以动词为中心的英语语法教学

以动词为中心的英语语法教学
以动词为中心的英语语法教学

作者简介钱海容(),女,湖北枝江人,华中师范大学外语学院5级研究生,研究方向为应用语言学、认知语言学。

1.引言

2005年笔者对华中师范大学英语专业大二的学

生270篇课外习作的错误进行了调查分析,发现语法和词汇项错误率最高。语法错误主要涉及介词、冠词、名词单复数、时态、人称等的误用。这些都是初中高中学习过的简单的语法知识。从理论上来说,大学生的作文中出现此类错误的机率应该是非常小的,而数据显示,此类错误率却很高。词汇错误主要体现在语义层面上,不少作者在表达时选择了一个不恰当的词。有不少句子一看就是中式英语。有的学生语法功底比较扎实,掌握的词汇量也比较大,但是在具体的语言实践中暴露出这样或那样的弱点,这种现象说明我们的英语教学还有问题,还有改进的余地。在英语教学中,我们采用的是传统的语法体系,也就是我们侧重于教学生如何组词成句。实际上,传统语法体系研究的是句法和词法问题,学生在掌握了5种基本句型及其变体以后,仍然难以写出较为正确的句子。这是因为在传统语法体系中,语义在组句过程中所起的作用基本上没有涉及。因此,学生运用所学语法知识组成的句子尽管符合语法,但不一定符合语义的组合规则。这也就是说学生习作中的错误与传统语法教学中词汇和语法的割裂有一定的关系。

回顾一下外语教学史,我们不难看出,语法教学在外语教学中的地位一直存在着争议。有时,赞成语法教学的观点占主导地位;有时,人们又极力反对语法教学。和语法地位的变化一样,如何教语法的争议也经历了相似的过程。进入90年代后,外语教学理论和实践的研究取向发生了很大的变化。研究表明如果纯粹以交际为目的来组织外语教学,并让学生进行

体验性的学习,即便提供给学习者充足的可理解的输入和交际机会,通过多年学习以后他们仍然无法习得足够的语言形式结构,其语言的准确程度仍差强人意。[1]于是,人们对以形式为中心的语法教学又产生了兴趣,一度受到冷落的语法教学重新受到重视,而探索语法教学的新途径又一次成为语言教学研究的热点。语法研究的专家学者所创立的语法理论多种多样,在当代英语语法研究方面,主要有三种语法体系,即传统语法、结构语法和转换生成语法。传统语法历史最悠久,使用最广泛,影响最大。传统语法内容包括词法和句法两部分,基本架构是:词法讨论十大词类,句法讨论四个句子种类和三种句子类型。[2]我国英语教学长期采用传统语法的理论模式,时至今日,仍然如此。如我国的语法专家黄和斌(2006年华中师范大学讲座)就认为,现在尽管有诸多语法流派,但真正适合英语教学的还是传统语法,只有这种语法才能帮助语言习得者掌握该语言的规则并运用语言,功能语法,层次语法,格语法以及最近兴起的认知语法都只能是研究者对语法的学术研究,其中的诸多术语难于为广大学习者理解和接受。然而,传统语法教学是否能在原有的基础上发展并在英语教学上找到更好的出路呢?基于对写作课外习作中错误的分析并结合自己的教学实践,笔者认为把词汇和语法结合,并以动词为中心进行语法教学是一条可行而可靠的途径。

2.词汇与语法结合的必要性

传统语法教学效果欠佳和处理语法与词汇的关系失当有关。在传统语法中,人们是如何看待语法与词汇的关系的呢?S 认为语法和词汇分别属于不同的领域。他认为语法主要研究一般语言事实,而

以动词为中心的英语语法教学

(华中师范大学外语学院,

武汉430079)

摘要:英语语法教学一直是教学中的争论点,近年来流行的以交际为中心的教学法事实表明语法

仍是不可少的。语法学术门派多种多样,应如何更有效地进行语法教学呢?本文基于对写作课外习作中错误的分析并结合自己的教学经验,认为把词汇和语法结合,并以动词为中心进行语法教学是一条可行而可靠的途径。

