CIVIL SERVICE REFORM IN THE UK, 1999–2005 REVOLUTIONARY FAILURE OR EVOLUTIONARY SUCCESS

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civil service exam

• One of the oldest examples of a civil service based on meritocracy is the Imperial bureaucracy of China, which can be traced as far back as the Qin Dynasty (221–207 BC). During the Han Dynasty (202 BC–220 AD) the xiaolian system of recommendation by superiors for appointments to office was established. In the areas of administration, especially the military, appointments were based solely on merit. • After the fall of the Han Dynasty, the Chinese bureaucracy regressed into a semi-merit system known as the Nine-rank system; in this system noble birthright became the most significant prerequisite先决条件 for gaining access to more authoritative posts. • This system was reversed during the short-lived Sui Dynasty (581–618), which initiated a civil service bureaucracy recruited through written examinations and recommendation. The following Tang Dynasty (618–907) adopted the same measures for drafting officials, and decreasingly relied on aristocratic recommendations and more and more on promotion based on the results of written examinations.

America in Decay

America in Decay-The Sources of Political DysfunctionThe creation of the U.S. Forest Service at the turn of the twentieth century was the premier example of American state building during the Progressive Era. Prior to the passage of the Pendleton Act in 1883, public offices in the United States had been allocated by political parties on the basis of patronage. The Forest Service, in contrast, was the prototype of a new model of merit-based bureaucracy. It was staffed with university-educated agronomists and foresters chosen on the basis of competence and technical expertise, and its defining struggle was the successful effort by its initial leader, Gifford Pinchot, to secure bureaucratic autonomy and escape routine interference by Congress. At the time, the idea that forestry professionals, rather than politicians, should manage public lands and handle the department’s staffing was revolutionary, but it was vindicated by the service’s impressive performance. Several major academic studies have treated its early decades as a classic case of successful public administration.20世纪之交，美国林业局的创立是美国进步时代国家建设的典范。

英国制度发展历程英文

英国制度发展历程英文The development of the British system of government has a deep-rooted history that spans over centuries. It has evolved from a monarchy with absolute power to a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy. This article will provide a brief overview of the key milestones in British constitutional development.The first significant development in British governance was the signing of the Magna Carta in 1215. This document, forced upon King John of England by rebellious barons, established the principle that the monarch is not above the law and that the rights of the people should be protected. Although the Magna Carta was initially only intended to safeguard the interests of the nobility, it laid the groundwork for future legal principles and civil liberties.In the 17th century, England experienced a turbulent period known as the English Civil War. This conflict was primarily a power struggle between the monarchy, represented by King Charles I, and Parliament. The Parliament emerged victorious and executed the king, establishing the Commonwealth under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell. However, this experiment in republican government was short-lived, and the monarchy was eventually restored in 1660 with the ascension of Charles II.It was during the Glorious Revolution of 1688 that the British system of constitutional monarchy began to take shape. The Catholic King James II was overthrown by his Protestant daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange. The Bill of Rights was subsequently enacted, guaranteeing a number of civil liberties andlimiting the powers of the monarchy. This event marked a significant shift in power from the monarchy to Parliament.The 19th century witnessed further advancements in British governance. The Reform Acts of 1832, 1867, and 1884 expanded suffrage and reduced the influence of the aristocracy. The act of 1832 extended voting rights to middle-class men, while subsequent acts increased enfranchisement for working-class men and women. These reforms paved the way for a more representative democracy.The early 20th century brought about the rise of the Labour Party and the emergence of the welfare state. The government began to take a more active role in providing social benefits and addressing inequality. The establishment of the National Health Service in 1948 was a landmark achievement that provided universal healthcare to all citizens, regardless of their economic status.In recent years, there have been debates around issues such as devolution and the role of the European Union. The devolution acts of the late 20th century granted Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland varying degrees of self-governance. However, the decision to leave the European Union in 2016 has arguably been the most significant development in recent British constitutional history. The Brexit process has raised questions about the relationship between the UK and the European Union, as well as the balance of power between the executive and legislative branches.In conclusion, the development of the British system of government has been a gradual and complex process. From the Magna Carta to the present day, the British constitutionalframework has continuously evolved to incorporate new ideas and respond to changing societal needs. While it may face challenges and uncertainties in the future, the British system of governance remains a key pillar of the country's identity and democracy.。

