应用语言学重点知识汇总
应用语言学复习（之二）
应用语言学复习（之二）应用语言学练习（之二）１、什么是第一语言？第一语言(first 1anguage)是指一个人出生之后最先接触并获得的语言。
一个人的第一语言通常是他的母语。
２、什么是母语？对这个问题目前还存在着不同的看法。
①母语是指“一个人最初学会的一种语言，在一般情况下是本民族的标准语或某一种方言”。
这个意思通常被译作“mother language”。
②母语是“指本民族的语言”。
这个意思通常被译成“native language”。
③母语还可以解释为“一个语系中作为其他语言共同起源语的语言”，如拉丁语被认为是法语、意大利语、罗马尼亚语等所有罗曼语的母语。
这个意思则通常被译成“parent language”。
④我们认为，母语就是指父母乃至多代以前一直沿用下来的语言，母语具有继承性，它体现了人们世代的语言关系。
一个人出生之后通常是使用并继承了母语，母语通常也就成为他的第一语言。
3、第一语言和母语的是什么关系？①一个人从小接触并获得的第一语言一般都是从父母一辈习得的，他继承了前辈的语言“母语”，这是最常见的情况，因此，人们通常把第一语言和母语等同起来。
②其实尽管第一语言与母语之间的关系十分密切，但二者也有所区别。
第一语言和母语是两个不同的概念，第一语言可能是母语，也可能不是母语。
就多数人而言，母语是他们的第一语言。
但由于种种原因，有些人习得的第一语言并非母语。
母语失却现象的存在，也有力地说明了第一语言和母语的不同。
在内涵上，第一语言指的是获得语言的顺序，而母语不完全是一个获得语言的顺序问题；在外延上，二者所指称的对象是交叉关系。
第一语言是语言学的概念，而母语则更多地牵涉到民族学问题。
４、本族语和非本族语的是怎么区分的？是按照言语社团、通常是按民族的界限来区分的。
本族语是指语言习得者自己的民族所使用的语言，也称民族语。
非本族语是指本民族以外的语言，可能是外语，也可能是本国其他民族的语言。
５、第一语言和本族语是怎么样的关系？一个人儿时从父母那里习得本民族语言，这时，他的第一语言和本族语是一致的；但一个人儿时从父母或当地社团那里习得外族语言，这时他的第一语言就不是本族语，出现了第一语言与本族语分离现象。
应用语言学 重点整理(各类名解 术语对比 简答)
1.Applied linguistics aimed to solve problems in various fields by applying the knowledge of linguistics.2.The nature of applied linguistics:Independent Interdisciplinary Applied scienceEmpirical science♥3.名：Non-cognitive VS Cognitive:Non-cognitive：1)refers to “the change in a behavioral tendency” as the result of repeated reinforced practice of stimulus-response.2) refers to the change of external behavior 外部行为变化3) is mechanical connection between stimuli and responsesCognitive:1) is the conceptual process experienced in the association between stimuli and responses2) refers to the acquisition and organization of meaning3) is a process of getting to know the outside world through understanding and deduction 推断演绎4. learning includes not only deliberately acquired new associations (intentional learning)意向学习but also those acquired without conscious awareness. (incidental learning)附带学习5．Philosophical bases of learning theories:The pessimistic view 悲观论The hedonistic view 快乐主义The optimistic view 乐观论The tabula-rasa or “blank-slate”view: in behaviorism, the starting point for first language acquisition was sometimes assumed to be zero.( a blank slate) 白板论6. 1.Pavlov’s classical conditioning❖Experiment :Salivation reflex in dogs❖Food; sound of bell/light; salivate❖Contiguity and repetition2.Thorndike’s instrumental conditioning 工具性条件反射❖Experiment :Trial and error behavior of animals❖Trial and error :试错法，尝试错误说：一种通过尝试各式各样的方法或理论直到错误被充分地减少或杜绝从而达到正确的解决方法或令人满意的结果的方法Three laws of learning:❖Law of readiness：准备率（感兴趣）❖Law of exercise：练习率Repetition of a conditioned response would strengthen the bond between the stimulus situation and the response.❖Law of effect：效果率It states that “when a modifiable connection is made and is accompanied by or followed by a satisfying state of affairs, the strength of the connection is increased.”3.Hul’ SOR theory:S-O-R: O: intervening variables中间变量. His major assumption involved the inner states in people. It is used to signify the importance of intervening happenings in the organism.♥7.简：Stimulus-response theory 刺激-反应理论It describes learning as the formation of associations between responses. A stimulus is that which produces a change of reaction in an individual or organism. A response is the behavior which is produced as a reaction to a stimulus. Reinforcement is a stimulus which follows the occurrence of a response and affects the probability of that response occurring or not occurring again.♥8.简：Gestalt psychology：The meaning of gestalt: pattern or configuration (结构，形状整体) it refers to a whole that is greater than the sum total of its parts.A gestalt is a form, and there is a form which is present in a whole which is lost when the parts are examined in detail without reference to their relationship to the whole.9.Advance organizer先行组织者: it is an activity which helps students organize their thoughts and ideas as a preparation for learning or studying something.♥10.名：Competence VS PerformanceCompetence：refers to a person’s internalized knowledge of a language. In other words, competence refers to what person knows about a language.Performance：refers to the actual use of a language. It refers to how a person actually uses his competence in comprehension and production of a language. (CHOMSKY)11.The features of L1 acquisition：❖1)universally successful 全世界都成功❖2) no explicit instruction❖3) rapid (0-4 years old)❖4) conditional (i. exposure; ii. Critical period—1.5-4 years old; iii. No mental deficiency).12.Some scholars suggest that children are able to learn language because adults speak to them in a special “simplified” language sometimes called motherese, caretakerese-, or child directed speech. (CDS) (more informally, baby talk).