C3-Thermodynamics of unary____ materials-2

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两级蓄冷跨临界压缩CO2混合工质储能系统特性分析

两级蓄冷跨临界压缩CO2混合工质储能系统特性分析

第 54 卷第 10 期2023 年 10 月中南大学学报(自然科学版)Journal of Central South University (Science and Technology)V ol.54 No.10Oct. 2023两级蓄冷跨临界压缩CO 2混合工质储能系统特性分析赵攀,吴汶泽,许文盼,刘艾杰,王江峰(西安交通大学 能源与动力工程学院,陕西 西安,710049)摘要:为了解决高压CO 2在高环境温度下难以冷凝的问题,提出两级蓄冷跨临界压缩CO 2混合工质储能系统。

采用CO 2与低沸点有机工质混合的方法提高工质的冷凝温度,同时,利用两级甲醇蓄冷实现系统内部冷能循环利用。

从环境性、临界温度、温度滑移、可混合性等方面确定合适的CO 2混合工质及其组分质量分数范围。

建立储能系统的热力学分析模型,探究节流压力、高压储液罐压力、有机工质质量分数等关键参数对系统性能的影响规律,并研究系统内部能量流动规律,得到主要部件的㶲损失。

研究结果表明:随着有机工质质量分数的增加,蓄冷介质温度增加,系统安全性提高;与纯CO 2工质相比,系统的充放电效率和能量密度略有降低;CO 2/R32混合工质的充放电效率最高为62.29%,CO 2/pentane 混合工质的能量密度最高为21.37 kW ∙h/m 3。

关键词:压缩CO 2储能;CO 2混合工质;热力学分析;敏感性分析;有机工质中图分类号:TK02 文献标志码:A 开放科学(资源服务)标识码(OSID)文章编号:1672-7207(2023)10-4150-13Performance analysis of a transcritical compressed CO 2-based mixture energy storage system with two-stage cold energy storageZHAO Pan, WU Wenze, XU Wenpan, LIU Aijie, WANG Jiangfeng(School of Energy and Power Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, China)Abstract: In order to solve the problem of difficult condensation of high-pressure CO 2 in higher ambient temperature, a transcritical compressed CO 2-based mixture energy storage system with two-stage cold energy storage was proposed. The CO 2-based mixture via blending CO 2 and organic working medium with low boiling point was selected to improve the condensation temperature. Meanwhile, a two-stage cold energy storage system via methanol was employed to store and recycle the cold energy. Firstly, the feasible CO 2-based mixtures and the related mass fraction ranges of organic working mediums were determined by considering the environment, critical temperature, temperature glide and miscibility. Then, the system thermodynamic models were established, and the effect of severalkey parameters on system performance was explored, such as throttling pressure, high-pressure storage tank pressure收稿日期: 2022 −10 −10; 修回日期: 2023 −02 −27基金项目(Foundation item):国家自然科学基金资助项目(51876152) (Project(51876152) supported by the National Natural ScienceFoundation of China)通信作者:赵攀,博士,教授,从事压缩气体储能技术基础与应用研究;E-mail :*****************DOI: 10.11817/j.issn.1672-7207.2023.10.032引用格式: 赵攀, 吴汶泽, 许文盼, 等. 两级蓄冷跨临界压缩CO 2混合工质储能系统特性分析[J]. 中南大学学报(自然科学版), 2023, 54(10): 4150−4162.Citation: ZHAO Pan, WU Wenze, XU Wenpan, et al. Performance analysis of a transcritical compressed CO 2-based mixture energy storage system with two-stage cold energy storage[J]. Journal of Central South University(Science and Technology), 2023, 54(10): 4150−4162.第 10 期赵攀,等:两级蓄冷跨临界压缩CO 2混合工质储能系统特性分析and mass fraction of organic working medium. At the same time, the system internal energy flow was analyzed, and the exergy destruction distribution of main components was obtained. The results show that the cold energy storage medium temperature increases and the system safety is enhanced with the increase of mass fraction of the organic working mediums. Compared with pure CO 2, the round-trip efficiency and energy density of CO 2-based mixture decrease slightly. The round-trip efficiency of CO 2/R32 mixture has the maximum value of 62.29%. The energy density with CO 2/pentane mixture reaches the maximum value of 21.37 kW ∙h/m 3.Key words: compressed CO 2 energy storage; CO 2-based mixture; thermodynamic analysis; sensitivity analysis; organic working medium能源是人类社会的物质基础,是经济发展的重要保障。

涉及非体积功的热力学基本方程

涉及非体积功的热力学基本方程

第49卷第8期2021年4月广州化工Guangzhou Chemical IndustryVol.49No.8Apr.2021涉及非体积功的热力学基本方程杨嫣,陈山川,谢娟,张改(西安工业大学材料与化工学院,陕西西安710021)摘要:热力学基本方程是物理化学课程中一个重要的知识点。

现行物理化学教材中重点阐述了仅含有体积功的热力学基本方程,而对涉及非体积功的热力学基本方程介绍很少。

对材料类专业的学生来说,学习和研究材料热力学,经常会涉及到非体积功。

因此,学习涉及非体积功的热力学基本方程非常必要。

本文重点讨论了涉及非体积功的表面系统、弹性杆、电、磁介质中的热力学基本方程的推导和应用,并总结了处理这类问题的方法。

关键词:物理化学;热力学;基本方程;非体积功中图分类号:G642文献标志码:A文章编号:1001-9677(2021)08-0139-04 Fundamental Equations in Thermodynamics Involving Non-expansion Work*YANG Yan,CHEN Shan-chuan,XIE Juan,ZHANG Gai(School of Material Science and Chemical Engineering,Xi9an Technological University,Shaanxi Xi'an710021,China) Abstract:Fundamental equation in thermodynamics is one of the key points of Physical Chemistry course・In current Physical Chemistry textbooks,the fundamental equations containing only expansionwork are mainly described, while the ones involving non-expansionwork are rarely introduced.For the students majoring in materials,non-expansionwork is often involved in the processes of studyand research.Therefore,it is necessary to study the fundamental equations in involving non-expansion work.The derivations and applications of the fundamental equations in surface systems,elastic rods,electric and magnetic media were discussed.Moreover,the way to deal with this kind of problem was summarized.Key words:Physical Chemistry;thermodynamics;the fundamental equation;non-expansion work热力学基本方程在处理平衡态热力学问题时非常有用,是物理化学课程内容的重点之一。

heatcapacityandt...

heatcapacityandt...