美国文学史浪漫主义时期文学

美国文学史浪漫主义时期文学摘要：浪漫主义时期是美国文学史上最重要的时期之一。

当美国人在大刀阔斧地建设自己的国家时，也开始逐渐意识到逐渐与欧洲的不同。

随着不断增强的民族主义意识及民族自豪感，美国人开始希望见到自己的不同与欧洲模式，能表达他们字的美国风情的文学。

这个时代伟大的作家充满热情地记录下这个伟大时代的乐观主义精神。

随后美国文学进入了超验主义时代。

超验主义十分强调个人主义、自立、拒绝传统权威思想。

它实际上是对浪漫主义的发展。

然后，美国的国家自信心受到了内战的动摇。

内战过后，美国处在迷茫中。

在1900年前后这段时期的文学由于美国国内环境的变化而由浪漫主义和超验主义乐观精神转向对社会和人类本质更直接的探讨。

从某种角度，现实主义反对浪漫主义的理想主义和怀旧情绪。

它主要关注中下层人民的日常生活，而在这种情况下人物性格是社会因素作用的结果，环境是整个事件发展不可分割的部分。

关键词：美国文学史；浪漫主义；文学特点The Romantic Period Literature in the history of AmericanLiteratureAbstract: Romantic Period is one of the most important periods in the history of American literature. When Americans were constructing their country, they also began to realize their differences from their European counterparts. They began to hope to see an entirely different literature model which expressed American cultures. Great writers of that period captured on their pages the enthusiasm and the optimism of that dream. Later，American literature came to Transcendentalism Period which emphasized individualism, self-reliance, and rejection of tradition authority. It was actually greatly influenced by romanticism. However, the country’s confidence was waved by the Civil War. After the war, Americans got lost. At about 1900s, American literature came to another entirely different age—the age of Realism. Realists searched for the social and human nature more directly. In part, Realism was a reaction against the Romantic emphasis on the strange, idealistic, and long-ago and far-away. It has been chiefly concerned with the commonplaces of everyday life among the middle and lower classes where character is a product of social factors and environment is the integral element in the dramatic complications.Keywords: American Literature History; Romanticism; Literary characteristics1、American RomanticismRomanticism refers to an artistic and intellectual movement originating in Europe in the late 18th century and characterized by a heightened interest in nature, emphasis on the individual’s experience of emotion and imagination, departure from the attitudes and forms of classicism, and rebellion against established social rules and conventions. The romantic period of American literature stretches from the end of the 18th century to the outbreak of the Civil War. It was an age of westward expansion, of the increasing gravity of the slavery question, of an intensification of the spirit of embattled sectionalism in the South, and of a powerful impulse to reform in the North. In literature it was America’s first great creative period, a full flowering of the romantic impulse on American soil.1.1The unique characteristics of American RomanticismAlthough greatly influenced by their English counterparts, the American romantic writers revealed unique characteristics of their own in their works and they grew on the native lands. For examp1e，(1) the American national experience of "pioneering into the west" proved to be a rich source of material for American writers to draw upon. They celebrated America's landscape with its virgin forests, meadows, groves, endless prairies, streams.and vast oceans. The wilderness came to function almost as a dramatic character that symbolized moral 1aw. (2) The desire for an escape from society and a return to nature became a permanent convention of American literature. Such a desire is particularly evident in Cooper’s Leather Stocking Tales, in Thoreau's Walden and，later, in Mark Twain’s Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. (3) With the growth of American national consciousness, American character types speaking local dialects appeared in poetry and fiction with increasing frequency. (4)Then the American Puritanism as a cultural heritage exerted great influences over American moral values and American Romanticism. One of the manifestations is the fact that American romantic writers tended more to moralize than their English and European counterparts. (5) Besides, a preoccupation with the Calvinistic view of origina1 sin and the mystery of evil marked the works of Hawthorne, Melville and a host of lesserwriters.historical reasonsWith the independence of the United States of America, political autonomy, the rise of the economy, and cultural independence, the largest land expansion in American history began during the Romantic period of the United States. As of 1860, the Civil War began, the territory of the United States extended to the western coast of the Pacific Ocean. No one could have predicted the middle of 19th century. The United States expanded from just 13 states in her early days to 21, with a nearly eightfold increase in the number of citizens from 4 million in 1790 to 1860. The total population of the country reached 30 million. At that time, the European bourgeois revolution and technological revolutionThe influence of life, this young country has experienced the rapid industrialization of baptism, the affected area in addition to the United States at each city area, including the vast rural areas. Whether industrial or agricultural development are the extensive use of the steam engine, in the vast continent of the United States, many factories such as a large number of factories set up like bamboo shoots after a spring rain, the establishment of the inevitable with the demand for labor force increase, at the same time, when the United States appeared a lot of new inventions, these results quickly applied to the life, the production efficiency is greatly improved. In the romantic period, along with the rapid development of American politics, economy, culture, more and more around the worldImmigrants come to the United States, provide good human resources the arrival of immigrants to the industrial and agricultural development.epilogueThe peak period of Romanticism in American literature was the transcendentalism which appeared later.The concept of transcendentalism was first put forward by the New England Transcendentalism Club in 1830s.For the people of the New World,the idea was gradually accepted by American culture,the two most important writers were Emerson and Thoreau.They are regarded as the archetypal figures of American transcendentalism.Their works play an important role in thespiritual independence of American literature.Transcendentalism emphasizes the help of heaven to help the self-help.Strive to achieve the goal of self-improvement.Two other important writers,Hawthorne and Melvil,insisted on the original sin in the period of the moralism.They believed that only through moral constraints could human nature be promoted.reference documentation[1]Leslie A Fiedler. Love and Death in the merican Novel [M]. Harmondswort: Penguin Books, 1984.[2]Zhang Deming . Huckleberry. Adventures > and adult ceremony [J]. Journal of Zhejiang University, 1999. (4):91-97.[3]Jung .C.G.Conception of Collective unconsciousness [A] .trans by Wang Ai, selected by Ye Shuxian. Myth-archetypal criticism [C] .Xi 'an: Shaanxi normal University Press, 1987.101.[4]Bakhtin. Theory of novels [M] .translated by Bai Chunren, Xiao he .Shijiazhuang: Hebei Education Press, 1998.。