♥13.名：Order vs. SequenceOrder of acquisition refers to the fact that one linguistic form, rule and item is acquired before another. Sequence of acquisition refers to the stages that learners go through in learning a TL feature.Developmental pattern is a cover term for order and sequence.14.Foreign Language vs. Second LanguageForeign language refers to a language which is not a Native Language in a country. It is not used as a medium of instruction in the mainstream education, as a working language of mainstream mess media or as a language of communication within a country. 中国人在中国学英语Second language can be used interchangeably with “foreign language”. It is also used to refer to a language that a person with a first language learns and acquires in a country where the language is a Native Language.中国人在英国学英语15.Differences between child and adult learnersKrashen’s summary of findings: adults and older children in general initially acquire the second language faster than young children, but children second language acquirer will usually be superior in terms of ultimate attainment.16.The biological explanation：1.有偏向左半球大脑，右手灵活2.这种偏侧性增强到5岁左右3.有些语言部分不完全偏向左脑，直到青春期♥17.简：Interlanguage theory 中介语理论Definition: The type of language produced by second-and-foreign-language learners who are in the process of learning a language. It’s actually a system bordering on the first language and the target language.❖ a. borrowing patterns from the mother tongue❖ b. extending patterns from the target language, e.g by analog❖ c. expressing meaning using the words and grammar which are already known.it is sometimes said to result from the learner’s interlanguage system or approximative systemCharacteristic of interlanguage system1) reduced or simplified system 2)dynamic♥18.简：the Monitor theory 监控理论Description of Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition1.the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis,2.the Monitor hypothesis,The Monitor hypothesis explains the relationship between acquisition and learning and defines the influence of the latter on the former. The monitoring function is the practical result of the learned grammar. According to Krashen, the acquisition system is the utterance initiator, while the learning system performs the role of the 'monitor' or the 'editor'.The 'monitor' acts in a planning, editing and correcting function when three specific conditions are met: that is, 1)the second language learner has sufficient time at his/her disposal, 2)he/she focuses on form or thinks about correctness, and3) he/she knows the rule.3.the Natural Order hypothesis,the hypothesis that children acquiring their 2nd language acquire linguistic forms, rules, and items in a similar order.4.the Input hypothesis,The idea that exposure to comprehensible input which contains structures that are slightly in advance of a learner’s current level of competence is the necessary and sufficient cause of SLA5.the Affective Filter hypothesis.♥19.名：Acquisition(习得) vs Learning(学得)According to kranshen, there are 2 independent systems of second language performance “the acquisition system”and “the learned system”.The “acquisition system” or “acquisition” is the product of a subconscious process very similar to the process children undergo when they acquire their first language. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language —natural communicative in which speakers are concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in the communicative act.The learned system or learning is the product of formal instruction and it comprises a conscious process which results in conscious knowledge about the language. For example: knowledge of grammar rule.20.The creative construction modelit asserts that L2 learners do not merely imitate the language they are exposed to, but subconsciously construct mental grammars which allow them to produce and understand words, phrases and sentences they have not heard before。
