How to Write a Research Paper

How to Write a Research PaperSTEP 1. CHOOSE A TOPICSTEP 2. FIND INFORMATIONSTEP 3. STATE YOUR THESISSTEP 4. MAKE A TENTATIVE OUTLINESTEP 5. ORGANIZE YOUR NOTESSTEP 6. WRITE YOUR FIRST DRAFTSTEP 7. REVISE YOUR OUTLINE AND DRAFTSTEP 8. TYPE FINAL PAPER1. CHOOSE A TOPICChoose a topic which interests and challenges you. Your attitude towards the topic may well determine the amount of effort and enthusiasm you put into your research.Focus on a limited aspect, e.g. narrow it down from "Religion" to "World Religion" to "Buddhism". Obtain teacher approval for your topic before embarking on a full-scale research. If you are uncertain as to what is expected of you in completing the assignment or project, re-read your assignment sheet carefully or ASK your teacher.Select a subject you can manage. Avoid subjects that are too technical, learned, or specialized. Avoid topics that have only a very narrow range of source materials.2. FIND INFORMATIONSurf the Net. For general or background information, check out useful URLs, general information online, almanacs or encyclopedias online suchas Britannica. Use search engines and other search tools as a starting point. Pay attention to domain name extensions, e.g., .edu (educational institution), .gov (government), or .org (non-profit organization). These sites represent institutions and tend to be more reliable, but be watchful of possible political bias in some government sites. Be selective of .com (commercial) sites.Many .com sites are excellent; however, a large number of them contain advertisements for products and nothing else. Network Solutions provides a link where you can find out what some of the other extensions stand for. Be wary of the millions of personal home pages on the Net. The quality of these personal homepages vary greatly. Learning how to evaluate websites critically and to search effectively on the Internet can help you eliminate irrelevant sites and waste less of your time.To find books in the Library use the OPAC (Online Public Access Catalog). Check out other print materials available in the Library:• Almanacs, Atlases, AV Catalogs• Encyclopedias and Dictionaries• Government Publications, Guides, Reports• Magazines, Newspapers• Vertical Files• Ye llow Pages, Zip or Postal Code and Telephone DirectoriesCheck out online resources, Web based information services, or special resource materials on CDs:• Online reference materials (including databases, e.g. SIRS, ProQuest, eLibrary, etc.)• Wall Street Executive Library• Index to Periodicals and Newspapers(e.g. , , etc.)• - an online dictionary and encyclopedia all-in-one resource that you can installon your computer free of charge and find one-click answers quickly. • Encyclopedias (e.g.Britannica, Canadian Encyclopedia, etc.)• Magazines and Journals (e.g. Time, NationalGeographic, Maclean's, Newsweek, etc.)• Newspapers (e.g. Los Angeles Times, New York Times, USA Today, The Toronto Star, Vancouver Sun, etc.)• International Public Library• Subject Specific software (e.g. discovering authors, exploring Shakespeare, etc.)Check out public and university libraries, businesses, government agencies, as well as contact knowledgeable people in your community.Read and evaluate. Bookmark your favorite Internet sites. Save, printout, photocopy, and take notes of relevant information.As you gather your resources, jot down full bibliographical information (author, title, place of publication, publisher, date of publication, page numbers, URLs, creation or modification dates on Web pages, and your date of access) on your work sheet, printout, or enter the information on your laptop or desktop computer for later retrieval. If printing from the Internet, it is wise to set up the browser to print the URL and date of access for every page. Remember that an article without bibliographical information is useless since you cannot cite its source.3. STATE YOUR MAIN ARGUMENTDo some critical thinking and write your thesis statement down in one sentence. Your thesis statement is like a declaration of your belief. The main portion of your essay will consist of arguments to support and defend this belief.4. MAKE A TENTATIVE OUTLINEAll points must relate to the same major topic that you first mentioned in your capital Roman numeral.Example of an outline of a biographical essay on Shakespeare:I. INTRODUCTION - (Brief comment leading into subject matter -Thesis statement on Shakespeare)II. BODY - Shakespeare's Early Life, Marriage, Works, Later YearsA. Early life in Stratford1. Shakespeare's familya. Shakespeare's fatherb. Shakespeare's mother2. Shakespeare's marriagea. Life of Anne Hathawayb. Reference in Shakespeare's PoemsB. Shakespeare's works1. Playsa. Tragediesi. Hamletii. Romeo and Julietb. Comediesi. The Tempestii. Much Ado About Nothingc. Historiesi. King Johnii. Richard IIIiii. Henry VIII2. Sonnets3. Other poemsC. Shakespeare's Later Years1. Last