关键词:动词;英语语法;语法教学

华中师范大学研究生学报

Huazhong Normal U niversity Journal of Po stgraduates

第14卷第1期Vol.14No.1

2007年3月March 2007

:1982-200:H.w eet 99

词典处理的是具体的语言事实。语法和词典的区分在于语法主要研究可以从中引出一般规则的语言现象,而词典处理孤立的现象。[3]语法不管man,tree,goo d,grew 这些词的意义,但是组词成句以及词进入句子过程中的形态变化等等则属于语法的范畴。既然组词成句是语法的内容,那么组什么样的词成句当是语法的内容,怎么可能将语法和词汇截然分开/Jespersen指出什么属于语法,什么属于词汇,有些情况下可能是难以确定的,而且在某种程度上是任意的。[3]他指出ox的复数是oxen应该是具体的事实,但必须包括在语法之中,否则学生会认为ox的复数是o xes。Quirk与Sw eet的观点大体相同。他说:“我们的总原则是认为语法说明可以加以高度概括的结构,词汇则说明可以形成最低概括的结构。在应用这一原则时,我们必须在最高程度和最低程度的概括之间的梯度中作任意的决定。”[4]后一句话说明Quirk感到把词汇和语法完全割裂开来是困难的,同时确定第二层次的具体规则有一定的任意性。从理论研究看,语法和词汇各司其事似乎无可非议,把语法作为抽象的语言体系的一部分加以探讨,可以是一种路子,可是语法和词汇分家对于语法教学却有消极影响,是语法教学难以取得预期效果的症结所在。这是因为把语法作为抽象体系来教,必然和实际使用的语言脱节。

语法和词汇的关系直到Halliday才有一个合理的解决。他说:“语法就是指词汇语法(lexicogrammar),也就是说语法包括词汇。”“什么是语法,什么是词汇,这之间的区别仅仅是程度而已。”“语法和词汇之间没有明确的界限:词汇是开放的,是最‘精细’的语法。”[5]词汇和语法关系的密切,可以举例说明。例如:如果要说明小偷偷了弗兰克的50美元,则必须借助语法才能表达清楚。英语句子应为:He sto le$50from Frank.如果要表达抢的含义,此句应改为:He ro bbed Frank of$50。只有通过一定的时态才能表示一定的含义。又如现给出三个词:po liceman,kill, ro bber,英语句可为:The policeman was killed by the robber.The robber was killed by the policeman.这里选词和结构不同,表达的语义就不一样。由此可见,词汇与语法共同作用才能达到交际目的。

因此,将词汇归入语法完全是合理的,也是必要的。为了达到英语的教学目的,两者更应该结合。问题是语法和词汇该如何结合。

3.词汇与语法结合:以动词为中心的语法教学

“词汇-语法”(L exicon-Grammar)教学于1990年首先由D W提出,后由M L进一步推广。M L认为语言不是由传统所讲的词汇和语法组成,而是由多词预构语块(prefabricated chunks)组成。[3]词汇及语块是语言创造的基础,因此语法应该在词汇中教,这不同与传统的词汇只是被嵌入语法模式的教学模式。在国内,一些学者也提出了词汇与语法结合的教学方法。任邵曾认为传统语法和形式语法都注重横向组合结构,而忽视纵向的组合系统。[6]系统功能语法把语法看成是聚合关系的网络,所以纵向的选词理所当然地是语法的内容。他利用聚合和组合关系把词汇和语法结合在一起。这是一条不错的途径,但较抽象,在具体的教学中实施仍有难度。因此笔者提出,以动词为中心的英语语法教学。

3.1以动词为中心的语法教学的可行性

以动词为中心进行英语语法教学是可行的,有以下原因:第一,动词涉及的语法范畴最广,M urphy在Grammar in Use里列出英语语法主要有十项:冠词,介词,形容词与副词,情态动词,非限定性动词,词序,直间接引语,时态,语态,关系从句。[7]动词与其中的七项密切相关,这就是说动词可以涵盖英语的主要语法点。第二,动词比之其它词类,内部最复杂,动词在短语和句法结构中活动能力最强,大部分词类都要和它发生一定结合关系,动词可以与大多数词类构成短语,如动词与名词,动词与形容词,动词与副词,动词与介词。动词是担任动词短语中心词的唯一词类,动词短语具丰富的创造力[8]。第三,动词是一般句子里最重要的部分,以动词为谓语或以谓语中心词的句子最多,句型最为丰富,动词句型是语言的核心和脊柱。掌握了动词句型可以说是掌握了语言的基础和关键。学习和掌握典型例句,学习者可以大大提高学习掌握英语语法和词汇的速度与效率,进而更深入地学习和掌握英语[9]。

3.2教学实例:

以动词为中心进行英语语法教学也即把词汇与语法结合,句法与语义结合的过程。以动词为中心进行教学包括三个过程:一是以动词为中心的短语搭配;二是以动词为中心教授新的语法点或者复习已学的语法点;三是动词句型。