应用语言学复习(之三)
应用语言学复习资料（之三）1．心理语言学的定义：心理语言学是研究人类个体如何获得、理解和生成语言的心理学分支。
它从心理过程和心理机制的角度来研究人类的语言活动特点。
2．为什么说心理语言学研究是跨学科的？首先，它以语言的结构和功能为线索来探讨人类言语活动的心理过程和机制，而语言的结构和功能是语言学的研究对象。
其次，在对言语活动的心理过程和机制进行研究的过程中，必然要涉及人脑的结构和特殊的机能，有时还要借助于对由脑损伤和发育障碍导致的病历分析。
最后，人类言语活动是在社会环境中发生和发展的，复杂的社会因素直接决定了语言系统的变化，并对言语活动产生重要影响。
因此，对于人类言语活动心理机制的研究不仅依赖于心理学的理论和方法，而且吸收和采纳了语言学、社会学、生理学、临床医学、计算机科学、数学等许多领域的理论和方法。
3．什么是元语言学意识？它包括哪些内容？元语言学意识是指儿童对语言、文字一般结构特征的认识和操作。
它包含：句法意识：对句子内部句法和语义结构的认识；语音意识：对字母与音位之间对应关系的认识；构词法意识：对字词的内部结构与整词词义的关系的认识；随着语言、文字的学习，儿童会发展各种元语言学意识，其特点表现为概括化和规则化的学习。
4．什么是词频？词频是指某个单词在书面语言中的使用次数。
词频的确定通常是对一个单词在报刊、杂志、教材等语言材料中被使用的次数进行统计而得到的。
由于词频来自于对真实语言材料的统计，所以它是一个客观变量。
但每个人对同一单词又有不同的经验，因而熟悉程度也不尽相同，它又是一个主观变量。
词频是影响单词识别速度的一个最重要的因素。
5．什么叫字词识别的词频效应？人们对高频词的识别快于对低频词的识别，这一现象叫做词频效应。
6．词频效应与语境有什么关系？语境与词频效应的作用是相加性的。
语境和词频效应作用在字词识别的同一阶段，是交互作用的。
语境对高频词的影响较小，而对低频词的影响较大。
7．什么是公共关系？它是指一个社会组织与相关的社会公众之间依靠传播沟通建立起来的关系。
应用语言学重点知识 语言成分的借用与吸收
1.语言成分的借用与吸收、双语现象、语言的转用、语言的混合等，都是语言互相接触的结果。
2.（五）重视语言创新。
重视语言创新。
人类有生产劳动创新——科学实验创新——社会交际创新——语言创新；反过来，语言创新——社会交际创新——科技创新——社会生产力发展。
3.语言变体（Language Variety），又称语言或言语变异、语言或言语异体。
4.语言变体是社会语言学研究的重要课题。
R.A.赫德森（Richard Hudson）把语言变体定语为“社会分布相似的一套语项”。
意指是由具备相同社会特征的人在相同的社会环境中所普遍使用的某种语言表现形式。
“语言变体”是一个内涵很宽泛的概念，大至一种语言的各种方言，小至一种方言中某一项语音、词汇或句法特征，只要有一定的社会分布的范围，就是一种语言变体。
语言的变体受到复杂的社会因素制约，社会语言学对语言变体的研究一般认为，讲话人的社会阶级（Class）和讲话风格（Style）是语言变体的重要基础，而讲话人的性别对语言变体也产生重要影响。
根据使用者来划分的变体叫方言，根据语言使用来划分的变体叫语体或语域.各种语言变体包括地域方言和社会方言（social dialect或socialect）、标准语和土语5.语言来源于社会，它担负着人类思维、社会交流等重任，社会又通过各种方式扩展语言，使其内涵更为丰富，我们可以从他们的相互作用来看他们的相互关系。
社会是宇宙，每个人就是其中的一个物质，语言则是各物质相互间的作用。
社会是个庞杂的体系，语言使得其中的元素相互促进，相互制约，从而维护了社会的稳定发展。
社会不断进步，这对语言提出了更高的要求，一系列新名词应运而生，网络文化更是大大丰富了语言内容。
6.语言从结构而言，是由语音、语汇、语法构成的一种复杂的符号系统；从功能而言，语言是人类进行社会交际和思维认知的工具。
社会是由一定的经济基础和上层建筑构成的整体，也叫社会形态，泛指由于共同物质条件而互相联系起来的人群。
应用语言学笔记
一、社会语言学定义（广义）：研究语言和社会的关系，以语言系统作为分析基础，它属于应用语言学，如果以社会学角度来切入，它就叫语言社会学，如果偏向于应用语言学，还是属于社会语言学。
兹威斯基的定义：Who say what to whom on which occasion.1、广义：A、宏观社会语言学：又叫大社会语言学，主要研究社会中存在的语言问题，包括双语或多语现象、方言，交际，教育问题。
它研究的课题包括，语言教学、语言接触、语言政策、语言规划、标准语的选择、语言的相互接触与影响、语言冲突等问题。
B、微观社会语言学：又叫小社会语言学，主要研究语言的各种变异，并且联系社会的因素，探讨语言变异的原因和规律，通常使用统计模式和概率模式来描写这些现象。
它研究的课题主要是：语言和年龄、语言和性别、语言和职业行业、语言和阶级阶层。
C、其他：包括语言和文化、播音主持语言、广告语、作家作品语言、语言文明、语言修养、新词新语、网络语言2、狭义：狭义的社会语言学仅指宏观社会语言学。
二、社会语言学产生的原因：1、客观条件：随着资本主义社会的发展，产生了大量社会问题。
2、理论基础：启蒙运动，资产阶级的思想家政治家的一些学说为社会学的产生奠定了理论基础。
（卢梭：《论人类不平等的起源和基础》）。
3、自然科学的发展和社会调查统计的兴起为社会学的产生提供了方法论和基础。
三、应用语言学：狭义的应用语言学专指语言教学；从广义上来讲是研究语言本体和本体语言学同有关方面发生关系的学科。
（本体：语音、词汇、语法）四、应用语言学的特性：1、独立性：有明确的研究任务，明确的研究对象，有独立的学科基础。
创建了大量的研究机构。
2、综合性：是一门交叉学科，边缘学科，研究其需要语言学的知识，也需要相关学科知识。
3、实用性：应用语言学为了直接满足语言在社会中的实际应用，其存在于发展条件就是实用性。
4、实验性：应用语言学解决的语言运用的实际问题离不开调查和实验。
语言应用知识点总结
语言应用知识点总结语言是人类交流的重要工具，它不仅包括口头交流，还包括书面交流。
在日常生活中，我们需要用语言进行沟通，表达自己的想法和情感。
为了更准确地表达自己，我们需要了解一些语言应用知识点。
本文将从语法、词汇、语音和交际技巧等方面总结一些语言应用知识点，以帮助读者更好地应用语言进行交流。
一、语法知识点总结1. 词类和词性变化中文中的词类包括名词、动词、形容词、副词、代词、介词、连词和量词等。
在句子中，各种词类起着不同的作用，通过词性变化可以表达出不同的语法功能。
2. 句子成分和句型结构句子是语言中最基本的单位，它由主语、谓语、宾语和补语等成分构成。
句型结构是指句子的基本结构，包括简单句、复合句和并列句等。
3. 时态和语态时态是动词表示的动作或状态所发生的时间，包括过去时、现在时和将来时等。
语态是动词表示的动作或状态所受到的影响程度，包括主动语态和被动语态。
4. 语法关系和句法分析句子中的词语通过各种语法关系来构成合乎语法规则的句子。
句法分析是指对句子中各个词语的语法功能和句子结构进行分析。
二、词汇知识点总结1. 词义和词汇搭配词义是词语所表示的含义，包括直义和引申义。
词汇搭配是指一些词语之间在语言实践中常常一起出现的现象。
2. 词义辨析和词语深化词义辨析是指对一些词义相近的词语进行深入的辨析和分析。
词语深化是指对一些词语进行拓展和丰富其含义。
3. 词语构词和词族词语构词是指通过词素的组合来构成新的词语。
词族是指由一个词语派生出来的一类词语。
4. 词语的意义和用法词语的意义和用法是指词语在不同语境下所表达的含义和用法。
通过了解词语的使用情况，可以更准确地理解和运用词语。
三、语音知识点总结1. 语音发音和语音规律语音发音是指人们使用声带和发音器官发出的音频信号。
语音规律是指语言中的声音变化规律，包括声母、韵母和声调等方面的规律。
2. 语音辨析和语音转换语音辨析是指对一些语音发音相近的音节进行深入的辨析和分析。
应用语言学复习资料
应用语言学复习资料注意：1. 另一个TERM 是silent way2. 对比关系是听说法和直接法3. 关系是应用语言学与语言学的关系ACT----active control of thoughtAILA/IAAL----international association of applied linguisticsAL----applied linguisticsALAA----applied linguistics association of AustraliaALANA----applied linguistics association of New ZealandALM----the audio-lingual methodASTP----the army specialized training programBAAL----British association of applied linguisticsBICS----basic interpersonal communicative skillsCA----contrastive analysisCAAL/ACLA----Canadian association of applied linguisticsCAGR----compound annual growth rateCAH----the contrastive analysis hypothesisCAL----critical applied linguisticsCALL----computer aided language learningCALP----cognitive/academic language proficiencyCDA----critical discourse analysisCDS----child-directed speakerCLL----community language learningCLT----communicative