two plays2. Retired to Stratforda. Deathb. Buriali. Epitaph on his tombstoneIII. CONCLUSIONA. Analytical summary1. Shakespeare's early life2. Shakespeare's works3. Shakespeare's later yearsB. Thesis rewordedC. Concluding statementThe purpose of an outline is to help you think through your topic carefully and organize it logically before you start writing. A good outline is the most important step in writing a good paper. Check your outline to make sure that the points covered flow logically from one to the other. Include in your outline an INTRODUCTION, a BODY, and a CONCLUSION. Make the first outline tentative.INTRODUCTION - State your thesis and the purpose of your research paper clearly. What is the chief reason you are writing the paper? State also how you plan to approach your topic. Is this a factual report, a book review, a comparison, or an analysis of a problem? Explain briefly the major points you plan to cover in your paper and why readers should be interested in your topic. BODY - This is where you present your arguments to support your thesis statement. Remember the Rule of 3, i.e. find 3 supporting arguments for each position you take. Begin with a strong argument, then use a stronger one, and end with the strongest argument for your final point.CONCLUSION - Restate or reword your thesis. Summarize your arguments. Explain why you have come to this particular conclusion.5. ORGANIZE YOUR NOTESOrganize all the information you have gathered according to your outline. Critically analyze your research data. Using the best available sources, check for accuracy and verify that the information is factual, up-to-date, and correct. Opposing views should also be noted if they help to support your thesis. This is the most important stage in writing a research paper. Here you will analyze, synthesize, sort, and digest the information you have gathered and hopefully learn something about your topic which is the real purpose of doing a research paper in the first place. You must also be able to effectively communicate your thoughts, ideas, insights, and research findings to others through written words as in a report, an essay, a research or term paper, or through spoken words asin an oral or multimedia presentation with audio-visual aids.Do not include any information that is not relevant to your topic, and do not include information that you do not understand. Make sure the information that you have noted is carefully recorded and in your own words, if possible. Plagiarism is definitely out of the question. Document all ideas borrowed or quotes used very accurately. As you organize your notes, jot down detailed bibliographical information for each cited paragraph and have it ready to transfer to your Works Cited page.Devise your own method to organize your notes. One method may be to mark with a different color ink or use a hi-liter to identify sections in your outline, e.g., IA3b - meaning that the item "Accessing WWW" belongs in the following location of your outline:6. WRITE YOUR FIRST DRAFTStart with the first topic in your outline. Read all the relevant notes you have gathered that have been marked, e.g. with the capital Roman numeral I. Summarize, paraphrase or quote directly for each idea you plan to use in your essay. Use a technique that suits you, e.g. write summaries, paraphrases or quotations on note cards, or separate sheets of lined paper (or text files on your computer).Put all your files or paper in the order of your outline, e.g. IA, IB, IC. If using a word processor, create meaningful filenames that match your outlinecodes for easy cut and paste as you type up your final paper, e.g. cut first Introduction paragraph and paste it to IA. Before you know it, you have a well organized term paper completed exactly as outlined.If it is helpful to you, use a symbol such as "#" to mark the spot where you would like to check back later to edit a paragraph. The unusual symbol will make it easy for you to find the exact location again. Delete the symbol once editing is completed.7. REVISE YOUR OUTLINE AND DRAFTRead your paper for any content errors. Double check the facts and figures. Arrange and rearrange ideas to follow your outline. Reorganize your outline if necessary, but always keep the purpose of your paper and your readers in mind.CHECKLIST ONE:1. Is my thesis statement concise and clear?2. Did I follow my outline? Did I miss anything?3. Are my arguments presented in a logical sequence?4. Are all sources properly cited to ensure that I am not plagiarizing?5. Have I proved my thesis with strong supporting arguments?6. Have I made my intentions and points clear in the essay?Re-read your paper for grammatical errors. Use a dictionary or a thesaurus as needed. Do a spell check. Correct all errors that you can spot and improve the overall quality of the paper to the best of your ability. Get someone else to read it over. Sometimes a second pair