The Civil Rights Movement in the United States

The Civil Rights Movement in the United StatesThe Civil Rights Movement in the United States has been a long, primarily nonviolent struggle to bring full civil rights and equality under the law to all Americans. The movement has had a lasting impact on United States society, in its tactics, the increased social and legal acceptance of civil rights, and in its exposure of the prevalence and cost of racism.The American Civil Rights movement has been made up of many movements. The term usually refers to the political struggles and reform movements between 1945 and 1970 to end discrimination against African Americans and to end legal racial segregation, especially in the U.S. South.This article focuses on an earlier phase of the struggle. Two United States Supreme Court decisions—Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896), which upheld "separate but equal" racial segregation as constitutional doctrine, and Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954) which overturned Plessy—serve as milestones. This was an era of stops and starts, in which some movements, such as Marcus Garvey's Universal Negro Improvement Association, achieved great success butleft little lasting legacy, while others, such as the NAACP's painstaking legal assault on state-sponsored segregation, achieved modest results in its early years but made steady progress on voter rights and gradually built to a key victory in Brown v. Board of Education.After the Civil War, the U. S. expanded the legal rights of African Americans. Congress passed, and enough states ratified, an amendment ending slavery in 1865—the 13th Amendment to the United States Constitution. This amendment only outlawed slavery; it did not provide equal rights, nor citizenship. In 1868, the 14th Amendment was ratified by the states, granting African Americans citizenship. Black persons born in the U. S. were extended equal protection under the laws of the Constitution. The 15th Amendment was ratified in (1870), which stated that race could not be used as a condition to deprive men of the ability to vote. During Reconstruction (1865-1877), Northern troops occupied the South. Together with the Freedmen's Bureau, they tried to administer and enforce the new constitutional amendments. Many black leaders were elected to local and state offices, and others organized community groups.Reconstruction ended following the Compromise of 1877 between Northern and Southern white elites. In exchange for deciding the contentious Presidential election in favor of Rutherford B. Hayes, supported by Northern states, over his opponent, Samuel J. Tilden, the compromise called for the withdrawal of Northern troops from the South. This followed violence and fraud in southern elections in 1876, which had reduced black voter turnout and enabled Southern white Democrats to regain power in state legislatures across the South. The compromise and withdrawal of Federal troops meant that white Democrats had more freedom to impose and enforce discriminatory practices. Many African Americans responded to the withdrawal of federal troops by leaving the South in what is known as the Kansas Exodus of 1879.The Radical Republicans, who spearheaded Reconstruction, had attempted to eliminate both governmental and private discrimination by legislation. That effort was largely ended by the Supreme Court's decision in the Civil Rights Cases, 109 U.S. 3 (1883), in which the Court held that the Fourteenth Amendment did not give Congress power to outlaw racialdiscrimination by private individuals or businesses.SegregationThe Supreme Court's decision in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) upheld state-mandated discrimination in public transportation under the "separate but equal" doctrine. While in the 20th century, the Supreme Court began to overturn state statutes that disfranchised African Americans, as in Guinn v. United States (1915), with Plessy, it upheld segregation that Southern states enforced in nearly every other sphere of public and private life.As Justice Harlan, the only member of the Court to dissent from the decision, predicted:If a state can prescribe, as a rule of civil conduct, that whites and blacks shall not travel as passengers in the same railroad coach, why may it not so regulate the use of the streets of its cities and towns as to compel white citizens to keep on one side of a street, and black citizens to keep on the other? Why may it not, upon like grounds, punish whites and blacks whoride together in street cars or in open vehicles on a public road or street? . . . .The Court soon extended Plessy to uphold segregated schools. In Berea College v. Kentucky, 211 U.S. 45 (1908), the Court upheld a Kentucky statute that barred Berea College, a private institution, from teaching both black and white students in an integrated setting. Many states, particularly in the South, took Plessy and Berea as blanket approval for restrictive laws, generally known as Jim Crow laws, that created second-class status for African-Americans.In many cities and towns, African-Americans were not allowed to share a taxi with whites or enter a building through the same entrance. They had to drink from separate water fountains, use separate restrooms, attend separate schools, be buried in separate cemeteries and even swear on separate Bibles. They were excluded from restaurants and public libraries. Many parks barred them with signs that read "Negroes and dogs not allowed." One municipal zoo went so far as to list separate visiting hours.The etiquette of racial segregation was even harsher, particularly in the South. African Americans were expected to step aside to let a white person pass, and black men dared not look any white woman in the eye. Black men and women were addressed as "Tom" or "Jane", but rarely as "Mr." or "Miss" or "Mrs." Whites referred to black men of any age as "boy" and a black woman as "girl"; both often were called by labels such as "nigger" or "colored."Less formal social segregation in the North began to yield to change.Jackie Robinson’s Major League Baseball debut, 1947Jackie Robinson was a sports pioneer of the Civil Rights Movement. Jackie Robinson is most well known for becoming the first African American to play professional sports in the major leagues. He is not often recognized as one of earliest public figures in the Civil Rights Movement. He debuted with the Brooklyn Dodgers of Major League Baseball on April 15, 1947. Jackie Robinson's first major league game came one year before the U.S. Army was integrated, sevenyears before Brown v. Board of Education, eight years before Rosa Parks, and before Martin Luther King Jr. was leading the Civil Rights Movement. Jackie Robinson stepped into the spotlight before many of the most notable people in the Civil Rights Movement history. Every day he played, he was an example and role model for countless children and youths.DisfranchisementMain article: Disfranchisement after the Civil WarBy the turn of the century, white-dominated Southern legislatures disfranchised nearly all age-eligible African American voters through a combination of statute and constitutional provisions. While requirements applied to all citizens, in practice, they were targeted at blacks and poor whites, and subjectively administered. In addition, opponents of black civil rights used economic reprisals and sometimes violence in the 1880s to discourage blacks from registering to vote.Mississippi was the first state to have such constitutionalprovisions, such as poll taxes, literacy tests (which depended on subjective by white registrars), and complicated record keeping to establish residency, litigated before the Supreme Court. In 1898 the Court upheld the state, in Williams v. Mississippi. Other Southern states quickly adopted the "Mississippi plan", and from 1890-1908, ten states adopted new constitutions with provisions to disfranchise most blacks and many poor whites. States continued to disfranchise these groups for decades. Blacks were most adversely affected, as in many states black voter turnout dropped to zero. Poor whites were also disfranchised. In Alabama, for instance, by 1941, 600,000 poor whites had been disfranchised, and 520,000 blacks.