language teachingCP----co-operative principleCUP----Cambridge University PressESF----the European science foundationEUROSLA----European second language associationFLT----foreign language teachingFLA----first language acquisitionFSI----the Foreign Service institute‟sFUO-finite utterance organizationGCSE----general certificate of second educationGB----government and bindingGUFS----Guangdong University of foreign studiesICT----information and communication technologyIDC----international data corporationInJAL----international Journal of Applied LinguisticsIP----input processingIRAL----international review of applied linguistics in language teaching ISBU----interlanguage studies bulletinIUO----infinite utterance organizationLAD----language acquisition deviceMME----the micro-momentary expression testMLAT----modern language aptitude testNS----native speakerNNS----non-native speakerNUO----nominal utterance organizationOPI----oral proficiency interviewOUP----Oxford University PressPDP----parallel distributed processingPDAQ----the professed difference in attitude questionnaireSLA----second language acquisitionSLI-----special language impairmentSLL----second language learningSLR----second language researchS-R----stimulus-responseSSLA----studies in second language acquisitionTESOL-----teachers of English to speakers of other languageTG----transformational grammar/ transformational-generative grammarTL----theoretical languageTLU----target-like useTOEFL----theTest of English as a Foreign LanguageTRR----total physical responseU of C----University of CalgaryUCLA----university of California Los AngelesUG----universal grammarWCAL----world congress of applied linguisticsZPD----zone of proximal developmentMayes Briggs character types: E/I----extroversion-introversionS/N----sensing-intuitionT/F----thinking-feelingJ/P----judging-perceivingNP----noun-phrase VP----verb-phrase DP----determiner-phraseCP----complementizer phrase IP----infection phrase TP----tense phraseAgrP----agreement phrase PP----prepositional phraseTerms:Language----language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. / A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which the members of a society interact in terms of their total culture. / A language is “a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements”. / Language is “the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols”.Language is an emotional subject: it belongs to everyone, so most people feel they have a right to hold an opinion about it. Languages are equal on having developed to express the needs of their users, all languages meet the social and psychological needs of their speakers. Language is magical, a mystery which, esp. in its written form, is thought to contain special powers, which only theinitiated are allowed to understand or control.Linguistics----it is the scientific study of human language in all its aspects, providing a methodology for exploring the structure of particular languages and investigates what is universal to all human languages; how languages are different, how language varies over time and between different societies, how language is learnt, and how language is used for human communication.Linguistics may be defined as the scientific study of language. This definition is well accepted because it succinctly pinpoints the objects and methods of linguistics as a discipline.Applied linguistics----it can be defined in a broad sense or in a narrow sense. Broadly speaking, applied linguistics covers more than the teaching and learning of languages. It includes speech pathology and therapy, translation, machine translation and language policy, etc.. In one word, it includes anything to which linguistics could be applied. Foreign and second language learning and teaching research is a central part of applied linguistics. So narrowly speaking, applied linguistics means the application of linguistics findings to language teaching and learning. It is concerned with approaches to language teachers, with language learning, with syllabus design, with materials development and with the assessment and testing of language learning, with the educational policy in general and language learning and teaching policy in particular of a country.Psycholinguistics----it is a sub-discipline of