of eyes can see mistakes that you missed.CHECKLIST TWO:1. Did I begin each paragraph with a proper topic sentence?2. Have I supported my arguments with documented proof or examples?3. Any run-on or unfinished sentences?4. Any unnecessary or repetitious words?5. Varying lengths of sentences?6. Does one paragraph or idea flow smoothly into the next?7. Any spelling or grammatical errors?8. Quotes accurate in source, spelling, and punctuation?9. Are all my citations accurate and in correct format?10. Did I avoid using contractions? Use "cannot" instead of "can't", "do not" instead of "don't"?11. Did I use third person as much as possible? Avoid using phrases such as "I think", "I guess", "I suppose"12. Have I made my points clear and interesting but remained objective?13. Did I leave a sense of completion for my reader(s) at the end of the paper?The Elements of Style, Fourth Edition, by William Strunk, Jr.For an excellent source on English composition, check out this classic book by William Strunk, Jr. on the Elements of Style. Contents include: Elementary Rules of Usage, Elementary Principles of Composition, Words & Expressions Commonly Misused, An Approach to Style with a List of Reminders: Place yourself in the background, Revise and rewrite, Avoid fancy words, Be clear, Do not inject opinion, Do not take shortcuts at the cost of clarity, ... and much more. Details of The Elements of Style by William Strunk, Jr. partially available online at . Note: William Strunk, Jr. (1869–1946). The Elements of Style was first published in 1918.8. TYPE FINAL PAPERAll formal reports or essays should be typewritten and printed, preferably on a good quality printer.Read the assignment sheet again to be sure that you understand fully what is expected of you, and that your essay meets the requirements as specified by your teacher. Know how your essay will be evaluated.Proofread final paper carefully for spelling, punctuation, missing or duplicated words. Make the effort to ensure that your final paper is clean, tidy, neat, and attractive.Aim to have your final paper ready a day or two before the deadline. This gives you peace of mind and a chance to triple check. Before handing in yourassignment for marking, ask yourself: "Is this the best that I can do??”Tips & Warnings∙Don't leave such a difficult task to the last minute. Start early, and work gradually.∙Use bibliography software to help manage your sources. Consult a style guide, such as the MLA (Modern Language Association) manual of style, for details on citation of sources.∙Consider taking a class on writing a research paper.∙Be sure to cite your sources whenever you make use of an idea from someone else. (See "How to Avoid Plagiarism in a Research Paper.")An argumentWhen you write an extended literary essay, often one requiring research, you are essentially making an argument. You are arguing that your perspective-an interpretation, an evaluative judgment, or a critical evaluation-is a valid one.A debatable thesis statementLike any argument paper you have ever written for a first-year composition course, you must have a specific, detailed thesis statement that reveals your perspective, and, like any good argument, your perspective must be one which is debatable.ExamplesYou would not want to make an argument of this sort:‘Shakespeare's Hamlet is a play about a young man who seeks revenge’.That doesn't say anything-it's basically just a summary and is hardly debatable.A better thesis would be this:‘Hamlet experiences internal conflict because he is in love with his mother.’That is debatable, controversial even. The rest of a paper with this argument as its thesis will be an attempt to show, using specific examples from the text and evidence from scholars, (1) how Hamlet is in love with his mother, (2) whyhe's in love with her, and (3) what implications there are for reading the play in this manner.You also want to avoid a thesis statement like this:‘Spirituality means different things to different people. King Lear, The Book of Romans, and Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance each view the spirit differently.’Again, that says nothing that's not already self-evident. Why bother writing a paper about that? You're not writing an essay to list works that have nothing in common other than a general topic like "spirituality." You want to find certain works or authors that, while they may have several differences, do have some specific, unifying point. That point is your thesis.A better thesis would be this:‘Lear, Romans, and Zen each view the soul as the center of human personality.’Then you prove it, using examples from the texts that show that the soul is the center of Conventions of Writing Papers about LiteratureThe first thought any writer should give to a literary paper is not "What am I going to say?" but "Who is my audience?" You can think of the audience of your literature paper as an informed