[1]It was not until the 20th century that litigation by African Americans on such provisions began to meet some success before the Supreme Court. In 1915 in Guinn v. United States, the Court declared Oklahoma's "grandfather law", to be unconstitutional. Although the decision affected all states that used the grandfather clause, state legislatures quickly devised new devices to continue disfranchisement. Each provision or statute had to be litigated separately. One device theDemocratic Party began to use more widely in Southern states was the white primary, which served for decades to disfranchise the few blacks who managed to get past barriers of voter registration. Barring blacks from voting in the Democratic Party primaries meant they had no chance to vote in the only competitive contests. White primaries were not struck down by the Supreme Court until Smith v. Allwright in 1944.Criminal law and lynchingIn 1880, the United States Supreme Court ruled in Strauder v. West Virginia, 100 U.S. 303 (1880) that African Americans could not be excluded from juries. The late 19th century disfranchisement of blacks in the South, however, meant that blacks were routinely barred from jury service, as it was reserved for voters only. This left them at the mercy of a white justice system arrayed against them. In some states, particularly Alabama, the state used the criminal justice system to reestablish a form of peonage in the form of the convict-lease system. The state sentenced black males to years of imprisonment, which they spent working without pay. Thestate leased prisoners to private employers, such as Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Company, a subsidiary of United States Steel Corporation, which paid the state for their labor. Because the state made money, the system created incentives for the jailing of more men, who were disproportionately black. It also created a system in which treatment of prisoners received little oversight.Extra-judicial punishment was even more brutal. During the last decade of the 19th century and the first decades of the 20th century, white vigilantes lynched thousands of black males, sometimes with the overt assistance of state officials, mostly within the South. No whites were charged with crimes in any of those massacres. Whites were, in fact, so confident of their immunity from prosecution for lynching that they not only photographed the victims, but made postcards out of the pictures.The Ku Klux Klan, which had largely disappeared after a brief violent career in the early years of Reconstruction, reappeared in 1915. It grew mostly in industrializing cities of the South and Midwest that underwent the most rapid growth from1910-1930. Social instability contributed to racial tensions from severe competition for jobs and housing. People joined KKK groups who were anxious about their place in American society, as cities were rapidly changed by a combination of industrialization, migration of blacks and whites from the rural South, and waves of increased immigration from mostly rural southern and eastern Europe.[2]Initially the KKK presented itself as another fraternal organization devoted to betterment of its members. The KKK's revival was inspired in part by the movie Birth of a Nation, which glorified the earlier Klan and dramatized the racist stereotypes concerning blacks of that era. The Klan focused on political mobilization, which allowed it to gain power in states such as Indiana, on a platform that combined racism with anti-immigrant, anti-Semitic, anti-Catholic and anti-union rhetoric, but also supported lynching. It reached its peak of membership and influence about 1925, declining rapidly afterward as opponents mobilized.[3]Segregated economic life and educationIn addition to excluding blacks from equal participation in many areas of public life, white society also kept blacks in a position of economic subservience or marginality. After widespread losses from disease and financial failures in the late 19th c., black farmers in the South worked in virtual economic bondage as sharecroppers or tenant farmers. Employers and labor unions generally restricted African Americans to the worst paid and least desirable jobs. Because of the lack of steady, well-paid jobs, relatively undistinguished positions, such as those with the Pullman Porter or as hotel doorman, became prestigious positions in black communities.The Jim Crow system that excluded African-Americans from many areas of economic life led to creation of a vigorous, but stunted economic life within the segregated sphere. Black newspapers sprang up throughout the North, while black owners of insurance and funeral establishments acquired disproportionate influence as both economic and political leaders.Continuing to see education as the primary route ofadvancement and critical for the race, many talented blacks went into teaching, which had high respect as a profession. Segregated schools for blacks were underfunded in the South and ran on shortened schedules in rural areas. Despite segregation in Washington, DC, by contrast, as Federal employees, black and white teachers were paid on the same scale. Outstanding black teachers in the North received advanced degrees and taught in highly regarded schools, which trained the next generation of leaders in cities such as Chicago, Washington, and New York.Education, in fact, was one of the major achievements of the black community in the 19th century. Blacks in Reconstruction governments had supported the establishment of public education in every Southern state. Despite the difficulties, with the enormous eagerness of freedmen for education, by 1900 the African-American community had trained and put to work 30,000 African-American teachers in the South. In addition, a majority of the black population had achieved literacy.[4] Not all the teachers had a full 4-year college degree in those years, but the shorter terms of normal schools were part of the system of teacher training in both theNorth and the South to serve the many new communities across the frontier. African American teachers got many children and adults started on education.Northern alliances had helped fund normal schools and colleges to teach African American teachers, as well as create other professional classes. African Americans reached out for education at these historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs). After the turn of the century, black men and women began to found their own fraternities and sororities to create networks for lifelong service and collaboration. These were part of the new organizations that strengthened community life.The Black churchAs the center of community life, Black churches held a leadership role in the Civil Rights Movement. Their history as a focal point for the Black community and as a link between the Black and White worlds made them natural for this purpose. Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr. was but one of many notable Black ministers involved in the movement. RalphDavid Abernathy, Bernard Lee, Fred Shuttlesworth, and C.T. Vivian are among the many notable minister-activists.[5] They were especially important during the later years of the movement in the 1950s and 1960s.The Niagara Movement and the founding of the NAACPAt the turn of the century, Booker T. Washington was regarded, particularly by the white community, as the foremost spokesman for African-Americans in the U. S. Washington, who led the Tuskegee Institute, preached a message of self-reliance. He urged blacks to concentrate on improving their economic position rather than demanding social equality until they had proved that they "deserved" it. Publicly, he accepted the continuation of Jim Crow and segregation in the short term, but privately helped to fund court cases challenging the laws.W.E.B. Du Bois and others in the black community rejected Washington's apology for segregation. One of his close associates, Monroe Trotter, was arrested after challenging Washington when he came to deliver a speech in Boston in1905. Later that year Du Bois and Trotter convened a meeting of black activists on the Canadian side of the river at Niagara Falls. They issued a manifesto calling for universal manhood suffrage, elimination of all forms of racial segregation and extension of education—not limited to the vocational education that Washington emphasized—on a nondiscriminatory basis.Du Bois joined with other black leaders and Jewish activists, such as Henry Moskowitz, Julius Rosenthal, Lillian Wald, Rabbi Emil G. Hirsch, and Stephen Wise to create the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909. W.E.B. Du Bois also became editor of its magazine The Crisis. In its early years, the NAACP concentrated on using the courts to attack Jim Crow laws and disfranchising constitutional provisions. It successfully challenged the Louisville, Kentucky ordinance that required residential segregation in Buchanan v. Warley, 245 U.S. 60 (1917). It also gained a Supreme Court ruling striking down Oklahoma's "grandfather clause" that exempted most illiterate white voters from a law that disenfranchised African-American citizens in Guinn v. United States (1915).The NAACP lobbied against President Wilson's introduction of racial segregation into Federal government employment and offices in 1913. They lobbied for commissioning of African Americans as officers in World War I. In 1915 the NAACP organized public education and protests in cities across the nation against D.W. Griffith's silent film Birth of a Nation, a film that glamorized the Ku Klux Klan. Some cities refused to allow the film to open.。