applied linguistics in abroad sense, but psycholinguistics has become an independent discipline through recent developments. Generally speaking, psycholinguistics studies language in relation to the properties of the human mind. As such it studies the relationship between linguistics behavior and psychological processes that are hypothesized to underlie such behavior. In other words, psycholinguistics studies the mental process that a person uses in producing and understanding language, and how humans learn language. There have beenQuestions:1. Why does the examination of social relationships play a crucial role in applied linguistics?1) The first reason is that in the partial move from linguistics applied to applied linguistics, it has been accepted that the social aspect is essential to all understanding of language in use, that in the specific case of language teaching all formal language learning must take account of the context in which that learning takes place and further-more that the context determines and affects that learning.2) The second reason is that there is noticeable now a loss of confidence in the techniques offered by Cordor and widely used in the 1960s and 1970s as general statements of how to proceed. When talking about the change of applied linguistics practice, Davies (1999) argues that it is a move from the linguistics applied to the applied linguistics models.2. The relation between applied linguistics and second language acquisition.Applied linguistics draws on multidisciplinary theoretical and empirical perspectives o address real world issues and problems in which language is central. SLA draws on multidisciplinary theoretical and empirical perspectives to address the specific issue of how people acquire a second language and eh specific problem of why everyone dose not do so successfully.3. The relationship between psycholinguistics and applied linguistics.Psycholinguistics can or should play a role in applied linguistics. The acquisition and use of a second language seem to be the appropriate chunk of applied linguistics in this context. Thepsycholinguistics interest would be in the processing mechanisms involved in using more than one language and the acquisition of additional languages. The applied linguistics interest would be in understanding why language learners behave the way they do. This interpretation means that multilingual processing can be defined as the intersection or shared by interest across psycholinguistics and applied linguistics.4. The relationship between applied linguistics and linguistics.Linguistics and applied linguistics is inherently a multidisciplinary study, drawing on methodologies and theories from many fields, including archaeology, psychology, anthropology, history, literature, philosophy, sociology, social theory, education, the mathematical sciences and computer science. Thus it has contributions to make to a range of study and professional practice areas. Applied linguistics is doing with the Internalized language, and linguistics is doing with the Externalized language. Applied linguistics is really still linguistics happening to be involved in application, which they may label as applied linguistics. Applied linguistics is just another area, part of linguistics. Linguistics differs from applied linguistics, for linguistics focuses on language, while applied linguistics focuses on language practice. Applied linguistics contains linguistics, applied linguistics and linguistics are automated entities, applied linguistics is part of linguistics.5. The relationship between language and applied linguistics.Applied linguistics maintains a close relationship to language. Language is part of applied linguistics. Linguistics is the scientific study of language, while applied linguistics is an approach to understanding language issues in the real world, and therefore applied linguistics is the study of language and linguistics in relation to practical problems.6. The sub-field of applied linguisticsApplied linguistics can cover a very large area, such as: language acquisition, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, ethno linguistics, computational linguistics, corpus linguistics, text linguistics, etc.. All the sub-branches of linguistics could be called applied