3.2.1以动词为中心的短语搭配

在学习一个新的动词时,教师不仅在讲解这个词的主要意思,而且还讲解以这个词相关的搭配。动词与多数词类可以发生结合关系,以动词为中心的短语十分丰富,但由于课堂时间限制,教师不可能把所有东西教给学生,同时学生也不可能掌握所有的短语搭配结构。因而教师得根据教学大纲的需要和学生的水平以及该短语的使用频率来选取合适的短语。在这个过程中,教师可以根据学生的实际情况选择是先呈现动词还是短语。以“”为例

ave illis ichael ewis

ichael ewis

multi-w ord compete: 100

首先给学生介绍这个词的主要的常用意义。然后,给出与compete相关的常用短语:compete w ith somebody,compete ag ainst somebody,compete for something,并要学生自己用这些短语造与生活相联系的有实际意义的句子。在这个过程之后,教师还可以补充co mpete的其它词型,比如:competitive examination/game,co mpetent man,fierce co mpetition.这样,学生就对compete这个词及相关短语的意义和用法有了全面的了解,在具体的运用中就可以有的放矢,运用自如。在写作或翻译过程中就能少犯错误,如介词搭配错误(with/ag ainst),competitiv e与competent混淆。

3.2.2以动词为中心教授新的语法点或复习已学的语法点

无论组成一个多么复杂的句子,不可否认,在组词成句的过程中,必然要考虑如下因素:主谓一致、时态、语态、语气、倒装、省略等等,这些都属于传统语法所探讨的范畴。因而在课堂上,仍有必要把这些语言点以明示的方式给学生讲解。动词涉及多项语法范畴,把讲解动词和语法点结合起来不仅可以使学生明白语法点还可以让学生更深刻地了解和运用动词。例如本单元的语法点是现在完成时,那么首先可以从本单元中选出些动词并以完成时的形式把它们呈现给学生,假设有如下动词succeed,of fer,permit:

I have succeeded in getting a scholarship.

She has succeeded as a teacher.

My parents have offered me great help to my study.

The government has offered us the statistics to do the experiment. Our teacher has permitted us to have a barbecue in the Forest Park. My parents have permitted me to go to w ork in Tibet.

此时,老师可以让学生自己归纳动词时态的特点,并总结现在完成时的构成。并让学生用已学过的动词或短语(如compete)造句子,一方面检查学生是否掌握了这个语法点,另一方面也可以检验学生是否能正确的使用已学过的动词和短语。之后,老师还可以让学生用本单元的新词造过去时态的句子,并比较现在完成时与一般过去时的区别,以便学生能更深刻地理解现在完成时。

在复习语法点的课堂中,以动词为中心回顾语法点能清晰地展现各个语法点。比如复习时态,情态动词,语态及非限定性动词时,可以选定一个动词(如change),让学生用这个动词在不同的语法点下造句。

3.2.3动词句型

动词句型是语言的核心和脊柱。掌握了动词句型可以说是掌握了语言的基础和关键。传统语法研究的是句法和词法问题,然而学生在掌握了5种基本句型及其变体以后,仍然难以写出较为正确的句子。这是因为在传统语法中,没有提到语义在组句过程中所起的作用。因此,在这种情况下组成的句子只能符合句法,不一定符合语义。在课堂上,笔者曾经让学生将“我们必须把敌人消灭干净。”和“我们校园里有很多树。”两个句子翻译成英语。结果几乎所有的学生都翻译成:We must clear the enemies.这是明显的Chinese English。从句法上讲,从传统语法上讲,该句是对的。该句是一种主-谓-宾结构,因为clear是及物动词。在传统语法中,动词主要分为及物动词和不及物动词两类,(这里我们不涉及助动词和情态动词的问题)。及物动词后面跟宾语,不及物动词后面不跟宾语。因为clear是及物动词,所以它们需要一个宾语X宾语可以由名词、代词等来充当。而在翻译或写作时,人们往往会有这样的认识:自觉不自觉地套用母语中现成的句型,因而出现上面的句子。不错,这两个动词后面应该跟有宾语。但是应该跟什么样的宾语,这是一个关键问题。不能因为在传统语法中讲到名词、代词,非谓语动词都可以做宾语,就可以随便找一个,而应该考虑宾语的语义选择问题。这时要用动词的配价语法来解决可能会更好一些。配价语法打破了传统语法中“主谓核心说”,把句子作一个主谓线性进行描写,而是以动词为中心,把主语、宾语以及其它成份都看作动词的附加成份。根据传统语法,在分析句子的基础上归纳出5种基本句型:

①S+V X②S+V+SC X③S+V+O X④S+V+Oi+Od X ⑤S+V+O+OC.(Oi为间接宾语,Od为直接宾语)

上面这些句型都停留在句法平面上,学生根据这些句型所造的句子可能只符合语法,而不符合语义或不完全符合语义,因为教师在讲授语法的过程中,没有把句法和语义二者结合起来。仔细分析上述基本句型就会发现,实际上在传统语法中用什么样的句型,也是由动词决定的,只不过没有明确提出来罢了。如果谓语是不及物动词,我们用S+V X如果谓语动词是连系动词,我们用S+V+SC X如果谓语动词是及物动词,我们用S+V+O/S+V+Oi+Od/S+V+O+OC。这与配价语法基本上是吻合的,只不过在课堂讲授中没有提出这一概念。不同的是我们在配价句法中引入了语义概念。除了描述除动词以外其他句子成份的语义格外,还描述了其他句子成份与动词之间的语义关系,如上面的clear一词,可以仿照德语动词的配价描写,把该词的配价情况描写如下:

clear2(2指的是动词的价的数目)

S++O(的配价句型)

S→施事(人)(主语的语义限制)

O→受事(地方)(宾语的语义限制)

clear clear

101

English Gram mar Teaching w ith Verbs as the Core

Qian Hai-rong

(Scho ol of Fo reign L anguag es,Huazhong Normal Univ ersity,Wuhan 430079,China )

Abstr act:Eng lish grammar teaching is alw ay s co ntrov ersial in Eng lish teaching practice.Some thinks g rammar teaching is necessary for languag e learners w hereas others who advocate the co mmunicativ e appro ach claim that it is o f little use.How ev er,the communicative teaching practice in China indicates the necessity o f grammar teaching.Now adays there are a number of schoo ls of grammar theo ries,such as traditio nal grammar,structural g rammar,functio nal g rammar and cog nitive grammar.Then w hich school shall we rely on and how do we teach Eng lish grammar in an eff ectiv e w ay P Based on the error analysis o f w riting tasks and the teaching practice,

the autho r puts fo rw ard that g rammar teaching should combine lexis and grammar and takes

the verbs as the core.

Key wor ds:verbs ;English grammar ;grammar teaching

指导教师

陈幼林

责任编辑

姜兆霞

通过描述,动词clear 的两个补充成分的语义格以及与动词之间的限制情况便一目了然。这时候,上面的句子“我们必须把敌人消灭干净”的英语译文则变为:We must clear the land of the enemies.

clear 是及物动词,那么下面我们讨论一下不及物

动词。不及物动词后面不需要宾语,所以只简单地构成S+V 句型。但是,实际上不是所有的不及物动词都简单地加上主语就组成一个有意义的句子,如:stay ,

live 这两个动词:He stay s.He lives.

这两个句子不完整,从语义上讲是错误的。初学者容易犯这样的错误。因为,根据传统语法的观点,状语属于说明成分,但是,这种分析不能圆满地解决上述问题。下面从配价角度来分析一下这两个动词:

stay 2

liv e 2S+stay +Ad S+live+Ad S →施事(人)S →施事(人)Ad →地点

Ad →地点

这时用stay 和live 造句,就不会出错了:He stay s here./He lives here.

由上可见,动词的配价语法在某些方面可以解决传统语法中不能作出满意解释的一些语法现象。以动词为中心,把主语、宾语以及其它成份都看作动词的附加成份,介绍动词的配价讲解动词句型,有利于学生把语法和词汇结合起来,写出既符合语法又符合语义的句子。

4.结论

传统语法的弊端在于语法与语义的割裂,因此语

法教学中应把两者结合起来。本文在词汇和语法结合的基础上,提出了以动词为中心的语法教学,并从理论上论证的其可行性。以动词为中心的英语语法教学共有三个步骤,一是以动词为中心的短语;二是以动词为中心的语法要点;三是以动词为中心的句子。英语语法复杂多变,词汇成千上万,老师不可能在课堂上把所有语法点和词汇都讲到,以动词为中心只是一种方法,它要求老师在课堂教学中根据学生需要和水平和词的使用频率选取相应的词和句,来帮助学生比较全面的掌握某个词的用法和比较深刻地掌握语法点,达到语法和语义的最佳结合。

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