美国种族歧视英文课件

Housing inequality
Housing inequality is another manifestation of racial discrimination.
In the United States, residents of different races have significant differences in housing choices, rent, and housing prices. Black and Latinx Americans often live in less ideal communities, facing higher housing costs and fewer opportunities.
目录
• The impact and sequences of racial discrimination
• Strategies and actions to address racial discrimination
• Conclusion
01 Introduction
Theme Introduction
The movement received significant successes, including the passing of the Civil Rights Act and the Voting Rights Act, which outlines racial discrimination and provided access to voting rights for all citizens
English courseware on racial discrimination in the

Grant_and_Lee_a study in contrasts

人物介绍：
Robert Edward Lee
Robert Edward Lee (January 19, 1807 – October 12, 1870) was a career United States Army officer, an engineer, and among the most celebrated generals in American history. Lee was the son of Major General Henry Lee III "Light Horse Harry" (1756–1818), Governor of Virginia, and his second wife, Anne Hill Carter (1773– 1829). He was also related to Meriwether Lewis (1774–1809). A top graduate of West Point, Lee distinguished himself as an exceptional soldier in the U.S. Army for thirty-two years. He is best known for commanding the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia in the American Civil War.
大学英语综合教程五
第五单元文章
Grant and Lee
化工2班张风光
人物介绍：
Ulysses S. Grant
Ulysses S. Grant
Grant, the son of a tanner on the Western frontier, was everything Lee was not. He had come up the hard way, and embodied nothing in particular except the eternal toughness and sinewy fiber of the men who grew up beyond the mountains. He was one of a body of men who owed reverence and obeisance to no one, who were selfreliant to a fault, who cared hardly anything for the past but who had a sharp eye for the future.