Heat Capacity and Thermodynamic Functions of Crystalline Poly(p-phenylenebenzobisoxazole),the Synthetic Polymer with the Highest Young’s Modulus*KAZUYA SAITO,1YASUHIRO TAKAHASHI,2MICHIO SORAI11Research Center for Molecular Thermodynamics,Graduate School of Science,Osaka University,Toyonaka,Osaka560-0043,Japan2Department of Macromolecular Science,Graduate School of Science,Osaka University,Toyonaka,Osaka560-0043,JapanReceived20September1999;revised15March2000;accepted21March2000ABSTRACT:The heat capacity of crystalline poly(p-phenylenebenzobisoxazole)wasmeasured below room temperature by adiabatic calorimetry.The standard thermody-namic functions(enthalpy,entropy,and Gibbs energy)were established and tabulated.The temperature dependence of the heat capacity was compared with those of polyeth-ylene and poly(p-phenylene),with attention paid to the low dimensionality of thesystems.©2000John Wiley&Sons,Inc.J Polym Sci B:Polym Phys38:1584–1588,2000Keywords:poly(p-phenylenebenzobisoxazole)(PBO);heat capacity;thermodynamicfunctionINTRODUCTIONPoly(p-phenylenebenzobisoxazole)(PBO)is known as the synthetic polymer with the highest Young’s modulus along the chain axis.1This prop-erty is readily understood from its chemical struc-ture,which is shown in Figure1.Establishing reliable thermodynamic properties for this prom-ising polymer seems important for further devel-opment in processing and for new functional poly-mers.One of the authors recently performed a struc-tural analysis on PBO with neutron diffraction.2 A constrained least-squaresfit of the observed structure factors suggested that the dihedral an-gle between the adjacent phenylene and benzo-bisoxazole moieties was essentially constant at 25°above100K but steeply decreased to13°at17 K on further cooling.In poly(p-phenylene)(PPP) oligomers(biphenyl to p-sexiphenyl),the crystal undergoes a crystal–crystal phase transition in which the relevant degree of freedom is the mo-lecular twist;that is,the dihedral angles between the adjacent benzene rings are of primary impor-tance.3–5The steep change in the dihedral angles in PBO can be regarded as a symptom of a similar phase transition,although there is no report of twist transition even for PPP.To clarify whether twist transition is possible or not,the heat capac-ity was precisely measured on the sample from the identical bobbin used for the structural study.2EXPERIMENTALThe PBO sample was taken from a bobbin (Toyobo Co.Ltd.)identical to that used for the structural study,2which showed the crystallinity of the sample was almost perfect.The PBOfiber*Contribution No.9from the Research Center for Molec-ular Thermodynamics.Correspondence to:K.Saito(***************.osaka-u.ac.jp)Journal of Polymer Science:Part B:Polymer Physics,Vol.38,1584–1588(2000)©2000John Wiley&Sons,Inc.1584was plaited to a string and loaded into a gold-plated copper calorimeter vessel.The mass of the sample loaded was 2.4910g after buoyancy cor-rection,with the experimental density assumed to be 1.50g cm Ϫ3.2The vessel was sealed after being filled with helium gas (105Pa at room tem-perature)to assist thermal uniformity within the vessel.The vessel was mounted in a laboratory-made adiabatic calorimeter,the details of which,including its construction,operation,accuracy,and precision,are found elsewhere.6The heat capacity obtained with the calorimeter is reliable within 0.5%in terms of the absolute value of,for example,the integrated standard entropy.6Plat-inum and germanium resistance thermometers were used above and below 13.8K.The employed temperature scale is based on the ITS-90.RESULTSThe measurements were carried out between 6and 303K.Of the total heat capacity (sample,vessel,and helium gas),the sample contributed 40%at 10K,36%at 20K,25%at 50K,22%at 100K,and 35%at 300K.The temperature reading of the thermometer was stationary,implying ther-mal equilibrium within the vessel,after 1min below 10K,2min at 10K,3min at 30K,5min at 60K,and 6min above 80K.This is quite normal for the vessel and calorimeter used for the measurements.The data 7are plotted in Figure 2,where the data per mole of monomer are given,with an infinite degree of polymerization assumed (i.e.,a molar mass of 234.21g mol Ϫ1).After the primary data were smoothed by being fitted to third-order spline functions,the heat capacity was integrated with respect to temperature and its natural loga-rithm to yield the standard enthalpy [H °(T )ϪH °(0)]and entropy [S °(T )ϪS °(0)],respectively.The standard Gibbs energy was also evaluated by the standard relation,G ϭH ϪTS .The resulting standard thermodynamic functions are given at rounded temperatures in Table I and will beneeded for chemical thermodynamic treatment in any chemical processing of PBO.It may be of interest to compare the magnitude of the specific heat capacity (heat capacity per unit mass),the heat capacity density (heat capac-ity per unit volume),or both.The former is 0.964J K Ϫ1g Ϫ1for PBO at room temperature and 1.55and 1.2J K Ϫ1g Ϫ1for polyethylene (PE)8and PPP,5,9,10respectively.In contrast to this large divergence,the density is essentially the same for all three (1.5–1.6J K Ϫ1cm Ϫ3).DISCUSSIONPossibility of the Twist Transition in PBOA close inspection of the heat capacity curve be-low 100K can detect no anomalous temperature dependence corresponding to a possible twist phase transition.Because the change in the dihe-dral angle between the adjacent phenylene and benzobisoxazole moieties 2does not involveaFigure 1.Chemical structure ofPBO.Figure 2.Measured molar heat capacities of PBO (E ).The lattice heat capacity (C lattice ,ϩ),consisting of contributions of the translational and librational de-grees of freedom of the phenyl and benzobisoxazole moieties,was estimated by the subtraction of the con-tributions of the intramonomer vibrations (C intra ,●).HEAT CAPACITY OF CRYSTALLINE PBO 1585change in symmetry,the angle may change with-out a phase transition gradually over a wide tem-perature range.If this is the case,and we assume that the temperature interval is50K and the required enthalpy is a few hundred joules per mole,the resulting hump in the heat capacity will have a height as small as3J KϪ1molϪ1.Although this quantity is surely beyond the range of the experimental imprecision,it is not straightfor-ward to separate the heat capacity anomaly with-out ambiguity.However,if a phase transition oc-curs and the anomalous heat capacity actually exists only within a narrow range,for instance, 10%of the transition temperature,this experi-ment implies that the transition,if there is any, would accompany an excess enthalpy(enthalpy of transition)that is less than10J molϪ1.Indeed,such a small anomaly was successfully detected for the twist transition of crystalline biphenyl.11 Temperature Dependence of the Heat Capacity The study of structurally low-dimensional crystal has been of interest from early on in the history of the theory of heat capacity.12By modifying the Debye model,Tarasov derived formulae describ-ing the temperature dependence of the heat ca-pacity of solids with strong one-and two-dimen-sional characters.Linear polymers have been re-garded as a model system of one-dimensional crystal,with the polymer backbone identified as