武汉理工大学研究生

武汉理工大学研究生

Glass It is well known that glasses play an important role as one of building materials ordinary living products. Advanced and specialty glasses also play important roles in several industries. In the last several years, these materialshave continued to find new applications in the areas of telecommunications, electronics, and biomedical uses. Glass compositions and processing techniques continue to evolve to suit the increasing number of applications. Some of the glass compositions have distinctive properties that make them the most preferred materials for certain applications, such as optical fibers, electronic displays, biocompatible implants, dental posterior materials, and high-performance composites. 众所周知，玻璃作为建

筑材料普通生活产品之一起着重要的作用。先进和特种玻璃也在许多行业也起着重要作用。在过去几年中，这些材料继续在电讯，电子，生物医学领域发现新的应用。为适应日益剧增的应用，玻璃的组分和加工技术不断发展。一些玻璃成分具有独特的性质，使得它们成为某些应用中最优选的材料，例如光纤，电子显示器，生物相容性植入物，后牙材料和高性能复合材料。 A number of ceramic processes have been successfully applied in glass processing to make advanced glasses. These include sintering of premelted and pulverized glass, sintering of premelted chemically treated glasses, sol-gel technology, and vapor phase deposition. Glass ceramics with complicated shapes can be produced by the sintering of glass powders, similar to a ceramic sintering process, and then applying additional heat treatment to form ceramic crystals. Novel processes continue

to be developed. 已经有许多陶瓷工艺成功应用于玻璃加工中来制作先进玻璃，包括预熔玻璃粉末烧结，化学处理预熔玻璃烧结，溶胶-凝胶技术以及气相沉积。具有复杂形状的玻璃陶瓷可以通过类似于陶瓷烧结工艺对玻璃粉末进行烧结来制造，然后再进行额外的热处理以形成陶瓷晶体。新工艺在继续发展。The emergence of these advanced glasses has significantly changed several major industries, including thetelecommunications industry where fiber optic cables revolutionized the technology of transmitting areas where advanced and specialty glasses and glass ceramics find increasing usage are electronicsapplications, such as electronic displays, substrates for packaging and data storage, and photoblanks for lithography. 这些先进玻璃的出现极大地改变了几个主要行业，其中包括电信业，光纤光缆彻底改变了这一行业的传输信息技术。

先进特种的玻璃和玻璃陶瓷有着越来越多使用的另一领域是电子应用，例如电子显示器，用于包装和数据存储的基板，以及用于光刻的照相机。High-performance glass and glass ceramics are also being used as reinforcements or matrices for advancedcomposites for structural and aerospace materials. Because some advanced glasses and glass ceramics arebiocompatible, they can be used as implants and dental posterior materials. Glass beads are also being used inradiation therapy to treat certain kinds of cancer. Another important application is glass substrates for DNA analysis. 高性能玻璃和玻璃陶瓷也被用作结构和航空用先进复合材料的增强材料或基体。因为一些先进的玻璃和玻璃陶瓷具有生物相容性，它们可以用作植入物和后牙材料。玻璃微珠也被用于放射治疗来治疗某些种类的癌症。另一个重要的应用是

玻璃基材可用于DNA分析。Fabrics Besides continuous and discontinuous reinforcements, textile reinforcements provide alternatives that mayincrease performance while reducing manufacturing cost. A large variety of textile fabric forms can be used asreinforcements for composite materials. This simplest, the least elaborated and least expensive ones are the nonwovenfabrics. A nonwoven fabric is usually called a mat, which is made by randomly oriented chopped fibers such aschopped strand mat, randomly oriented short fibers, or swirled tows or rovings. Fabric reinforcements offer mechanical properties somewhat lower than unidirectional continuous fibers. 除了连续和不连续的增强外，纺织增强提供了替代品，在可以提高性能的同时降低制造成本。各种形式的纺织织物可用作复合材料的增强材料。最简单、最精

密、最便宜的形式是非织造布。非织造织物通常称为毡，它是随机取向的短切纤维如玻璃纤维短切毡、随机取向的短纤维丝束，或盘旋的纤维或粗纱制成。织物增强材料的力学性能略低于单向连续纤维。If reinforcement is desired in only one direction, but maintaining the ease of handling and drape properties ofwoven fabrics, the solution is called uniaxial woven fabric. In this case, normal yarns are used along the warpdirection but only thin yarns that can be made from another low cost, low quality material are used along the fulldirection, their role being to keep the wrap yarns together. By contrast, if a multiaxial reinforcement effect is desired,the solution is a triaxial woven fabric, which is obtained by interlacing three sets of yarns at different angles. 如果仅在一个方向上需要增强，但却保持了处理的容易性和织物的悬垂性，这种编织物称为单轴织物。

它是通过在经度方向上用普通纱线，然后使用另一种低成本、低质量的细纱线在纬度方向上将经度方向上的纱线包裹在一起。相反，如果需要多维增强效果，则这种编织物是三轴织物，它是通过在不同的角度交织三组纱线而获得。Yet more types of textiles used for reinforcements exist. All the long narrow, 2D textile (mat, fabric, knit, braid) are described by their fiber architecture and their weight per unit of surface area in [g/m2]. The fiber architecture refersto the orientation and weight of each component of the fabrics.