美国历届总统

罗纳德· 里根 Ronald Reagan (1981-1989) The oldest US president Star war project (1982)
The only US president who
was once an actor 1980s ----Reagon Times hit by the bullet but survived
Barack Obama 贝拉克.奥巴马（2009-）
• The first African American president • Won Nobel Peace prize in 2009
The third US president who was assassinated
西奥多· 罗斯福 Theodore Roosevelt (1901-1909) graduated from Harvard Unverisity Won Nobel Peace prize in 1906 Grand Canyon National Park
Veto president 22nd and 24th president in the US(1897-1901)
prosperity president Spanish American War
Joined eight-power allied force
乔治· 布什
George Herbert Walker Bush(1989-1993)
Disintegration of the former SU(1991) Gulf War I (1991)
比尔· 克林顿 Bill Clinton (1993-2001)
Impeachment bill Three pillars of Clinton administration Whitewatergate Zippergate

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Public Administration Vol. 85, No. 2, 2007 (301–328)© 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA.Tony Bovaird is Professor of Public Management and Policy in the Institute of Local Government Studies (INLOGOV), School of Public Policy, the University of Birmingham. Ken Russell is Professor and Associate Dean at Aberdeen Business School, The Robert Gordon University.C IVIL SERVICE REFORM IN THE UK, 1999 –2005: REVOLUTIONARY FAILURE OR EVOLUTIONARY SUCCESS?T ONY B OVAIRD AND K EN R USSELL I n December 1999, the UK Civil Service Management Board agreed an internal reformprogramme, complementing the more externally-oriented ‘ m odernizing govern-ment ’ programme, to bring about major changes in the functioning of the civil service – ‘ s tep change ’ rather than continuous improvement. This paper suggests that the aims of the reform programme were only partially achieved. While some step changes did indeed occur, even such central elements of reform as ‘ j oined-up ’ work-ing with other public organizations were still only at an initial stage some three years later and o thers – for example, business planning and performance manage-ment systems – have taken 20 years to achieve acceptance within the civil service. It appears that examples of meteoric change are rare in the civil service – the reality of the changes are better characterized as ‘ e volution ’ and ‘ c ontinuous improvement ’ than ‘r evolution ’and ‘s tep change ’.I NTRODUCTION I n December 1999, the UK Civil Service Management Board agreed a reform programme focusing on six themes, all connected with improved managerial processes internal to the civil service and intended to complement the more externally-oriented ‘ m odernizing government ’ agenda set out in a White Paper earlier that year. The purpose was to achieve major changes in the way in which the civil service was run – ‘ s tep change ’ rather than continuous improvement. This reform programme has subsequently received much less academic attention than the ‘ m odernization ’ programme which it was in-tended to complement. I n May 2002, the Cabinet Ofﬁ ce commissioned a research project to p rovide an evaluation of the Civil Service Reform (CSR) Programme through four case studies. This project was designed to encourage evidence-based l earning across Whitehall by selecting examples of what were believed to be ‘g ood p ractice ’ in implementing the reforms, subjecting them to detailed ‘ w arts and all ’ scrutiny, and distilling lessons which might have wider validity across departments. This paper draws upon the ﬁ ndings of that study to discuss the extent to which this ambitious reform programme achieved its objectives.302 T ONY BOVAIRD AND KEN RUSSELLIt then explores how well lessons were learnt from this reform programme when it was given a new direction in late 2002. Finally, it suggests implications of the research for current models of public sector reform.A IMS OF THE RESEARCHT he overall aim of the original research project was to support the successful implementation of the CSR Programme by examining the underlying processes that support or impede reform. The evaluation was therefore mainly ‘f ormative ’(serving to inﬂ uence the progress of the activities evaluated), but it also had a ‘s ummative ’element (giving a considered overall view of whether the a ctivities have been successful).T he speciﬁ c objectives set out in the original research brief from the Cabinet Ofﬁ ce were:•t o identify successful implementation strategies for the six CSR themes; •t o map and explain the links between these reform themes and improved delivery and performance;•t o identify any other factors that appeared to support or impede improved delivery and performance;•t o identify intermediate outcomes that could be used to monitor and evaluate the six reform themes and organisational performance.F igure 1 shows how these aims and objectives inter-relate. In our subsequent research, we have extended these aims in two extra directions:1. t o identify the forces which led to the redirection of the reform pro-gramme in late 2002, rebadged as ‘t ransforming public services ’;2. t o consider the extent to which the redirection of the reform programmerepresented an evolutionary change from the 1999 programme or whether it was an attempt to achieve ‘s tep change ’through a different route.M ETHODOLOGYI n consultation with the Cabinet Ofﬁ ce, case studies were chosen to cover a range of civil service organizational structures and contexts:•T wo civil service departments, without any of their agencies –National Assembly of Wales and the Welsh Assembly Government (NAW/WAG) (which operated as one department), and the Department for Interna-tional Development (DfID).•A civil service executive agency (with some consideration of its relation-ship with its sponsoring department) –the Court Service.•A non-departmental public body, staffed mainly by civil servants but relatively autonomous from its sponsoring department –the Health and Safety Commission, with the Health and Safety Executive which sup-ports and advises it (HSC/HSE).Public Administration Vol. 85, No. 2, 2007 (301–328)© 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.C IVIL SERVICE REFORM IN THE UK, 1999 –2005 303To contribute to improved results and delivery in the civil serviceF IGURE 1A ims of the research project on UK civil service reformI n t able 1, we provide a short description of the characteristics of these four organizations at the time when the case studies were undertaken.I n order to ensure that the mechanisms for change within the reform p rogramme could be examined in detail, the case studies were chosen as examples of organizations believed (by the Cabinet Ofﬁ ce) to have made signiﬁ cant progress with the reforms. At the same time, it was accepted that they were likely to lie on a spectrum from ‘e nthusiastic reformers ’to ‘w illing (but not necessarily very slick) reformers ’. Because the CSR Programme looked mainly at the need to change internal factors, rather than external Public Administration Vol. 85, No. 2, 2007 (301–328)© 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.304 T ONY BOVAIRD AND KEN RUSSELLPublic Administration Vol. 85, No. 2, 2007 (301–328)© 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.T A B L E 1C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e f o u r c a s e s t u d i e s (y e a r 2002, u n l e s s o t h e r w i s e s p e c i ﬁ e d )N A W /W A G D f I D C o u r t S e r v i c e H S C /H S E T y p e o fo r g a n i z a t i o nD e v o l v e d g o v e r n m e n t (r e p l a c i n g W e l s h O f ﬁ c e i n 1997)G o v e r n m e n t d e p a r t m e n t(r e p l a c i n g o l d O v e r s e a s D e v e l o p m e n t A d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n 1997)E x e c u t i v e A g e n c y o f D e p a r t m e n t o f C o n s t i t u t i o n a l A f f a i r s (p r e v i o u s l y L o r d C h a n c e l l o r ’s D e p a r t m e n t )s i n c e 1995N o n -d e p a r t m e n t a l p u b l i c b o d y(r e p o r t s t o D e p a r t m e n t o f W o r k a n d P e n s i o n s , p r e v i o u s l y t o O D P M ) A i mN A W d e v e l o p s a n d i m p l e m e n t s p o l i c i e s w h i c h r e ﬂ e c t t h e n e e d s o f W a l e s , a s a g r e e d b y t h e e l e c t e d a s s e m b l y . W A G s u p p o r t s b o t h t h e A s s e m b l y a n d t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f t h e A s s e m b l y T h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f p o v e r t y i n p o o r e r c o u n t r i e s i n p a r t i c u l a r t h r o u g h a c h i e v e m e n t b y 2015 o f t h e M i l l e n n i u m D e v e l o p m e n t G o a l s T o d e l i v e r j u s t i c e e f f e c t i v e l y a n d e f ﬁ c i e n t l y t o t h e p u b l i c R e s p o n s i b l e f o r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e c i v i l , f a m i l y a n d c r i m i n a l c o u r t s (a n d , s i n c e 2004, m a g i s t r a t e s c o u r t s ) i n E n g l a n d a n d W a l e s T o p r o t e c t p e o p l e ’s h e a l t h a n d s a f e t y b y e n s u r i n g r i s k s i n t h e c h a n g i n g w o r k p l a c e a r e p r o p e r l y c o n t r o l l e d P o l i t i c a l m a n a g e m e n tH e a d e d b y F i r s t M i n i s t e r f o r W a l e s (a l s o o n W e s t m i n s t e r J o i n t M i n i s t e r i a l C o m m i t t e e f o r d e v o l v e d g o v e r n m e n t s ) p l u s W e l s h A s s e m b l y G o v e r n m e n t m i n i s t e r s H e a d e d b y S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e (i n C a b i n e t ) p l u s 1 m i n i s t e r R e p o r t s t o P e r m a n e n t S e c r e t a r y , D C A , w h o i n t u r n i s r e s p o n s i b l e t o S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e C o m m i s s i o n i s r e s p o n s i b l e t o P a r l i a m e n t a r y U n d e r S e c r e t a r y f o r W o r k a n d P e n s i o n s B u d g e t £10,500m £4,500m £588m £204m S t a f ﬁ n g4000 s t a f f (u p f r o m 2000 a t s t a