the one-dimensional axis.Figure3demonstrates the temperature depen-dence of the heat capacities of PBO,PE,13Table I.Standard Thermodynamic Functions of PBOT(K)C°p(J KϪ1molϪ1)[H°(T)ϪH°(0)]/T(J KϪ1molϪ1)S°(T)ϪS°(0)(J KϪ1molϪ1)Ϫ[G°(T)ϪH°(0)]/T(J KϪ1molϪ1)10 2.690.89 1.130.24 2010.17 3.49 5.06 1.56 3020.017.3411.02 3.68 4030.0611.7718.16 6.39 5038.9616.3425.849.51 6047.1920.8033.6812.88 7054.8125.1241.5416.41 8062.0729.2949.3320.04 9069.0833.3257.0523.73 10076.0037.2564.6927.44 11083.0841.0972.2631.17 12090.1344.8879.7934.91 13097.1248.6387.2838.65 140104.2352.3594.7442.39 150111.4956.05102.1846.13 160118.8759.74109.6149.86 170126.3263.44117.0453.60 180133.7767.14124.4757.33 190141.2570.85131.9061.06 200148.8274.55139.3464.79 210156.4978.27146.7968.51 220164.2682.00154.2572.24 230172.1085.75161.7275.97 240180.0089.51169.2179.70 250187.9393.29176.7283.43 260195.8797.08184.2587.16 270203.79100.89191.7990.90 280211.67104.71199.3494.63 290219.43108.53206.9098.38 300226.84112.35214.47102.12 298.15225.51111.64213.07101.43 The unit mol in this table refers to the monomer.1586SAITO,TAKAHASHI,AND SORAIPPP,5,9,10and a nonpolymeric compound,4,4Ј-di-fluorobiphenyl (DFBP).14Here,the heat capacity of PPP is taken as the difference between those of the oligomers (p -terphenyl,p -quaterphenyl,and p -quinquephenyl).Interestingly,the temperature dependencies of the polymers resemble one an-other apart from the absolute magnitude.In the high-temperature region (above 50K),the depen-dence is nearly linear.In the low-temperature region,the heat capacity of PE shows a tendency to Debye’s cubic law.This trend is not seen for PBO and PPP because of the lack of the data at low enough temperatures.Finally,the depen-dence is nearly quadratic between 5and 50K for all three polymers.Because the dependence is surely different from that of the crystal consisting of small molecules such as DFBP,as seen in Fig-ure 3,this dependence may be regarded as a symptom of the characteristics of these polymers.According to Tarasov’s model,12the heat capac-ity of a crystal with a strong one dimensionality obeys Debye’s cubic dependence on temperature at the low-temperature limit.In moderate tem-peratures,the one-dimensional crystal has a lin-ear heat capacity against temperature.At highertemperatures,the heat capacity saturates to the classical value.The heat capacities of PBO,PE,and PPP have a seemingly linear dependence on temperature above 50K,as shown in Figure 3.Nevertheless,this is not an indication of the success of Tarasov’s model.Tarasov as well as Debye took only the translational degrees of freedom into their mod-els.The classical limit of the translational contri-bution to heat capacity is only 3R [Ϸ25J K Ϫ1(mol particle)Ϫ1].However,the largest contribution above 130K for PBO comes from the so-called intramonomer vibrations,as shown in Figure 2.It is now clear that the seemingly linear dependence above 50K results from the contribution of the intramolecular vibrations.The linear dependence at high temperatures implies that the vibrational frequencies are uniformly distributed in a rather wide frequency region.This can be verified from Figure 4,in which the vibrational frequencies of normal modes of benzene and benzobisoxazole are shown,except for those assignable to the localized vibrations of the C O H bond attached in the chain direction.The frequencies were calculated with MOPAC97via the PM3Hamiltonian.15By subtracting the contribution of all the in-tramonomer vibrational degrees of freedom pre-viously calculated,we obtained the lattice heat capacity,including the librational heat capacity,as shown in Figure 2.The lattice heat capacity of PBO shows a tendency to saturate to 100J K Ϫ1mol Ϫ1(12R in reality).This is double the classical value of the translational heat capacity because this lattice heat capacity includes the contribu-tion of 3degrees of freedom of the libration of the particle,which was not considered by DebyeandFigure 4.Distribution of the frequencies of the in-tramonomer vibrations.Light and dark bands show the frequencies of intramonomer vibrations assignable to phenylene and benzobisoxazole moieties,respectively.Figure 3.Temperature dependence of the heat ca-pacity of PBO (E ),PE (ᮀ),13PPP (—),5,9,10and DFBP (ϩ).14HEAT CAPACITY OF CRYSTALLINE PBO 1587Tarasov.The librational vibration around the chain axis lies at a few tens wave per centimeter for PPP.16The moment of inertia and the force constant for this vibration are expected to differ only slightly between PPP and PBO.This libra-tion,therefore,surely contributes significantly to the temperature dependence of the heat capacity of PBO and PPP in the region showing the qua-dratic dependence(between5and50K).An ap-parent quadratic dependence results from a com-bination of the contributions of the translational and librational degrees of freedom and seems characteristic of polymers with a linear backbone. SUMMARYThe heat capacity of PBO was precisely measured by adiabatic calorimetry.The standard thermody-namic functions were established and tabulated. No anomaly was detected that was assignable to the twist transition suggested by a recent struc-tural study.Because the reported change in the structural study does not accompany the symme-try breaking,this result is compatible with the change in the structure.The temperature depen-dence of the heat capacity has been compared among PBO,PE,and PPP.Apart from their mag-nitude,a striking similarity was recognized.Al-though the Debye cubic law applies at the lowest temperature limit(to absolute zero),above about 50K a seemingly linear dependence comes from a roughly uniform distribution of intramonomer vi-brations.In the intermediate region,a quadratic dependence of the heat capacity on temperature appears.This dependence,resulting from the con-tributions of both the translational and libra-tional degrees of freedom,is only approximate but seems characteristic to this type of polymer.REFERENCES AND NOTES1.Krause,S.J.;Haddock,T.B.;Vezie,D.L.;Lenhert,P.G.;Hwang,W.F.;Price,G.E.;Helminiak,T.E.;O’Brien,J.F.;Adams,W.W.Polymer1988,29, 1354.2.Takahashi,Y.Macromolecules1999,32,4010.3.Cailleau,H.;Baudour,J.L.;Meinnel,J.;Dworkin,A.;Moussa,F.;Zeyen,C.M.E.Faraday DiscussChem Soc1980,9,7.4.Baker,K.N.;Frantini,A.V.;Resch,T.;Knackel,H.C.;Adams,W.W.;Socci,E.P.;Farmer,B.L.Polymer1993,34,1571.5.Saito,K.;Yamamura,Y.;Sorai,M.To be submittedfor publication,1999.6.Yamamura,Y.;Saito,K.;Saitoh,H.;Matsuyama,H.;Kikuchi,K.;Ikemoto,I.J Phys Chem Solids1995,56,107.7.The primary heat capacity data will be supplied onrequest to the Research Center for Molecular Ther-modynamics,Graduate School of Science,Osaka University.8.Gaur,U.;Wunderlich,B.J Phys Chem Ref Data1981,10,119.9.Saito,K.;Atake,T.;Chihara,H.Bull Chem Soc Jpn1988,61,2327.10.Saito,K.;Atake,T.;Chihara,H.J Chem Thermo-dyn1985,17,539.11.Saito,K.;Atake,T.;Chihara,H.Chem Lett1983,493.12.Perepechko,I.Low-Temperature Properties ofPolymers;Pergamon:Oxford,England,1980;pp 1–44.13.Chang,S.S.;Bestul,A.B.J Res Natl Bur Stand1973,77A,395.14.Saito,K.;Atake,T.;Chihara,H.J Chem Thermo-dyn1986,18,407.15.Stewart,J.MOPAC97;Fujitsu Corporation,Tokyo,1997.16.Zannoni,G.;Zerbi,G.J Chem Phys1985,82,31.1588SAITO,TAKAHASHI,AND SORAI。

