voltage induced in a stator coil, which spans a similar angle of 90°, will consist of two complete sine waves per revolution. The required rotor speed for a frequency of 60 hertz is then 1,800 revolutions per minute. For lower speeds, such as are employed by most water turbines, a larger number of pole pairs can be used. The possible values of rotor speed, in revolutions per minute, are equal to 120 f/p, where f is the frequency and p the number of poles.