r t -u p i n 1997)2800 s t a f f (a r o u n d 35% f o r e i g n n a t i o n a l s ), a l m o s t h a l f w o r k i n g a b r o a d 9600 s t a f f (r i s i n g t o 22,000 a f t e r m a g i s t r a t e s c o u r t s m e r g e r )3900 s t a f f , i n c l u d i n g 2900 p r o f e s s i o n a l a n d s p e c i a l i s t s t a f f S t r u c t u r eU n i q u e i n E u r o p e , u n i t i n g e x e c u t i v e a n d l e g i s l a t i v e b r a n c h e s u n d e r o n e r o o f H Q (h e a d e d b y P e r m a n e n t S e c r e t a r y ) a n d 3 E x e c u t i v e A g e n c i e s M a t r i x o r g a n i z a t i o n w i t h P e r m a n e n t S e c r e t a r y , t h r e e D i r e c t o r s G e n e r a l –o n e f o r (v e r t i c a l ) p r o g r a m m e s , o n e f o r (c r o s s -c u t t i n g ) p o l i c y a n d f o r c o r p o r a t e p e r f o r m a n c e T w o H Q s (i n L o n d o n a n d E a s t K i l b r i d e , S c o t l a n d ) a n d 67 o f ﬁ c e s o v e r s e a s .N o E x e c u t i v e A g e n c i e sC h i e f E x e c u t i v e r e p o r t s t oD C A 42 a r e a s w i t h i n 7 r e g i o n s .C o m m i s s i o n h a s C o m m i s s i o n e r s f r o m i n d u s t r y , t h e t r a d e s u n i o n s a n d o t h e r i n t e r e s t s M a n y o f i t s t a s k s a r e d e l e g a t e d t o H SE , w h i c h s u p p o r t s a n d a d v i s e s H S C b u t i t a l s o h a s 25 a d v i s o r y c o m m i t t e e s 17 D i r e c t o r a t e s c o v e r a l l G BC IVIL SERVICE REFORM IN THE UK, 1999 – 2005 305Public Administration Vol. 85, No. 2, 2007 (301–328)© 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.R e l a t i o n s h i p t o p u b l i c M a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h p u b l i c i s t h r o u g h E x e c u t i v e A g e n c i e sM a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e w i t h f o r e i g n g o v e r n m e n t s a n d m u l t i l a t e r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n sD e a l s d i r e c t l y w i t h p u b l i c t h r o u g h l o c a l c o u r t s e r v i c e sD e a l s m a i n l y w i t h ﬁ r m s a n d o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s , e i t h e r d i r e c t l y o r t h r o u g h l o c a l a u t h o r i t y p a r t n e r s K e y e x t e r n a l p r o b l e m s f a c i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n d u r i n g 1999–2002N e e d t o i m p r o v e s e r v i c e g i v e n t o p u b l i c , e s p e c i a l l y b y E x e c u t i v e A g e n c i e s N e e d t o f o r g e n e w r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h a l l o t h e r p u b l i c a g e n c i e s i n W a l e s , a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n o t h e r s e c t o r s V o l a t i l e i n t e r n a t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t – e .g . w a r s , f a m i n e , n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r s R e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h f o r e i g n g o v e r n m e n t s a n d N G O s R e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h F C O a n d T r e a s u r yN e e d t o i m p r o v e s e r v i c e g i v e n t o p u b l i c a n d o t h e r c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e p a r t n e r s R e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h ‘h o m e ’d e p a r t m e n t I m a g e w i t h s e r v i c e ‘ n o n -u s e r s ’ S i g n i ﬁ c a n t i n c r e a s e i n o u t c o m e t a r g e t s a f t e r 2000 W h i t e P a p e r E m p l o y m e n t g r o w t h i s n o w i n s m a l l ﬁ r m s , w h e r e H &S h a s l o w p r o ﬁ l e N e e d t o w o r k i n p a r t n e r s h i p , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s K e y i n t e r n a lp r o b l e m s f a c i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n d u r i n g 1999–2002H u g e i n c r e a s e i n n u m b e r o f t a s k s N e e d f o r r a p i d r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f p r e v i o u s W e l s h O f ﬁ c e a r r a n g e m e n t s B i g i n c r e a s e i n s t a f f f r o m v e r y d i v e r s e a g e n c i e s b u t w i t h 50% d u e t o r e t i r e w i t h i n 5 y e a r sD i f f e r e n t i a l t e r m s a n d c o n d i t i o n s f o r ‘h o m e ’a n d ‘f o r e i g n n a t i o n a l ’s t a f f G e o g r a p h i c a l l y d i s p e r s e d o f ﬁ c e s R e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n p r o f e s s i o n a l s p e c i a l i s t s a n d a d m i n i s t r a t o r s a n d m a n a g e r sF i x e d r e s o u r c e s a t t i m e o f r i s i n g v o l u m e o f w o r k T r a d i t i o n o f b u r e a u c r a t i c a d m i n i s t r a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n i n n o v a t i o n N e e d t o i n c r e a s e d i v e r s i t y o f s t a f fI m p r o v i n g e v i d e n c e b a s e a n d I C T s y s t e m s C o -o r d i n a t i o n b e t w e e n o p e r a t i o n a l a n d p o l i c y d i r e c t o r a t e s T A B L E 1 (C o n t i n u e d )306 T ONY BOVAIRD AND KEN RUSSELLfactors, we sought case studies in which there had been neither internal nor external crises which might have swamped the effects of the CSR Programme. The case studies cover a wide range in terms of political saliency –both NAW/WAG and DfID are consistently politically newsworthy, but the Court Service (and even more HSC/HSE) only tend to get media attention when particular cases go wrong.A checklist of questions was formulated; this was intended to guide (but not to constrain) the interviews in each of the case studies. The case studies consisted of the following phases:•S coping of the case study with the Cabinet Ofﬁ ce and staff from the case studies.•B rieﬁ ng from senior staff in the department, agency or non-departmen-tal public body (NDPB).•I dentiﬁ cation and analysis of key documentation.•I nterviews (and in some cases focus groups) with a range of staff (be-tween 15 and 25 in number) and at least one external stakeholder. In each of the cases, we interviewed a range of top managers, key change agents, middle managers and frontline staff (including trades union rep-resentatives). Stakeholders included public sector partner organizations, non-governmental organizations and user representatives from the policy and delivery networks of the case study organizations.•P reparation of a draft case study report for circulation and comment. •F inal case study preparation, taking into account all comments received. T he ﬁ nal report brought together ﬁ ndings from the case studies, drew over-all conclusions in relation to each of the themes and highlighted some lessons from the case studies for the managers in the overall reform programme. The report ( B ovaird e t al.2002 ) was widely circulated throughout the civil service, discussed at a seminar of the Civil Service Change Agents Network, and mounted on the Cabinet Ofﬁ ce web site. The Cabinet Ofﬁ ce placed no restric-tions on the researchers, either in terms of access or dissemination of the ﬁndings and the study has subsequently been presented at a number of national seminars.D uring 2005, we interviewed between three and seven key top and senior managers (recontacting, where possible, those interviewed during 2002) in each of the case study organizations to explore the experiences of their o rganizations in the subsequent reforms which were launched in late 2002. In these interviews we focused on the extent to which this redirected programme, since 2002, a ppeared to have learnt the lessons of the original CSR Programme and whether it had raised the pace of change in the civil service.M ODELS OF PUBLIC SECTOR REFORM PROGRAMMEST he CSR Programme launched in 1999 was intended to be a key element in UK reform of the public sector. Reforms in the UK have not taken place in Public Administration Vol. 85, No. 2, 2007 (301–328)© 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.C IVIL SERVICE REFORM IN THE UK, 1999 –2005 307 a vacuum –there has been a wave of public sector reforms across the world since the ﬁ rst programmes in the early 1980s in the UK and USA ( P ollitt and Bouckaert 2004 ). By the early 1990s, the reform movement was widespread throughout OECD countries and it then spread even further, often encouraged by the World Bank and multilateral aid agencies. Naturally, these reform p rogrammes differed signiﬁcantly in their intentions, contents, methods, speed of implementation and degrees of success. Nevertheless, a number of strong similarities have been observed, leading to a series of academic efforts to provide a typology of public sector reform.O ne of the earliest attempts to ﬁnd a pattern in the reform movements, based primarily on the UK experience, was by Lewis G unn (1987) . He called the new approach ‘p ublic management ’and suggested that it was characterized by, ‘a merger of the normative orientation of traditional public administration and the instrumental orientation of general management ’.While the phrase ‘n ew public management ’(NPM) was quickly adopted to describe the under-lying reform approach in many countries ( H ood 1991; Dunleavy and Hood 1994 ), Christopher P ollitt (1993) suggested that reforms in the early 1980s were essentially a crude neo-Taylorist form of managerialism, concentrating on cost reduction, budget decentralization and performance target- s etting. He proposed that NPM could be more accurately conceived as that package of reforms which emerged in the late 1980s in the UK and which included the following elements ( P ollitt 1993 , p. 180):•m uch bolder and larger scale use of market-like mechanisms for parts of the public sector that could not be transferred directly into public ownership (quasi-markets);•i ntensiﬁ ed organizational and spatial decentralization of the manage-ment and production of services;•a rhetorical emphasis on the need to improve service ‘q uality ’;•i nsistence on greater attention to the wishes