现在还有更多类型的纺织品用于增强体。所有长的狭窄的2D纺织品都以其纤维结构及其单位面积的重量[g / m2]来描述。纤维结构是指织物各组分的取向和重量。By special manufacturing methods, it is possible to obtain a new category of 3D textile architecture called

3Dtextiles. These are infiltrated with a resin to obtain composite materials with reinforcing fibers in all resulting composite material can be processed as a solid 3D bulk material that is then machined toshape or processed directly into the final shape of the desired produce. 3D textiles can be made as 3D weaves or 3Dbraids. 通过特殊的制造方法，可以获得新类别的3D纺织品架构称为3D纺织品。它们被树脂浸润，可以获得在三个方向具有增强纤维的复合材料。所得到的复合材料可以作为固体3D 体材料加工，然后将其加工直接成型或加工成所需产品的最终形状。3D织物可制成3D织物或3D编织物。Polymer Polymers vary widely in their mechanical behavior depending on the degree of crystallinity, degree ofcrosslinking, and the values of Tg and Tm. Elastomers are the group of polymers that can easily undergo very

large,reversible elongations at relatively low stresses. This requires that the polymer be completely amorphous with a lowglass transition temperature and low secondary forces so as to obtain high polymer chain mobility. Some degree ofcrosslinking is needed so that the deformation is rapidly and completely reversible. Most elastomers obtain the neededstrength via crosslinking and the incorporation of reinforcing inorganic fillers. Some elastomers undergo a smallamount of crystallization during elongation, especially at very high elongations, and this acts as an additional strengthening mechanism. The Tm of the crystalline regions must be below the use temperature of the elastomer inorder that the crystals melt and deformation be reversible when the stress is removed. 聚合物的机械性能有很大的不同，这取决于结晶度、交联程度以及Tg和Tm的

值。弹性体是聚合物的一类，它可以在相对低的应力下很容易地进行非常大的、可逆的延展。这要求聚合物具有完全的非晶态，具有低的玻璃化转变温度和弱的次价键，从而获得高分子链的流动性。并且需要一定程度的交联，使变形迅速且完全可逆。大多数弹性体通过交联和加入无机填料来获得所需的强度。一些弹性体特别具有非常高的伸长率的弹性体在延展时进行少量的结晶，这也是一个额外的增强机制。结晶区的Tm必须低于弹性体的使用温度，以便在应力消除时晶体熔化和变形是可逆的。Fibers are polymers that have very high resistance to deformation—they undergo only low elongations and havevery high moduli and tensile strengths. A polymer must be very highly crystalline and contain polar chains with strongsecondary forces in order to be useful as a fiber. Mechanical stretching is used to impart very high crystallinity to afiber. The crystalline

melting temperature of a fiber must be above 200℃so that it will maintain its physical integrityduring the use temperatures encountered in cleaning and ironing. However, Tm should not be excessively high—nothigher than 300℃. The polymer should be soluble in solvents used for solution spinning of the fiber but not indry-cleaning solvents. The glass transition temperature should have an intermediate value; too high a Tg interfereswith the stretching operation as well as with ironing, while too low a Tgwould not allow crease retention in fabrics. 纤维是具有非常高的抗变形性的聚合物- 它们受力伸长率很低并具有非常高的模量和拉伸强度。用作纤维的聚合物必须非常高度结晶，并且含有具有强次价键的极性链。机械延展赋予了纤维很高的结晶度。纤维的结晶熔融温度必须在200度以上，以便在使用温度下清洗和熨烫过程中保持其物理

完整性。然而，Tm不应过高—不高于300℃。聚合物应溶于用于溶液纺丝的溶剂，但不溶于干洗溶剂。玻璃化转变温度应该有一个中间值；过高的Tg会影响拉丝操作和熨烫，而过低的Tg则不能保证织物的防皱。Stainless steels The stainless steels are highly resistant to corrosion (rusting) in a variety of environments, especially the ambientatmosphere. Their predominant alloying element is chromium; a concentration of at least 11 wt% Cr is stainless steels are capable of being heat treated in such a way that martensite is the primemicroconstituent. For austenitic stainless steels, the austenite phase field is extended to room temperature. Ferriticstainless steels are composes of the ferrite phase. Austenitic and ferritic stainless steels are hardened and strengthenedby cold work because they are not heat treatable. The austenitic stainless