MolecularThermodynamicsPDF:分子热力学的PDF

MolecularThermodynamicsPDF:分子热力学的PDF

Molecular ThermodynamicsBy John SimonMolecular Thermodynamics Details:Molecular Thermodynamics: Donald A. McQuarrie, John D. Simon ...Evolved from McQuarrie and Simon's best-selling textbook, Physical Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, this text focuses in on the thermodynamics portion of the course. Thermodynamics - Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaThermodynamics is a branch of natural science concerned with heat and its relation to energy and work. It defines macroscopic variables (such as temperature, internal energy, entropy, and pressure) that characterize materials and radiation, and explains how they are related and by what laws they ...Molecular Thermodynamics - Johns Hopkins UniversityMolecular Thermodynamics. The explosion in structural data on bio-molecules provides new opportunities to understand their function in terms of their structure. Thermochemistry - Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaThermochemistry is the study of the energy and heat associated with chemical reactions and/or physical transformations. A reaction may release or absorb energy, and a phase change may do the same, such as in melting and boiling. Thermochemistry focuses on these energy changes, particularly on ...Molecular Thermodynamics, Donald A. McQuarrie and John D. SimonMolecular Thermodynamics, by Donald McQuarrie and John Simon, published in 1999 by University Science Books.Statistical Molecular Thermodynamics | CourseraStatistical Molecular Thermodynamics is a free online class taught by Dr. Christopher J. Cramer of University of MinnesotaMolecular Thermodynamics - Donald Allan McQuarrie, John ...Evolved from McQuarrie and Simon's best-selling Physical Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, this text follows a similar path by first covering the principles of quantum mechanics before engaging those ideas in the subsequent development of thermodynamics. Although many of the chapters are similar ...Introduction to Molecular ThermodynamicsIntroduction to Molecular Thermodynamics. by Robert M. Hanson and Susan Green, St. OlafCollege.enquiries:******************.Publisher'swebsiteforthisbookMolecular Thermodynamics (Physical chemistry monograph series ...Molecular Thermodynamics (Physical chemistry monograph series) [Richard E. Dickerson] on . *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers.Molecular Thermodynamics — ITQB - Universidade Nova de LisboaMolecular Thermodynamics of Liquids and Liquid Solutions, in particular, studies of Ionic Liquids and ionic liquid-containing systems constitute the main activity.Molecular thermodynamics of fluid-phase equilibria - J. M ...Molecular Thermodynamics of Fluid-Phase Equilibria, Third Edition is a systematic, practical guide to interpreting, correlating, and predicting thermodynamic properties used in mixture-related phase-equilibrium calculations. Completely updated, this edition reflects the growing maturity of ...Molecular thermodynamics - definition of Molecular ...ther·mo·chem·is·try (thûr m-k m-str) n. The chemistry of heat and heat-associated chemical phenomena. ther mo·chem i·cal (--k l) adj. ther mo·chem ist n.Prausnitz Group Home Page - University of California, BerkeleyMolecular Thermodynamics John M. Prausnitz. Professor, University of California, Berkeley Faculty Senior Scientist, Lawrence Berkeley National LaboratorymThermoWait for more... ... The website is going through major upgrade ,, wait for the new look soon :)Molecular thermodynamics - HmolpediaAn encyclopedia of topics on the thermodynamics, chemistry, and physics of human existence.Molecular Thermodynamics of Fluid-Phase Equilibria / Edition ...The classic guide to mixtures, completely updated with new models, theories, examples, and data. Efficient separation operations and many other chemical processes depend upon a thorough understanding of the properties of gaseous and liquid mixtures. Molecular Thermodynamics of Fluid-Phase ...Molecular Thermodynamics of Fluid-Phase EquilibriaThermodynamics Home - Chemical Engineering - Thermodynamics: Molecular Thermodynamics of Fluid-Phase Equilibria by Rudiger N. Lichtenthaler, Edmundo Gomes De Azevedo, John M. Prausnitz, Edmundo G. De AzevedoMolecular thermodynamics definition of Molecular ...thermochemistry [¦th?r·m??kem·?·str?] (physical chemistry) The measurement, interpretation, and analysis of heat changes accompanying chemical reactions and changes in state.Molecular Thermodynamics by Donald A. McQuarrie — Reviews ...Molecular Thermodynamics has 7 ratings and 1 review. Jacob said: This books is incredible. It's extremely comprehensive. If you love physical chemistry a...Introduction to Molecular Thermodynamics, by Robert M. Hanson ...Introduction to Molecular Thermodynamics, by Robert M. Hanson and Susan Green , University Science Books, copyright 2008Molecular Thermodynamics of Fluid Phase Equilibria - 3rd Edition2Molecular Thermodynamics of Fluid Phase Equilibria - 3rd Edition2 - Free ebook download as PDF File (.pdf), Text file (.txt) or read book online for free.Molecular thermodynamics (Book, 1999) []Get this from a library! Molecular thermodynamics. [Donald A McQuarrie; John D Simon]Molecular Thermodynamics - Download for freeMolecular Thermodynamics download from FileSnail - 3188189138905X pdf, Thermodynamics Processes an rar, FilePost DepositFiles and RapidShare files. Molecular Thermodynamics of Fluid Phase Equilibria (Prausnitz ...Molecular Thermodynamics of Fluid Phase Equilibria (Prausnitz- 2th Edition ) - Free ebook download as Text file (.txt), PDF File (.pdf) or read book online for free. k Molecular thermodynamics (Open Library)Molecular thermodynamics by Richard Earl Dickerson, 1969,W. A. Benjamin edition, in EnglishMolecular thermodynamics - definition of Molecular ...Molecular thermodynamics. Molecular Time Scale Generalized Langevin Equation Molecular Typing by Reverse Dot-Blotting Molecular Typing Working Group Molecular Unit Cell Approximation molecular velocity Molecular vibration Molecular Vibrational SpectrometerCenter for Molecular & Engineering ThermodynamicsThe University of Delaware’s Thomas H. Epps, III, is one of 30 early-career engineers nationwide invited to attend the 2013 European Union-United States Frontiers of Engineering Symposium to be held Nov. 21-23 in Chantilly, France.ChemE | Thermodynamics and Molecular ComputationsThermodynamics and Molecular Computations. Thermodynamics governs processes as diverse as chemical production, bioreaction, creation of advanced materials, protein separation, and environmental treatment.Molecular Thermodynamics Mcquarrie : ?g Rt K Q. Molecular ...pdf document tagged with molecular thermodynamics mcquarrie : ?G RT K Q. user guide pdf categorized in molecular thermodynamics mcquarrieMolecular Thermodynamics of Fluid-Phase Equilibria by John M ...Molecular Thermodynamics of Fluid-Phase Equilibria has 7 ratings and 1 review. Theclassic guide to mixtures, completely updated with new models, theorie...。

thermotogamartima嗜热木聚糖酶化学修饰与其结构特性关系

thermotogamartima嗜热木聚糖酶化学修饰与其结构特性关系

Thermotoga martima嗜热木聚糖酶化学修饰与其结构特性关系苏樨州,蔡萍,严明*(南京工业大学制药与生命科学学院,材料化学工程国家重点实验室,江苏南京 210009)摘要:应用化学修饰的实验方法,结合蛋白质结构信息的计算来研究酶蛋白中氨基酸残基化学修饰与结构信息之间的关系。

以Thermotoga maritima嗜热木聚糖酶为对象,采用PDB数据库中的1VBR为模板计算其序列中色氨酸、谷氨酸、天冬氨酸的溶剂可及性、氢键、盐桥数等结构特性,并与该酶化学修饰的实验结果相对比。

结果表明酶活性中心3个色氨酸中,可及性大的Trp802与Trp602两个残基对酶的活性影响较大;序列中谷氨酸与天冬氨酸的氢键、盐桥数较多,修饰其对酶的热稳定性有很大影响。

此结果有助于深入了解蛋白质中与化学修饰有关的结构特性,并为基于蛋白质结构的酶蛋白改性奠定了基础。

关键词:嗜热木聚糖酶;化学修饰;结构特性Relationship between structural characteristics and chemical modification to Thermo-stable Xylanase from Thermotoga maritimaSU Xizhou, CAI Ping, YAN Ming(State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, College of Life Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing University of Technology, Nanjing 210009, Jiangsu, China)Abstract: Chemical modification and protein structure calculation methods were used to investigate the relationship between the chemical modification of amino-acid residues and their structure informations in protein. Choose thermo-stable xylanase from Thermotoga maritima as research object and 1VBR from PDB as template, computing the structural characteristics of 1VBR such as accessibility, hydrogen bonding network, and salt bridges. Then compare these structural characteristics with experimental data of chemical modification to xylanase. Results show that two tryptophans,Trp802 and Trp602, which near the active site of xylanase are essential for enzyme activity, as they have higher accessibility; glutamates and aspartates have more hydrogen bonding network and salt bridges in the structure, so they are important to the thermal stability of xylanase. These results were helpful for farther study on the structural characteristics of protein which have relationship with their chemical modification, also provide references for protein reshaping based on protein structure.Keywords:thermo-stable xylanase; chemical modification; structural characteristics引言木聚糖酶(EC 3.2.1.8;1,4-b-D-endoxylanase)是木聚糖降解酶系中最关键的酶,在食品、饲料、纺织、造纸工业等方面都有重要的应用价值。

某理工大学生物工程学院《细胞生物学》考试试卷(1020)

某理工大学生物工程学院《细胞生物学》考试试卷(1020)

某理工大学生物工程学院《细胞生物学》课程试卷(含答案)__________学年第___学期考试类型:(闭卷)考试考试时间:90 分钟年级专业_____________学号_____________ 姓名_____________1、判断题(20分,每题5分)1. 受精后胚胎细胞分裂速度很快,DNA、RNA和蛋白质都以较快的速度合成。