of the individual service user/ ‘c ustomer ’.A t this point, one of the key issues of disagreement arises in the literature. P ollitt (1993 , p. 189) suggests thatt he value structure of NPM is indeterminate: ‘q uality ’and ‘c onsumer r esponsiveness ’sit alongside a ﬁ erce and continuing concern with econ-omy and efﬁ ciency. It is not clear which group of values will take priority when (as at some point is inevitable) a trade-off has to be made.M ore recently, P ollitt and Bouckaert (2004) have argued that experience in the last 20 years in ten major countries has shown that there is no fundamental contradiction between improving quality and cutting costs –the relationship between them depends on the context (particularly whether cost cutting can be achieved by exploiting spare capacity or technological advances, for Public Administration Vol. 85, No. 2, 2007 (301–328)© 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.308 T ONY BOVAIRD AND KEN RUSSELLe xample, in ICT). Other authors are more conﬁ dent that the choice is inherent within the model –H ood (1991) suggests that NPM still prioritized the values of frugality and cost-reduction over those of fairness, rectitude and mutuality, as had the preceding reforms in the early 1980s.I n the USA in 1992, NPM was reformulated by Osborne and Gaebler as ‘e ntrepreneurial government ’, with ten attributes which were to become f amous throughout the public sector in many countries: steering rather than rowing; empowering rather than serving; injecting competition into service delivery; transforming rule-driven organizations; funding outcomes rather than inputs; meeting customer not bureaucracy needs; earning rather than spending; prevention rather than cure; participation rather than hierarchy; getting change ‘v ia ’the market. It is perhaps not a coincidence that these attributes bore a strong resemblance to the eight maxims which P eters and Waterman (1982) had proposed to characterize the ‘c ultural revolution ’in the private sector ten years earlier, given that O sborne and Gaebler (1992) believed that modern approaches to private sector management were key to successful public sector management. While some authors have tended to conﬂate NPM with this ‘e ntrepreneurial government ’approach (see, for e xample, d u Gay, 2000 ), there are elements of this list which are clearly rather different from those which were highlighted in Pollitt ’s characterization of NPM above. In particular, the emphasis on ‘e mpowering rather than serving ’and on ‘p articipation rather than hierarchy ’go well beyond the tenets of the core NPM approach and begin to reach out towards a new concept of gover-nance in the public sector.D uring the 1990s, the rapid spread of public sector reform movements gave rise to a debate as to whether there was convergence towards a single model. This debate was often sloppy in its conceptualization of the issue, confusing the different types of convergence which were possible –for e xample, convergence of talk, decisions, actions or results ( B runsson 1989 ).H owever, all convergence theories were dealt a mortal blow –at least in relation to the period from 1980 to 2000 –by the deﬁ nitive comparison of trends in 12 major countries undertaken by P ollitt and Bouckaert (2004) . In their sample of ten countries, they distinguished four very different strategies for public sector reform: maintain, modernize, marketize or minimize. As they have shown: ‘d ifferent regimes at different times appear to have leaned towards one or other of these strategies ’( P ollitt and Bouckaert 2004 , p. 178). The trajectories traversed have not shown any clear patterns:F rom an incrementalist perspective, therefore, the nature of public manage-ment reform is bitty, a d hoc and speciﬁ c, not strategic, comprehensive and driven by generic models. ( P ollitt and Bouckaert, 2004 , p. 195)T his backs up the conclusions of Peters and Savoie (1998, pp. 6 –7): w hen taking stock of administrative reforms we are invariably confronted with a confusing and contradictory picture of change. On the one hand, we discover that a large number of changes have been adopted and implemented, Public Administration Vol. 85, No. 2, 2007 (301–328)© 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.C IVIL SERVICE REFORM IN THE UK, 1999 –2005 309and appear to have produced some beneﬁ ts for people inside and outside government. …On the other hand, we also discover that few, if any, of these reforms have been able to live up to the claims of their advocates.P arsons (2004) has provided a further important critique of NPM, arguing that governments have been reluctant to draw upon ideas associated with the issues of complexity and non-linearity. H e suggests that if the ‘p rofes-sional model ’of policy making did draw more on these ideas, it would have ‘g one some way to constrain and subvert the modernizing assumptions about being able to know, predict, join up, command and control ’( P arsons 2004 , p. 184).M ore recently, it has become clear that a public organization cannot be judged only on the excellence of its services –it also has to be excellent in the way it exercises its political, environmental and social responsibilities. Consequently, a new generation of government reforms has started around the world which may be labelled ‘p ublic governance ’reforms. B ovaird and Loefﬂ er (2003) suggest that there are two key components of good public governance: ﬁrst, improvements in public policy outcomes; and, second, implementation by all stakeholders of a set of principles and processes by means of which appropriate public policies will be designed and put into practice. While many of the principles of NPM are still regarded as important by governments embarking on public governance reforms, the emphasis has moved to rather different issues ( B ovaird and Loefﬂ er 2003 ), particularly:•C itizen engagement;•T ransparency;•A ccountability;•T he equalities agenda and social inclusion;•E thical and honest behaviour;•E quity (fair procedures and due process);•A bility to compete in a global environment;•A bility to work effectively in partnership;•S ustainability;•R espect for the rule of law.F rom the public governance perspective, the debate in the 1980s about the relative role of state v is-à-vis other service delivery agencies is now seen as having, at least partly, missed the real point. The most important question is not whether the state will remain more powerful than other players but rather which set of formal and informal rules, structures and processes will be needed so that the state, the private and voluntary sectors, citizens and other important stakeholders can each exercise some power over those d ecisions by other stakeholders which create improved outcomes for all p arties concerned ( B ovaird and Loefﬂ er 2003 ) or at least ensure acceptable minimum outcomes, especially for the most vulnerable groups in society. Public Administration Vol. 85, No. 2, 2007 (301–328)© 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.310 T ONY BOVAIRD AND KEN RUSSELLPerri et al.(2002, p. 238) argue that ‘a n exit from the reinvention para-digm and a shift in varying ways and degrees towards holistic governance is being made in many countries ’. They suggest that the ‘h olistic gover-nance ’approach could be institutionalized, even if it has not already been, just as in the past the Northcote –T revelyan model of a civil service, the post-WW2 welfare state model and the later NPM and ‘r einvention ’mod-els of governance have been institutionalized. However, they also recog-nize that interest in this model may wane, as it has in the previous models. We may therefore have to accept that models of public sector reform are contingent and transient –just like the problems which they are meant to solve.M AIN THEMES IN THE UK CIVIL SERVICE REFORM PROGRAMME T he CSR Programme, as formulated by the Civil Service Management Board (Cabinet Ofﬁ ce 1999a) reﬂ ected some, but not all, of the issues identiﬁ ed in the discussion above as common to public sector reform programmes across the world. In particular, it was intended to achieve results in relation to six main themes:1. s tronger leadership with a clear sense of purpose;2. b etter business planning;3. s harper performance management;4. d ramatic improvement in diversity;5. m ore open service to bring in and bring on talent6. a better deal for staff.T hese themes, heavily inﬂ uenced by the priorities of Sir Richard Wilson, the then Cabinet Secretary ( W ilson 1999 ), were inward-looking, relating mainly to how the Civil Service goes about its business rather than its r elationships with the outside world (citizens and other stakeholders), or its ‘r esults ’(the effect of internal changes on the services provided). There was a strong focus on issues of resource management, including human, ﬁ nancial and other resources. These changes were intended in turn to lead to improved customer service through better management, motivation, development and leadership of people. As F oster (2001 , p. 742) has commented, ‘m ost of them would have been at home in a similar report on a large private ﬁrm’.In May 1999, the government had already published its M odernising Government White Paper (Cabinet Ofﬁ ce 1999b), setting out the key themes of: vision, policy-making, responsive public services, quality public services, informa-tion age government and public service. This document set the scene for much of the CSR Programme, for example, in its promotion of the value of Public Service ( M assey 2001 ). However, many of its key themes were about service improvement and working with external stakeholders. It was there-fore much more policy-oriented and customer-oriented than the CSR Programme.Public Administration Vol. 85, No. 2, 2007 (301–328)© 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.。