and intelligent fellow student. Ultimately, of course, most essays are evaluated by a professor, but that professor is not a bored or sneering reader looking for a single interpretation. The professor is interested in the same literary work that you are writing about, probably knows a good deal about it, and wants to be persuaded by a claim that you make about this piece of literature.You are writing to someone who knows the work at least as well as youdo. Your job is to remind your audience of passages in the text that provide evidence for the argument you want to create about your text, not to describe the plot to someone who has never read the text.OrganizationAll college essays need an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. In a literature paper, the essay's introduction invites your reader into your analysis and provides a thesis that describes the direction of your argument. The essay's body is composed of a series of close, interpretive readings of passages from the literary text that support the assertion of your thesis. The essay's conclusion thoughtfully reflects on what you have presented in the paper. It does not simply repeat your thesis.1. STARTIntroductory pitfalls. The following are errors that inexperienced writers make when writing introductory paragraphs.Praising the bard. Frightened at the blank five or ten pages they have yet to fill, some students rely on a warm-up sentence that goes something like this: "The great Renaissance poet and playwright, William Shakespeare, masterfully wrote his famous play, Hamlet, just as the sixteenth century drew to a close." Rarely do opening lines like this have anything to do with the thesis of the paper, and they should be edited out in the final draft. Your professor and your fellow students are doubtless aware of Shakespeare's well-received reputation and have no need for information extraneous to your topic. Only include such phrases if they startlingly contrast commonly received ideas. E.g., "Many have praised Shakespeare as the greatest of poets writing in English, but he is far surpassed by the exquisite wit and expression of the stand-up comedian Andrew Dice Clay." Be prepared, of course, to defend your extraordinary claims.Lab talk. The noun "essay" is derived from a French verb that means "to try" or "to attempt." When you write an essay, you are yourself using a literary form. An essay is an extended work of prose composed to explore or examine an idea. It is not a scientific proof, and the rhetoric of the laboratory has no place in the literary essay. In poorly written essays, such "lab talk" shows up in a sentence like this: "In this paper I will prove that Elizabeth Bennet is an unknowing social satirist in Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice." You may, indeed, follow a scientific route in crafting an inductive argument, one that gathers examples and draws conclusions by examining them together. But inductive arguments, as any scientist will tell you, are never exhaustive. Claims of proof about an object of interpretation will not lend your paper any authority. You gain authority through the originality, thoroughness, and intelligence of your analysis.Therapy thesis. Most people have had the experience of being personally moved by a literary work. Kate Chopin's novel, The Awakening, or James Baldwin's novel, Go Tell it on the Mountain, might parallel a self-discovery experience you have had. Reading a poem like Dylan Thomas' "Do Not Go Gentle into that Good Night" might force you to face your love and grief for a parent or relative who has died. The cathartic power of art has been appreciated since the days of the early Greeks, and an emotional response to a work of literature is a legitimate response. When Odysseus bows his head to hide the tears he sheds in listening to the singing of the poet in the court of the Phaiakians, however, he is not writing a literary essay. The fact that a poem or a play touched a raw nerve is great. But not every response we have to a work of literature is an appropriate response for a literary essay. You need not deny your feelings in your essay; you simply need to take care that they do not assume the place of literary analysis. Make sure you discuss the poem, not simply the friend John Keats seems to be describing; analyze the force of John Donne's imagery rather than the religious experience you have had.Good Starts. It is as impossible to prescribe a formula for the opening line of a literary essay as it is to tell a poet or novelist what the first line of her literary work should be. If you believe that your purpose is simply to satisfy an assignment that scarcely interests you, feel free to start your essay with a sentence that will allow your reader to share your boredom. But if your object is to attract the interest of your reader, craft a sentence about your topic that introduces it in a dignified, yet