()答案:错误解析:很快受精后胚胎转录速度很快,DNA和蛋白质以较快的音速合成,RNA在卵细胞中预先存在,是许多非活性状态的mRNA。

2. 细胞的全能性是植物细胞特有的一种特性。

()答案:错误解析:动物细胞也有全能性。

3. 体外培养时,癌细胞通过分裂增殖并铺满培养器皿的表面形成单层后即停止分裂。

()答案:错误解析:正常细胞通过分裂增殖并铺满培养器皿的停止形成平顶后即表面分裂,而癌细胞由于对密度生长抑制失去敏感性,即失去了接触抑制,因而生长不会在构筑单层时停止生长。

4. 癌细胞的培养,也是单层生长,但没有接触抑制现象。

()答案:错误解析:当癌细胞失去接触抑制时,会出现成堆生长的现像。

2、名词解释题(20分,每题5分)1. peroxisome[安徽师范大学2017研;南开大学2011研]答案:peroxisome的中文名称是过氧化物酶体。

过氧化物酶体即微体,是指由单层膜围绕内含一种或几种氧化酶类的细胞器。

过氧化物酶体是一种异质性的细胞器,不同生物的细胞当中,甚至行使生物的不同个体中所含酶的种类及其单细胞的功能性都有所不同。

过氧化物酶体内常含有氧化酶和过氧化氢酶,使细胞免受H2O2的毒害。

解析:空2. Wntβcatenin信号通路[浙江大学2019研]答案:Wntβcatenin信号通路是一种由细胞表面受体所介导的调控细胞基因表达的信号通路。

Wnt是前体一组富含半胱氨酸的分泌性糖蛋白,可作为局域性信号原子;βcatenin是哺乳类中与果蝇Arm蛋白同源的转录调控蛋白,它在胞质累积中同的稳定及其在核内的累积是Wnt信号通路的关键。