linguistics except the theoretical linguistics.Assessments:Assessment of grammar-translation or traditional methodIn spite of the virulent attacks that reformers made, the grammar translation or traditional method has maintained itself remarkably well. As we have already noted in our study of language learning, the first language as a reference system is indeed very important for the second language learner. Therefore, translation in one form or another, or other cross lingual techniques can play a certain part in language learning. Moreover, some learners endeavor to understand the grammatical system of the second language. Hence grammar teaching, too, may have some importance for them. Furthermore, thinking about formal features of the second language and translation as a practice technique put the learner into an active problem-solving situation. In the terms of the basic strategies already set out it forms part of the “academic”(explicit) learning strategy. Finally, grammar- translation appears didactically relatively easy to apply. The major defect of grammar-translation lies in the overemphasis on the language as a mass of rules (and exceptions) and in the limitations of practice techniques which never emancipate the learner from the dominance of the first language. In addition, the sheer size of the task of memorization and the lack of coherence with which the language facts have been presented to the learner invalidate the claim, made in the nineteenth century, that this method provides a safe, easy, and practical entry into a second language.Assessment of the direct methodThe direct method was the first of the methods in which the impetus came both from the inventiveness of a few practitioners and from the critical and theoretical thought about the nature of language learning situation one of language use and to train the learner to abandon the first language as the frame of reference. It demanded inventiveness on the part of teachers and led to the development of new non-translational techniques of language instruction. The use of a text as a basis of language learning, demonstrations of pictures and objects, the emphasis on question and answer, spoken narratives, dictation, imitation, and a host of new types of grammatical exercises have resulted from the direct method. Language pedagogy in the present century, for example, Palmer in the twenties and the audio-lingual and audiovisual methods in the fifties and sixties, adopted many of the techniques first developed by direct method teachers. On the L1-L2 issue, the direct method constitutes a radical attempt to exclude L1 in L2 learning.Two major problems have persistently troubled direct method teaching. One has been how to convey meaning without translating, and how to safeguard against misunderstanding without reference to the first language. Another has been how to apply the direct method beyond elementary stages of language learning. The direct method—has extended the repertoire of language instruction in the early stages of teaching, but has added relatively little to the teaching of advanced learners. In a way, particularly because of the insistence on the use of the second language in classroom communication, the direct method can legitimately be looked upon as a predecessor of present-day …immersion‟ techniques.Assessment of the audio-lingual methodIn the early sixties audiolingualism had raised hopes of ushering in a golden age of language learning. By the end of the decade it became the whipping boy for all that was wrong with language teaching. Its theoretical basis was found to be weak. But also in practical terms its hopes had not been fulfilled. Empirical research did not conclusively establish its superiority, and teachers, using audio-lingual materials and applying the audio-lingual method conscientiously, complained about the lack of effectiveness of the techniques in the long run and the boredom they engendered among students.In view of these criticisms, it is necessary to remind oneself of the major contributions of audiolingualism to language teaching. First, it was among the first theories to recommend the development of a language teaching theory on declared linguistic and psychological principles. Second, it attempted to make language learning accessible to large