steels are the most corrosion resistantbecause of the high chromium contents and also the nickel additions; and they are produced in the largest martensitic and ferritic stainless steels are magnetic; the austenitic stainlesses are not. 不锈钢在各种环境中特别是环境大气中具有很高的耐腐蚀性。它们的主要合金元素是铬，铬的含量至少需要11wt%。马氏体不锈钢于马氏体是主要的微观组织成分，因此可以进行热处理。对于奥氏体不锈钢，奥氏体相领域延伸至室温。铁素体不锈钢铁素体相组成。奥氏体不锈钢和铁素体不锈钢于不可热处理而被冷加工硬化和加强。奥氏体不锈钢于铬含量高，镍添加量高，因此耐腐蚀性最强，生产量也最大。马氏体和铁素体不锈钢都是磁性的; 奥氏体不锈钢则不是。

Ferritic stainless steels contain 12 to 18% chromium and very little carbon. Austenitic stainless steels containenough

nickel so that they have a fcc crystal structure at all temperatures below melting. They are more expensivethan ferritic stainless steels and are nonmagnetic. The third main class of stainless steels is martensitic. Martensiticstainless steels have compositions similar to ferritic stainless steels, but with enough carbon so that when heated theytransform to austenite. The hardenability is so high that they form martensite even with slow cooling. 铁素体不锈钢含有12～18%的铬和极少的碳。奥氏体不锈钢中含有足够的镍，使其在低于熔点的所有温度下都具有fcc晶体结构。它们比铁素体不锈钢更贵，并且是非磁性的。第三类不锈钢是马氏体。马氏体不锈钢具有类似于铁素体不锈钢的组成，但含有足够的碳，使得当加热时它们转变为奥氏体。可淬性如此之高，即使在缓慢冷却下也能形成马氏体。Austenitic stainless steels are significantly more

complex in nature than the ferritics and martensitics in that theyhave at least two major alloying elements: chromium and nickel. Austenitic stainless steels have a strong tendency towork harden. The energy of deformation promotes the transformation of the metastable austenite to stainless steels are incontrovertibly austenitic in most commercial forms. The austenite structure is broughtabout by nickel additions or in some cases by nickel and manganese additions. Manganese is also an austenitizer. 奥氏体不锈钢在本质上比铁素体和马氏体显着更复杂，因为它们具有至少两种主要的合金元素：铬和镍。奥氏体不锈钢有较强的可加工性，它的变形能力促进了亚稳态的奥氏体向马氏体的转变。奥氏体不锈钢在大多数的商业形式中无疑是奥氏体。奥氏体结构是添加镍元素或在某些情况下添加镍和锰元素带来的。锰也是奥氏体。Property We can

consider the properties of a material in two categories—mechanical and physical. The mechanical properties describe how the material responds to an applied force or stress. Stress is defined asthe force divided by the cross-sectional area on which the force acts. The most common mechanical properties are thestrength, ductility, and stiffness of the material. However, we are often interested in how the material behaves when itis exposed to a sudden intense blow (impact), continually cycled through an alternating force (fatigue), exposed tohigh temperatures (stability), or subjected to abrasive conditions (wear). The mechanical properties not only determinehow well the material performs in service, but also determine the ease with which the material can be formed into auseful shape. A metal part formed by forging must withstand the rapid

application of a force without breaking andhave a high enough ductility to deform to the proper shape. Often small changes in the structure have a profoundeffect on the mechanical properties of the material. 我们可以将材料的性质分为两类-力学性能和物理性能。力学性能描述材料如何对施加的力或应力作出反应。应力定义为单位横截面积的力。最常见的机械性能是材料的强度，延展性和刚度。然而，我们经常感兴趣的是当材料受到突然强烈的撞击，受到交变力作用，受到高温作用或受磨料磨损等影响时如何反应。力学性能不仅决定了材料在使用中的性能，而且决定了材料能否形成有用的形状。通过锻造形成的金属部件必须承受力的快速施加而不破裂并且具有足够高的延展性使其能改变为适当的形状。通常，结构的细微变化对材料的机械性能具有深远的影响。Physical properties include electrical, magnetic, optical, thermal, elastic, and chemical

behavior. The physicalproperties depend both on structure and processing of the material. Even tiny changes in the composition cause aprofound change in the electrical conductivity of many semiconducting metals and ceramics. 物理性质包括电，磁，光，热，弹性和化学行为。物理性质都取决于材料的结构和加工。甚至成分的微小变化也会导致许多半导体金属和陶瓷的导电性的深奥变化。High firing temperatures may greatly reduce the thermal insulation characteristics of ceramic brick. Smallamounts of impurities change the color of a glass or polymer. 高烧结温度可大大降低陶瓷砖的隔热特性。少量杂质会改变玻璃或聚合物的颜色。