英语文献

英语文献

Thermodynamics (from the Greek θερμη, therme, meaning "heat" and δυναμις, dynamis, meaning "power") is a branch of physics that studies the effects of changes in temperature, pressure, and volume on physical systems at the macroscopic scale by analyzing the collective motion of their particles using statistics.[1]In this context, heat means "energy in transit" and dynamics relates to "movement;" thus, thermodynamics is the study of the movement of energy and how energy instills movement. Historically, thermodynamics developed out of need to increase the efficiency of early steam engines.[2]Typical thermodynamic system—heat moves from hot (boiler) to cold (condenser), (both not shown) and work is extracted, in this case by a series of pistons.The starting point for most thermodynamic considerations are the laws of thermodynamics, which postulate that energy can be exchanged between physical systems as heat or work.[3]The first law of thermodynamics states a universal principle that processes or changes in the real world involve energy, and within a closed system the total amount of that energy does not change, only its form (such as from heat of combustion to mechanical work in an engine) may change. The second law gives a direction to that change by specifying that in any change in any closed system in the real world the degree of order of the system's matter and energy becomes less, or conversely stated, the amount of disorder (entropy) of the system increases.[4]In thermodynamics, interactions between large ensembles of objects are studied and categorized. Central to this are the concepts of system and surroundings. A system comprises particles whose average motions define the system's properties, which are related to one another through equations of state defining the relations between state variables such as temperature, pressure, volume, and entropy. State variables can becombined to express internal energy and thermodynamic potentials, which are useful for determining conditions for equilibrium and spontaneous processes.[5]With these tools, thermodynamics describes how systems respond to changes in their surroundings. This can be applied to a wide variety of topics in science and engineering, such as engines, phase transitions, chemical reactions, transport phenomena, and even black holes. The results of thermodynamics are essential for other fields of physics and for chemistry, chemical engineering, aerospace engineering, mechanical engineering, cell biology, biomedical engineering, and materials science to name a few.[6]Thermodynamics, with its insights into the relations between heat, energy, and work as exemplified in mechanical systems, provides a foundation for trying to understand the behavior and properties of biological, social, and economic systems, which generally maintain an ordered pattern only by consuming a sustained flow of energy.Thermodynamics is the branch of physical science concerned with heat and its relation to other forms of energy and work. It defines macroscopic variables (such as temperature, entropy, and pressure) that describe average properties of material bodies and radiation, and explains how they are related and by what laws they change with time. Thermodynamics does not describe the microscopic constituents of matter, and its laws can be derived from statistical mechanics.Thermodynamics can be applied to a wide variety of topics in science and engineering, such as engines, phase transitions, chemical reactions, transport phenomena, and even black holes. The results of thermodynamics are essential for other fields of physics and for chemistry, chemical engineering, aerospace engineering, mechanical engineering, cell biology, biomedical engineering, materials science, and are useful for other fields such as economics.[1][2]Thermodynamics is one of the best logically structured branches of physics and has become one of the classical branches of theoretical physics.[citation needed]Much of the empirical content of thermodynamics is contained in its four laws. The first law specifies that energy can be exchanged between physical systems as heat and thermodynamic work.[3]The second law concerns a quantity called entropy, that expresses limitations, arising from what is known as irreversibility, on the amount of thermodynamic work that can be delivered to an external system by a thermodynamic process.[4]Historically, thermodynamics developed out of a desire to increase the efficiency of early steam engines, particularly through the work of French physicist Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot (1824) who believed that the efficiency of heat engines was the key that could help France win the Napoleonic Wars.[5] Scottish physicist Lord Kelvin was the first to formulate a concise definition of thermodynamics in 1854:[6]Thermo-dynamics is the subject of the relation of heat to forces acting between contiguous parts of bodies, and the relation of heat to electrical agency.Initially, the thermodynamics of heat engines concerned mainly the thermal properties of their 'working materials', such as steam. This concern was then linked to the study of energy transfers in chemical processes, for example to the investigation, published in 1840, of the heats of chemical reactions[7] by Germain Hess, which was not originally explicitly concerned with the relation between energy exchanges by heat and work. Chemical thermodynamics studies the role of entropy in chemical reactions.[8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16] Also, statistical thermodynamics, or statistical mechanics, gave explanations of macroscopic thermodynamics by statistical predictions of the collective motion of particles based on the mechanics of their microscopic behavior.The plain term 'thermodynamics' refers to macroscopic description of bodies and processes.[17]"Any reference to atomic constitution is foreign to ... thermodynamics".[18] The qualified term 'statistical thermodynamics' refers to descriptions of bodies and processes in terms of the atomic constitution of matter.Thermodynamics is built on the study of energy transfers that can be strictly resolved into two distinct components, heat and work, specified by macroscopic variables.[19][20]Thermodynamic equilibrium is one of the most important concepts for thermodynamics. As the systems and processes of interest are taken further from thermodynamic equilibrium, their thermodynamical study becomes a little more involved but also of much more practical value. In many important cases, such as heat engines or refrigerators, the systems consist of many subsystems at different temperatures and pressures. Thermodynamics is a practical science and also deals with these inhomogeneous dynamic systems provided the thermodynamical parameters are well-defined. The present article takes a gradual approach to the subject, starting with a focus on cyclic processes and thermodynamic equilibrium, and then gradually beginning to further considernon-equilibrium systems.For thermodynamics and statistical thermodynamics to apply to a process in a body, it is necessary that the atomic mechanisms of the process fall into just two classes: those so rapid that, in the time frame of the process of interest, the atomic states effectively visit all of their accessible range, and those so slow that their effects can be neglected in the time frame of the process of interest.[21] The rapid atomic mechanisms mediate the macroscopic changes that are of interest for thermodynamics and statistical thermodynamics, because they quickly bring the system near enough to thermodynamic equilibrium. "When intermediate rates are present, thermodynamics and statistical mechanics cannot be applied."[21] The intermediate rate atomic processes do not bring the system near enough to thermodynamic equilibrium in the time frame of the macroscopic process of interest. This separation of time scales of atomic processes is a theme that recurs throughout the subject.Basic for thermodynamics are the concepts of system and surroundings.[12][22]There are two fundamental kinds of entity in thermodynamics, states of a system, and processes of a system. This allows two fundamental approaches to thermodynamic reasoning, that in terms of states of a system, and that in terms of cyclic processes of a system.For thermodynamics and statistical thermodynamics to apply to a process in a body, it is necessary that the atomic mechanisms of the process fall into just two classes: those so rapid that, in the time frame of the process of interest, the atomic states effectively visit all of their accessible range, and those so slow that their effects can be neglected in the time frame of the process of interest.[21] The rapid atomic mechanisms mediate the macroscopic changes that are of interest for thermodynamics and statistical thermodynamics, because they quickly bring the system near enough to thermodynamic equilibrium. "When intermediate rates are present, thermodynamics and statistical mechanics cannot be applied."[21] The intermediate rate atomic processes do not bring the system near enough to thermodynamic equilibrium in the time frame of the macroscopic process of interest. This separation of time scales of atomic processes is a theme that recurs throughout the subject.Basic for thermodynamics are the concepts of system and surroundings.[12][22]There are two fundamental kinds of entity in thermodynamics, states of a system, and processes of a system. This allows two fundamental approaches to thermodynamic reasoning, that in terms of states of a system, and that in terms of cyclic processes of a system.A thermodynamic system can be defined in terms of its states. In this way, a thermodynamic system is a macroscopic physical object, explicitly specified in terms of macroscopic physical and chemical variables which describe its macroscopic properties. The macroscopic state variables of thermodynamics have been recognized in the course of empirical work in physics and chemistry.[13]A thermodynamic system can also be defined in terms of the processes which it can undergo. Of particular interest are cyclic processes. This was the way of the founders of thermodynamics in the first three quarters of the nineteenth century.The surroundings of a thermodynamic system are other thermodynamic systems that can interact with it. An example of a thermodynamic surrounding is a heat bath, which is considered to be held at a prescribed temperature, regardless of the interactions it might have with the system.The macroscopic variables of a thermodynamic system in thermodynamic equilibrium, in which temperature is well defined, can be related to one another through equations of state or characteristic equations.[23][24][25][26] They express the constitutive peculiarities of the material of the system.Classical thermodynamics is characterized by its study of materials that have equations of state that express relations between mechanical variables and temperature that are reached much more rapidly than any changes in the surroundings. A classical material can usually be described by a function that makes pressure dependent on volume and temperature, the resulting pressure being established much more rapidly than any imposed change of volume or temperature.[27]This is another expression of the concept of separation of time scales of atomic processes mentioned above.Thermodynamic facts can often be explained by viewing macroscopic objects as assemblies of very many microscopic or atomic objects that obey Hamiltonian dynamics.[12][28][29] The microscopic or atomic objects exist in species, the objects of each species being all alike. Because of this likeness, statistical methods can be used to account for the macroscopic properties of the thermodynamic system in terms of the properties of the microscopic species. Such explanation is called statistical thermodynamics; also often it is also referred to by the term 'statistical mechanics', though this term can have a wider meaning, referring to 'microscopic objects', such as economic quantities, that do not obey Hamiltonian dynamics.[28]The study of thermodynamical systems has developed into several related branches, each using a different fundamental model as a theoretical or experimental basis, or applying the principles to varying types of systems.[edit] Classical thermodynamicsClassical thermodynamics is the description of the states (especially equilibrium states) and processes of thermodynamical systems, using macroscopic, empirical properties directly measurable in the laboratory. It is used to model exchanges of energy, work, heat, and matter, based on the laws of thermodynamics. The qualifier classical reflects the fact that it represents the descriptive level in terms of macroscopic empirical parameters that can be measured in the laboratory, that was the first level of understanding in the 19th century. A microscopic interpretation of these concepts was provided by the development of statistical thermodynamics.[edit] Statistical thermodynamicsStatistical thermodynamics, also called statistical mechanics, emerged with the development of atomic and molecular theories in the second half of the 19th century and early 20th century, supplementing thermodynamics with an interpretation of the microscopic interactions between individual particles or quantum-mechanical states. This field relates the microscopic properties of individual atoms and molecules to the macroscopic, bulk properties of materials that can be observed on the human scale, thereby explaining thermodynamics as a natural result of statistics, classical mechanics, and quantum theory at the microscopic level.[edit] Chemical thermodynamicsChemical thermodynamics is the study of the interrelation of energy with chemical reactions and chemical transport and with physical changes of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics.[edit] Thermodynamic equilibriumEquilibrium thermodynamics studies transformations of matter and energy in systems at or near thermodynamic equilibrium. In thermodynamicequilibrium, a system's properties are, by definition, unchanging in time. In thermodynamic equilibrium no macroscopic change is occurring or can be triggered; within the system, every microscopic process is balanced by its opposite; this is called the principle of detailed balance. A central aim in equilibrium thermodynamics is: given a system in awell-defined initial state, subject to specified constraints, to calculate what the equilibrium state of the system will be.[40]Within a simple isolated thermodynamic system in thermodynamic equilibrium, in the absence of externally imposed force fields, all properties of the material of the system are spatially homogeneous.[41]Much of the basic theory of thermodynamics is concerned with homogeneous systems in thermodynamic equilibrium.[8][42]Most systems found in nature or considered in engineering are not in thermodynamic equilibrium, exactly considered. They are changing or can be triggered to change over time, and are continuously and discontinuously subject to flux of matter and energy to and from other systems.[43] For example, according to Callen, "in absolute thermodynamic equilibrium all radioactive materials would have decayed completely and nuclear reactions would have transmuted all nuclei to the most stable isotopes. Such processes, which would take cosmic times to complete, generally can be ignored.".[43] Such processes being ignored, many systems in nature are close enough to thermodynamic equilibrium that for many purposes their behaviour can be well approximated by equilibrium calculations.[edit] Quasi-static transfers between simple systems are nearly in thermodynamic equilibrium and are reversibleIt very much eases and simplifies theoretical thermodynamical studies to imagine transfers of energy and matter between two simple systems that proceed so slowly that at all times each simple system considered separately is near enough to thermodynamic equilibrium. Such processes are sometimes called quasi-static and are near enough to being reversible.[44][45][edit] Natural processes are partly explained by tendency towards thermodynamic equilibrium and are irreversibleSimple isolated thermodynamic systems, as time passes, tend naturally towards thermodynamic equilibrium. In the absence of externally imposed force fields, they become homogeneous in all their local properties.Many thermodynamic processes can be can be modeled by compound or composite systems, consisting of several or many contiguous component simple systems, initially not in thermodynamic equilibrium, but allowed to transfer mass and energy between them. Natural thermodynamic processes can be explained in terms of a tendency towards thermodynamic equilibrium within simple systems and in transfers between contiguous simple systems. Such natural processes are irreversible.[46][edit] Non-equilibrium thermodynamicsNon-equilibrium thermodynamics[47]is a branch of thermodynamics that deals with systems that are not in thermodynamic equilibrium; it is also called thermodynamics of irreversible processes. Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is concerned with transport processes and with the rates of chemical reactions.[48] Non-equilibrium systems can be in stationary states that are not homogeneous even when there is no externally imposed field of force; in this case, the description of the internal state of the system requires a field theory.[49][50][51] One of the methods of dealing with non-equilibrium systems is to introduce so-called 'internal variables'. These are quantities that express the local state of the system, besides the usual local thermodynamic variables; in a sense such variables might be seen as expressing the 'memory' of the materials. Hysteresis may sometimes be described in this way. In contrast to the usual thermodynamic variables, 'internal variables' cannot be controlled by external manipulations.[52]This approach is usually unnecessary for gases and liquids, but may be useful for solids.[53] Many natural systems still today remain beyond the scope of currently known macroscopic thermodynamic methods.[edit] System modelsA diagram of a generic thermodynamic systemAn important concept in thermodynamics is the thermodynamic system, a precisely defined region of the universe under study. Everything in the universe except the system is known as the surroundings. A system is separated from the remainder of the universe by a boundary which may benotional or not, but which by convention delimits a finite volume. Exchanges of work, heat, or matter between the system and the surroundings take place across this boundary.The boundary is simply a surface around the volume of interest. Anything that passes across the boundary that effects a change in the internal energy needs to be accounted for in the energy balance equation. The volume can be the region surrounding a single atom resonating energy, as Max Planck defined in 1900; it can be a body of steam or air in a steam engine, such as Sadi Carnot defined in 1824; it can be the body of a tropical cyclone, such as Kerry Emanuel theorized in 1986 in the field of atmospheric thermodynamics; it could also be just one nuclide (i.e. a system of quarks) as hypothesized in quantum thermodynamics.Boundaries are of four types: fixed, moveable, real, and imaginary. For example, in an engine, a fixed boundary means the piston is locked at its position; as such, a constant volume process occurs. In that same engine, a moveable boundary allows the piston to move in and out. For closed systems, boundaries are real while for open system boundaries are often imaginary.Generally, thermodynamics distinguishes three classes of systems, defined in terms of what is allowed to cross their boundaries.Interactions of thermodynamic systemsType of system Mass flow Work HeatOpenClosedIsolatedIn theoretical studies, it is often convenient to consider the simplest kind of thermodynamic system. This is defined variously by different authors.[77][78][56][79][80][81] For the present article, the following definition will be convenient, as abstracted from the definitions of various authors.A region of material with all intensive properties continuous in space and time is called a phase. A simple system is for the present article defined as one that consists of a single phase of material with no interior partitions.Engineering and natural processes are often described as compounds of many different component simple systems, sometimes with unchanging or changing partitions between them.[edit] States and processesThere are two fundamental kinds of entity in thermodynamics, states of a system, and processes of a system. This allows two fundamental approaches to thermodynamic reasoning, that in terms of states of a system, and that in terms of cyclic processes of a system.The approach through states of a system requires a full account of the state of the system as well as a notion of process from one state to another of a system, but may require only a partial account of the state of the surroundings of the system or of other systems.The notion of a cyclic process does not require a full account of the state of the system, but does require a full account of how the process occasions transfers of matter and energy between the system and its surroundings, which must include at least two heat reservoirs at different temperatures, one hotter than the other. In this approach, the notion of a properly numerical scale of temperature is a presupposition of thermodynamics, not a notion constructed by or derived from it.The method of description in terms of states has limitations. For example, processes in a region of turbulent flow, or in a burning gas mixture, or in a Knudsen gas may be beyond "the province of thermodynamics".[82][83][84] This problem can sometimes be circumvented through the method of description in terms of cyclic processes. This is part of the reason why the founders of thermodynamics often preferred the cyclic process description.[edit] Thermodynamic state variablesWhen a system is at thermodynamic equilibrium under a given set of conditions of its surroundings, it is said to be in a definite thermodynamic state, which is fully described by its state variables.If a system is simple as defined above, and is in thermodynamic equilibrium, and is not subject to an externally imposed force field, such as gravity, electricity, or magnetism, then it is homogeneous, that is say, spatially uniform in all respects.[85]In a sense, a homogeneous system can be regarded as spatiallyzero-dimensional, because it has no spatial variation.If a system in thermodynamic equilibrium is homogeneous, then its state can be described by a few physical variables, which are mostly classifiable as intensive variables and extensive variables.[51][86][87][12][28]Examples of extensive thermodynamic variables are total mass and total volume. Examples of intensive thermodynamic variables are temperature, pressure, and chemical concentration; intensive thermodynamic variables are defined at each spatial point and each instant of time in a system. Physical macroscopic variables can be mechanical or thermal.[28] Temperature is a thermal variable; according to Guggenheim, "the most important conception in thermodynamics is temperature."[12]Intensive variables are defined by the property that if any number of systems, each in its own separate homogeneous thermodynamic equilibrium state, all with the same respective values of all of their intensive variables, regardless of the values of their extensive variables, are laid contiguously with no partition between them, so as to form a new system, then the values of the intensive variables of the new system are the same as those of the separate constituent systems. Such a composite system is in a homogeneous thermodynamic equilibrium. Examples of intensive variables are temperature, chemical concentration, pressure, density of mass, density of internal energy, and, when it can be properly defined, density of entropy.[88]Extensive variables are defined by the property that if any number of systems, regardless of their possible separate thermodynamic equilibrium or non-equilibrium states or intensive variables, are laid side by side with no partition between them so as to form a new system, then the values of the extensive variables of the new system are the sums of the values of the respective extensive variables of the individual separate constituent systems. Obviously, there is no reason to expect such a composite system to be in in a homogeneous thermodynamic equilibrium. Examples of extensive variables are mass, volume, and internal energy. They depend on the total quantity of mass in the system.[89]Though, when it can be properly defined, density of entropy is an intensive variable, for inhomogeneous systems, entropy itself does not fit into this classification of state variables.[90][91] The reason is that entropy is a property of a system as a whole, and not necessarily related simply to its constituents separately. It is true that for any number of systems each in its own separate homogeneous thermodynamic equilibrium, all with the same values of intensive variables, removal of the partitions between the separate systems results in a composite homogeneous system in thermodynamic equilibrium, with all the values of its intensive variables the same as those of the constituent systems, and it is reservedly orconditionally true that the entropy of such a restrictively defined composite system is the sum of the entropies of the constituent systems. But if the constituent systems do not satisfy these restrictive conditions, the entropy of a composite system cannot be expected to be the sum of the entropies of the constituent systems, because the entropy is a property of the composite system as a whole. Therefore, though under these restrictive reservations, entropy satisfies some requirements for extensivity defined just above, entropy in general does not fit the above definition of an extensive variable.Being neither an intensive variable nor an extensive variable according to the above definition, entropy is thus a stand-out variable, because it is a state variable of a system as a whole.[90]A non-equilibrium system can have a very inhomogeneous dynamical structure. This is one reason for distinguishing the study of equilibrium thermodynamics from the study of non-equilibrium thermodynamics.The physical reason for the existence of extensive variables is the time-invariance of volume in a given inertial reference frame, and the strictly local conservation of mass, momentum, angular momentum, and energy. As noted by Gibbs, entropy is unlike energy and mass, because it is not locally conserved.[90] The stand-out quantity entropy is never conserved in real physical processes; all real physical processes are irreversible.[92] The motion of planets seems reversible on a short time scale (millions of years), but their motion, according to Newton's laws, is mathematically an example of deterministic chaos. Eventually a planet will suffer an unpredictable collision with an object from its surroundings, outer space in this case, and consequently its future course will be radically unpredictable. Theoretically this can be expressed by saying that every natural process dissipates some information from the predictable part of its activity into the unpredictable part. The predictable part is expressed in the generalized mechanical variables, and the unpredictable part in heat.There are other state variables which can be regarded as conditionally 'extensive' subject to reservation as above, but not extensive as defined above. Examples are the Gibbs free energy, the Helmholtz free energy, and the enthalpy. Consequently, just because for some systems under particular conditions of their surroundings such state variables are conditionally conjugate to intensive variables, such conjugacy does not make such state variables extensive as defined above. This is another reason for distinguishing the study of equilibrium thermodynamics from the study of non-equilibrium thermodynamics. In another way of thinking, this explains why heat is to be regarded as a quantity that refers to a process and not to a state of a system.。