groups of ordinary learners. In other words, this theory proposed that language teaching should be organized in such a way as not to demand great intellectual feats of abstract reasoning to learn a language. Third, it stressed syntactical progression, while previously methods had tended to be preoccupied with vocabulary and morphology. Fourth, it led to the development of simple techniques, without translation, of varied, graded, and intensive practice of specific features of the language. Last, it developed the separation of the language skills into a pedagogical device. The audio-lingual method introduced specifically designed techniques of auditory and oral practice, while previously oral practice had been simply textbook exercises read aloud, and the sequencing of different language skills had not been treated consistently as pedagogically relevant.1. The oral approach and situational language teaching----Harild Palmer & A.S. Hornby, teacher‟s role is ________________2. The audio-lingual method----Bloomfield, teacher‟s role is the dominator of the whole process.3. Communicative language teaching----Noam Chomsky, the role is the facilitator, participator, needs analyst, counselor, and group process manager.4. Total physical response----James Asher, the role is the instructor of the whole process.5. The silent way----Caleb Gattegno, the role is dramatist.6. Community language learning----Charles A., the role is the counselor.7. The natural way----Tracy Terrell, the role is the provider of the target language, the classroom atmosphere and the rich activities.8. Suggestopedia----Georgi Lozanov, the role is to create situations.Comparing TPR & CLL:Differences:1) At the level of design, TPR typically has a written syllabus with paced introduction of structures and vocabulary; CLL has no syllabus and operates out of what learners feel they need to know.2) At the level of teacher‟s role, in TPR the teachers‟role is one of drill master, director, and motivator; in CLL the teacher/knower is counselor, supporter, and facilitator.3) About the learners, in TPR learners are physically active and mobile; CLL learners are sedentary and in a fixed configuration4) About the relationship, TPR assumes no particular relationship among learners and emphasizes the importance of individuals acting alone; CLL is rooted in a communal relationship between learners and teachers acting supportively and in concert.5) At the level of procedure, TPR language practice is largely mechanical, with much emphasis on listening; CLL language practice if innovative, with emphasis on production.Similarities:1)In approach, both TPR and CLL see stress, defensiveness, and embarrassment as the majorblocks to successful language learning.2)They both see the learners‟commitment, attention, and group participating as central toovercoming these barriers.3)They both view the stages of adult language learning as recapitulations of the stages ofchildhood learning.4)Both CLL and TPR consider mediation, memory, and recall of linguistic elements to be centralissues.5)They both hold that learning is multimodal.6)At the level of design, both of them assumed that materials can be locally produced as needed.。
语言学知识点汇总
语言学知识点汇总语言，是人类交流的工具，也是思维的载体。
语言学则是对语言的科学研究，涵盖了众多有趣且重要的知识点。
首先，我们来谈谈语音学。
语音学关注的是语言的声音，包括元音和辅音的发音特点、语音的声学特征以及语音的产生和感知机制。
例如，元音的发音取决于舌头的位置和嘴唇的形状，而辅音则通过发音部位和发音方法来区分。
了解语音学能帮助我们更准确地发音，也有助于语言的学习和教学。
语法是语言学中的一个关键部分。
它规定了词如何组成句子，句子的结构和成分。
比如，句子中的主语、谓语、宾语等成分的排列规则，以及不同词性的词（名词、动词、形容词等）在句子中的用法。
语法规则并非随意设定，而是在长期的语言使用中逐渐形成和固定下来的。
词汇学则聚焦于词汇的研究。
包括词汇的构成、词义的演变、词汇的分类等。
词汇不是孤立存在的，它们相互关联形成一个庞大的系统。
比如，同义词、反义词、上下义词等关系。
同时，词汇的意义也会随着时间和社会的发展而发生变化，新的词汇不断产生，旧的词汇可能会被淘汰或赋予新的含义。
语义学研究的是语言符号（词、短语、句子等）与它们所指称的对象之间的关系，也就是语言的意义。
语义不仅仅是单词的字面意思，还包括语境中的含义、隐喻、转喻等修辞手法所带来的意义变化。
例如，“他是个钢铁般的人”，这里并不是说他由钢铁构成，而是用“钢铁”来隐喻他的坚强意志。
语用学关注的是语言在实际使用中的情境和意图。
它考虑说话者的意图、听话者的理解、语言的交际功能等。
比如，同样一句话“你能帮我一下吗？”在不同的情境中可能有不同的含义和效果，取决于说话者和听话者之间的关系、说话的场合等。
语言的类型学也是一个重要的领域。
它对世界上各种语言进行分类和比较，根据语言的语法、词汇、语音等特征将语言分为不同的类型。
例如，有的语言是孤立语，词形基本不发生变化，依靠语序和虚词来表达语法关系；有的语言是屈折语，词形会根据语法功能发生变化。
社会语言学研究语言与社会的关系。
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:(特点)1) (独立性)a) ;b) ;c) .2) (跨学科)3) (应用性)应用语言学包含着具有内在联系的三个方面：语言理论，语言描写和语言教学。
语言理论的作用是为语言教师提供关于一般语言系统的结构和功能运用得知识；语言描写的作用是使语言教师了解英语的结构特点、获得语言洞察力。
这两部分是语言教学的基础。