A New Equation of State for Carbon Dioxide Covering the Fluid Region

A New Equation of State for Carbon Dioxide Covering the Fluid Region

1514
1514 1516 1516 1516 1516 1517 1517 1518 1518
3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 4.
Melting Pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Sublimation Pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Vapor Pressure ....................... " Saturated Liquid Density. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Saturated Vapor Density. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Caloric Data on the Liquid-Vapor Phase Boundary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Experimental Basis of the New Equation of State. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4.1 Thermal Properties .................... " 4.2 Specific Isobaric Heat Capacity. . . . . . . . . . .. 4.2.1 Experimental Results for the Specific Isobaric Heat Capacity. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4.2.2 Results for the Specific Isobaric Heat
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dT
α dP ΔH m →β = α dT T ΔVm →β
凝聚态之间的相平衡(LS)时, dP/dT的正负问题: 对于绝大多数单组元材料,在熔化时,S→L的转变是吸热相 变,而且体积膨胀, ΔHm与ΔVm同号的,→ dP/dT>0 ,相 平衡温度随压力的提高而增高。 对于少数物质,如 H2O、Bi、Si、Ga、Ge等,在熔化时 S→L转变是吸热相变,但却发生体积的收缩, ΔHm与ΔVm 异号 → dP/dT<0, 相平衡温度随压力的提高而降低。
3.5 单元材料的两相平衡 Definitions and basic concepts
Phase(相): A homogeneous portion of system that has uniform physical and chemical characteristics. (a deviation from homogeneity is often allowed). Components(组元): a chemical constituent (element or compound) of an alloy, which may be used to specify composition. Phase diagram(相图): A graphical representation of the relationship between environmental constants (T, P.) , composition and regions of phase stability usually under condition of equilibrium.
G(liquid) G(solid) G Solid Stable
纯金属固相和液相的焓和自由能随温度的变化关系
Trouton定律(Trouton’s Rule, 1884年)
Trouton根据大量的实验事实,总结出一个近似规则: 对于一些纯金属,在沸 点Tb时蒸发,熵变近似 为常数,摩尔蒸发焓变 ΔHV与沸点之间有如下近 似的定量关系(Trouton’s Rule):
α →γ
Δ α 1atm下: Vm →γ = 0.075mm3 mol 1
ΔH m
= 879J mol
1
dT = 0.101K mm3 J 1 = 100.1 K GPa 1 AB dP -3GPa.mm3 1J=10
α 如果,ΔH m→β 和 ΔVmα →β 不能作为常数处理:
A3-D虚线
d g 解: ΔH g→d = H298 H298 = 395.41 393.51 =1.90KJ mol -1
d g ΔS g →d = S 298 S 298 = 2.38 5.74 = 3.36 J mol -1 K -1
ΔG g →d = ΔH g →d T ΔS g →d = 2901 J mol -1
对于等温等压下的可逆相变,相变温度为T时,Sm →β Δ α
α dP ΔH m →β = α dT T ΔVm →β
α ΔH m →β = T
Clapeyron方程
适用于任何单组元材料的两相平衡
3.5 单元材料的两相平衡
α dP ΔSm →β = α dT ΔVm →β
凝聚态之间的相平衡(LS),压力改变不大时,ΔSm和ΔVm的 dP =C 改变很小,可以认为: P∝T直线关系
dT ΔV = dP ΔS
S →l m S →l m
x x )303 5.885 6.08 cm3deg/Cal = 18.5 x (
ΔS
S →l m
ΔH f = Tf
1Cal = 41.293cm3.atm
x x ( )303 dT 5.885 6.08 ∴ = = 2.16 ×103 deg/atm dP 18.5 × 41.293 x
3.5 单元材料的两相平衡
Iron- carbon phase diagram (from Binary alloy phase diagrams, ASM Int., 1990)
3.5 单元材料的两相平衡 Criteria for equilibrium Equilibrium: a state of s system where the phase
T,P
可能出现最大的相数为3。
3.5 单元材料的两相平衡 单元材料的两相平衡包括:固—液相之间、固—气相之 间、液—气相之间,以及同素异构固相之间的平衡。 单组元材料相图: 材料的状 态与温度和压力的关系。 两相平衡线 三相点
3.5 单元材料的两相平衡 如何解释几条两相平衡线? P∝T直线关系:LS ① dP/dT>0 ② dP/dT<0
H2O
α dP ΔH m →β = α dT T ΔVm →β
CO2
Si02
固态中的同素(分)异构转变, 由于ΔVm很小,固相线几乎是 垂直的。
3.5 单元材料的两相平衡 压力影响相平衡温度
现代高压技术
改变相状态的相对稳定性
制造在常压下得不到的状态
3.5 单元材料的两相平衡 例:在1大气压、25℃下,碳的两种晶体结构(石墨 graphite、金刚石diamond)哪种更稳定?计算在25℃, 由石墨转变的金刚石所需压强。
3.5 单元材料的两相平衡 例:纯铁在压力提高时,其相变温度将发生变化,试推算 纯Fe的a/γ转变温度A3点如何随压力而变化。
Solution: Clapeyron方程H m →β = α dT T ΔVm →β
α 压力改变不大时,ΔH m→β 和
的改变很小,可以看作常数。
3.5 单元材料的两相平衡

One compound phase diagrams
Figure (a) Pressure-temperature diagram for H2O. The triple point temperature is 273.0098 K and the triple point pressure is 4.6 torr. Notice the solid-liquid line sloping to the left. At normal pressure (1 atm or 760 torr), the melting temperature is 273 K. A possible scheme for freeze drying is shown as starting with point S and following the dashed line to the left. (b) Pressure-temperature diagram for CO2. Many researchers are examining the applications of super-critical CO2 for use as a solvent for applications related to the processing of plastics and pharmaceuticals. (c) Pressuretemperature diagram for Si02, The dotted line shows the 1 atm pressure.
ΔS f = ΔH f Tf ≈ R = 8.31J mol 1 K 1
熔化热与熔点之间的关系
各种固体金属的熔化熵大致相等,可通过熔化热估算物质的熔点。
3.5 单元材料的两相平衡
H
Latent heat
H(liquid)
ΔH
L 0 298 Tf
H(solid)
ΔS f =
ΔH f Tf
≈R
T (K)
热力学基本方程: dG = VdP -SdT
α α α dGm =Vm dP SmdT β β β dGm =Vm dP SmdT
α β dGm = dGm
α α β Vm dP Sm dT = Vmβ dP Sm dT
β α α dP Sm S m ΔSm →β = β = α α dT Vm Vm ΔVm →β
L(S)G相平衡时,相平衡温度T与压力P之间的关系应为指数关系。
3.5 单元材料的两相平衡
S 例:金属Ga(镓)熔点303K,at 1 atm,密度 DGa = 6.08 g/cm3, l DGa = 5.885 g/cm3 , ΔH f = 18.5 Cal/g,求增加1 atm熔点变 化多少? x x l X: Ga的摩尔质量 Solution: 1mol 液体Ga的体积 Vm = l = DGa 5.885 x x 1mol 固体Ga的体积 VmS = S = DGa 6.08 ΔH f = x 18.5 Cal/mole 1mol
3.5 单元材料的两相平衡
单元材料的两相平衡:两种不同结构相之间的平衡问题。
两相平衡的条件:
α β Gm = Gm ΔG = 0
等温等压下,由一相变成另一相 时,Gibbs自由能的变化为零。OR 两相共存时Gibbs自由能相等。
3.5 单元材料的两相平衡
一个纯元素,通常以几种状态存在,如固态、液态和气态。 比较固态与液态的Gibbs自由能差:
ΔS f = ΔH Tf
f
≈R
Richard’s Rule
Richard 定律(Richard’s Rule,1897年)
Richard根据大量的实验事实,总结出一个近似规则: 对纯金属,在熔点Tf时熵变近 似为常数,摩尔熔化焓变与熔 点之间有如下近似的定量关系 (Richard’s Rule) :
characteristics remain constant over indefinite time period.
Spontaneous process(自发过程) At equilibrium(平衡) Isolated systems ΔS > 0, Seq = Smax ΔV = 0, and isothermal process: dF < 0, Feq = Fmin Geq = Gmin Isothermal and isobaric process: dG < 0,
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