4) (试验性), , , , . (客观性，系统性，明确性，经济性)（任务）1) a ；(更好理解掌握最新的语言教学和语言学习的理论基础)2) ；(全面了解影响语言学习和语言教学的各种因素)3) a , .(一个语言教学理念、方法和技巧)英语教学法主要是立足于心理学和教育学的理论和成果。
应用语言学主要是站在语言学角度来看语言教学。
在言语交际中，特别是在某种语境中，人们有时不直接表达出自己的思想，而是通过另一种表达方式——虚拟结构，把自己的思想委婉、含蓄地表达出来。
1) ’t . 表示批评2) . 表示惋惜3) ’t . 表示感谢4) . 表示劝告5) I I ’t a .表示遗憾1．社会发展的需要2．应用语言学学科建设的需要3．教师发展的需要4．外语教学改革的需要:1. ?(K. 1964)(N. 1959)结构主义的观点把懂得一种语言局限在掌握结构规则和词汇上。
功能意念观点又增加了需要懂得如何运用规则和词汇去做自己要做的事情。
交往法观点则认为，要知道如何用语言做事，就要知道在什么场合、什么时间、如何去做才算是得体。
从哲学角度来看：语言是人们感受客观世界和表达主观世界的物质外壳。
从心理学角度来看：语言是人们进行认知心理活动的思维的外在形式。
从语言学角度来看：语言的核心就是强调语言的系统性、生成性、习惯性和文化性。
从语言的结构特征来看：语言是个符号系统。
它是一个由语音、语素、词和词组、句子和篇章等构成的层级系统。
从语言的功能特征来看：语言是个工具，是思维的工具、思想交流的工具。
人类语言学家认为，语言是人类独有的、任意创造出来的一种符号系统，用以交流思想、情感和愿望；所以语言既是交际工具，也是表达思想的工具。
乔姆斯基学派认为，语言是说本族语的人理解和构成合乎语法的句子的先天性能力和在特定时空说出来的话语。
社会学家认为，语言是社会集团成员之间的相互作用。
应用语言学家认为，语言是人类的交际系统。
认知语言学家认为，语言是认识的沉淀。
当代语言学家韩礼德从功能主义角度，认为语言是一种社会现象，人类语言中的普遍现象并非因为有共同的生理遗传属性，而是因为在人类的社会活动中语言具有共同的社会功能。
研究语言演变为目标的就形成了历史语言学。
研究某一特定时期的语言状态的就是共时语言学。
从不同语言的研究中抽象出一些共同的原则，并以此解释人类语言的性质、起源和结构原理的就形成普通语言学或理论语言学。
以对比不同语言结构差异为目的的语言研究形成对比语言学。
研究语言与社会的关系的形成社会语言学。
研究语言与思维的关系的形成心理语言学。
研究语言与文化的各系的形成文化语言学。
A) , .a . ..B) , : .(1) “ a ”(2) .(3) a .(1) , a , .(2) .(3) a .学习理论的三次革命3、第二语言教学中学生学习中的偏误是怎样形成的？答：第二语言教学中学生学习中的偏误主要来源于以下几个方面：一是学习者第一语言的干扰，例如以英语为第一语言的人学习汉语时说“*我见面你”；二是第二语言规则的过度泛化，例如把英语作为第二语言的人会说出“* ?”；三是交际策略失误；四是文化迁移的影响。
2. 你说出十个1978年以来的新词语。
炒鱿鱼、的哥、网吧、发廊、桑拿、网虫、美眉、下海、网游、数码14.简述语言交际合作原则的基本内容。
答：语言交际合作原则包括：一），数量原则1,使所说的话达到交际目的所要求的详尽程度。
2,不能使自己所说的话比所要求的更详尽。
二），关系原则三），方式原则1,避免晦涩的词语。
2,避免歧义。
3,说话要简洁（避免赘述）。
4,说话要有条理。
四），礼貌原则1.得体准则A．最小限度使别人受损。
B．最大限度使别人受益。
2.慷慨准则A．最小限度使自己得益。
B．最大限度使自己受损。
3.赞誉准则A．最小限度地贬低别人。
A．最大限度使赞誉别人。
4.谦虚准则A．最小限度地赞誉自己。
A．最大限度地贬低自己。
5.一致准则A，使交际双方的分歧减到最小。
B，使交际双方的一致增到最大。
6.同情准则A，使对话双方的反感减到最小限度。
B，使对话双方的同情性增到最大限度。
第一语言教学：一般是在母语习得之后进行的语言教学，它是培养学生驾驭语言的全面能力。
第二语言教学：通常是指除母语以外但又在本社团里使用的语言教学，目的能与周围人的交流。
外语教学：是指除母语以外且又不在本社团里使用的语言教学，它却具有单一性，有的只需要阅读，有的着重听说，有的只需要掌握某一专业领域的词汇等等。
可能有的只会考试。
双语教学：双语的英文是“”定义是：A .用二语或外语进行其他学科内容的教学 a .“教学有法，但无定法”第一个“法”是说教学有规律，我们要遵循这个规律。
第二个“法”是方法，是教师根据教学内容、教学对象、教学条件及自身素质所采取的方法和技巧。
教学内容的组织1）线性排列( )从教学法角度看，线性排列的不足1）语言教学强调重复率，出现一次就希望掌握，既不可能，也不容易记忆。
2）如果每个项目都要出现一次并要求掌握，那么教学进度就会很慢。
2）螺旋式排列( )这种螺旋式排列更加接近语言学习的自然过程1）让语言项目在不同的语境中反复出现，使语言学习者从感性上先认识这些项目，以实现隐含的学习过程。
2）在学习的初始阶段，可以加快学习进度，学了就能用，有利于提高学习者的学习动机。
3）这也有可能把训练接受能力和训练表达能力的材料区分开来，以训练学生的不同的语言能力。
aa教学中的双主体性教学主体在教学活动中通过角色变化而形成的，当呈现或讲解知识时，教师是教的主体；当通过教师的引导进行操练来掌握语言技能，通过思考来掌握知识时，学生是学习主体。
2 不同流派的语言习得观行为主义学派（）认为，第一语言习得与学习和人类其他行为一样，是形成习惯的过程，即在语言习得中，儿童通过不断对刺激做出反应，反复重复成年人的语音和句型，形成了与成年人一样的语言习惯。
也就是说，第一语言习得是一个从不完善到完善地模仿成年人语言的过程。
先天论（）认为，由于存在普遍语法（）规律，语言习得是人脑生俱来就固有的内在能力。
因此，儿童语言的发展不是简单地模仿成人的结果，而是由于自身具有的一种语言习得机制——，简称。
由于人类具有这一语言习得机制，儿童的语言有其自身规律，成年人的纠正不能改变他们的语言。
随着心理学领域内的认知学派逐渐强大，他们从认知能力发展的角度研究语言习得与学习。
发展论（）虽同意语言习得是人类独具的能力，但他们当中大部分人都强调，语言习得是随着人的认知能力的发展后天习得的。
他们认为，婴儿出生时并无主动的交际能力只是在出生后，由于理解了手段和目的的关系后才能与成人进行交流。
也就是说，儿童语言的发展是随着认知能力的发展而习得的。
互动论（）认为，语言习得与学习是儿童内在的思维能力与外界环境互相作用的结果。
，两者缺一不可。
这一学派既重视人脑创造性的语言能力，又强调语言输入对儿童语言习得的重要性。
例如，父母的语言往往直接影响孩子的语言。
从目前的研究成果来看，“互动论”的观点比较令人信服，即语言习得是儿童认知发展、语言能力、心理、情感等内部因素与语言输入、社会环境等外部因素互相作用的结果。
4) (语言输入假说)该假说认为，从某种意义上说，人类习得语言最基本的途径就是对语言输入的理解。
“可理解的语言输入”（ ）是语言习得的必要条件。
“可理解的语言输入”是指学习者听到或读到得可以理解的语言材料，这些材料的难度应该稍高于学习者目前已经掌握的语言知识。
“i + 1” 理论把学习者当前的语言知识状态定义为“i”， 把语言发展的下一个阶段定义为“i + 1”。
这里的“1”就是当前语言知识状态与下一个阶段语言状态的间隔距离或叫“缺口”。
这一缺口是靠语言环境所提供的相关信息以及学习者以往的经验来弥补。
1．结构、功能和过程的关系结构是语言的外部形式，它的最基本单位是词；而把词结合起来以表达意义的是靠语法；把这种结合体说出来要用到语音。
词或词组 句子 表达 语法语音我们从这三个方面去观察语言：1）结构（):语言的语法；选择句子的语法结构、把内容插入句发结构、选定词的语法形式，创立语音结构。
2)功能() :关于句子怎样传递它们所要传递的信息的说明。
3)过程()：关于人们使用什么心理手段、材料和程序来产生和理解句子的说明。
由此可见，过程是相对独立的，需要专门去研究它。
弄懂结构和功能，不一定就懂得过程。
过程往往为人们所忽略，因为它不如结构和功能那样显而易见。
要想认识过程，必须先认识结构和功能，以便于由表及里。
3）主题结构：一个句子的主题结构涉及到了3个方面：（1）主语和谓语的问题。
（2）已知和未知的信息。
（3）框架和嵌入的问题。
句子的理解过程理解就是根据听到的语音去建立意义。
这是一个非常复杂的过程。
.要理解这句话，首先需要三方面的知识信息：在理解这个句子时，人们都把句子理解为人（作着飞机）在飞，而不是山在飞，这与词汇信息无关。
可见在理解这句子时，人们还依赖了别的东西，这就是，概念知识( ) 和信念系统( ) 。
这两个并非语言知识的一部分，但在我们使用语言进行交流时却起到了重要的作用。
它们是隐形的，不易为人觉察。
!“天太热，人太冷。
”很多理解过程是从语义手段来进行命题的。
例如我们听到，, , , 这四个词，就可以知道有两个命题：（1）花是红的（2）女孩摘花.语音信息（ ） 句法信息 （ ） 词汇信息（ ）语法知识.1．词的理据词的理据是指词的形与词之间的联系，即语言符号与客观事物和现象相联系的依据。
1．1 拟声理据布谷鸟在英语中，法语中是，汉语则为布谷鸟。
这是因为大家不约而同地用鸟的啼叫声来命名；但是在汉语的布谷鸟亦称为杜鹃、子规，而这与声音却无关。
也有人曾认为有些因素也不是与意义全无关的。
例如，英语中的元音[i]与“小”这一概念有关。
例如，, , , , ……等，但是却是“大”的意思。
—结尾的词，表示“大声、快速、破坏性”等动作之意。
, , , 1．2 形态理据一些复合词的构成也是有理据的。
例如，是由与构成。
是由和组成。
有些意义上的联系也是很容易看出的。
如，，是由与组成的混合词。
1．3 语义理据这是一种心理联想，也就是把表示一种事物的词引申喻指另一种相关事物。
木板桌子会议委员会。
a (商会)；(…在会议讨论之中)1．4 词源理据这一般是由专有名词转化而来。
他们的意思均与其出处来源有密切的关系。