unexpected, manner. An essay's topic is the narrowed down idea you have decided to discuss as it relates to a literary work. E.g., you might choose to write about distortions of biblical narrative in Chaucer's "Wife of Bath's Prologue." Somewhere within your first paragraph you want to include a sentence or two that describes your thesis. A thesis is your assertion about your topic, a statement that indicates to your reader what the direction of the argument in your essay will be. Just as you want to avoid hubristic claims of "proof" in your thesis, you should also avoid shy qualifications. There is no need to muffle your thoughts with phrases like, "I believe that" or "In my opinion." Your reader assumes that everything you write that you do not attribute to another author is your opinion.Writing literary analysis. "To analyze" means to pull something apart to carefully examine the pieces. When you analyze a poem, a story, a novel, or a play, you select lines or passages to discuss to make a claim about the whole work. Sometimes you analyze the author's mode of expression: Why is this choppy? clear? rhyming? Sometimes you interpret the objects the author haswritten about: Is the red dress seductive? Is a cigar just a cigar? Sometimes you explain the patterns of imagery and metaphors the author has created: Why are so many women compared with food in Aphra Behn's The Rover? All of your analytical passages combine to support your essay's thesis.Creating your own organization. It is not necessary to imitate the chronology of the literary work you are analyzing. Since both you and your reader have completed a reading of the literature you are discussing, you can draw upon examples from all sections of the text in whatever order best suits your argument.Limiting Description. When writing about a novel, a story, or a play, remember that your reader already knows the plot. Concentrate on how the author expresses what happens. You can refer to events and ideas without describing them as though they were completely new to your reader. E.g., rather than telling your reader that Celie is raped by her stepfather in Alice Walker's The Color Purple, you might claim, "When Celie is raped by her stepfather, she describes her pain and confusion in fragmented sentences and innocently crude language." From there you would provide textual examples, and comment upon each one you select.Using Secondary Sources. In literature, secondary sources are usually critical essays and books that have been published on the primary, literary work you are reading. When your professor tells you that you do not need to use secondary sources to write your essay, he means that he wants to read your interpretation alone. Sometimes a professor will ask you to write a report on a critical essay. In that case you can summarize and evaluate the position taken by the critic whose article you read.When you are required to incorporate secondary sources into your essay, you must make sure that you are not simply writing a report. Your essay is still governed by your thesis. Sometimes you will agree with the critic you have read; other times you will disagree. You may indicate a critic's view on your topic whether it supports or refutes your thesis. In either case, you should find examples of the way in which a critic's interpretation works, or examples that contradict the critic's interpretation. In one sense, you must analyze the critical essay as carefully as you are analyzing the literary work. Never let a secondary source dominate your essay.You will find the most current critical approaches in journal articles rather than books, because they are published more quickly. You can find articles on anauthor you are studying by consulting the MLA (Modern Language Association) Index. You can now search the MLA Index online through Geneseo's GLOCAT. If the Milne library does not subscribe to the journal that interests you, you can obtain a photocopy of the article you need through inter-library loan. Please give the librarian several weeks' notice.Using quotations. Here is an oxymoron on the use of quotations: sparse bounty. It is hard to claim that you are interested in the way an author expresses himself if you fail to demonstrate that expression in your essay. On the other hand, you want to make sure that the passages you quote, whether in a primary or secondary source, need to be quoted. Quote only passages that would lose their effectiveness if they were paraphrased. Never use a quotation to substitute for your own prose. Your prose must control your essay. This is particularly important when you draw upon secondary critical sources. Unless you are going to analyze a long passage of criticism, you should paraphrase what the author has to say. ALWAYS INCLUDE A TAG LINE ON ANY QUOTATION YOU INCLUDE IN THIS ESSAY. For example, a minimal tag line might beIn The Second Treatise of Government, John Locke claims, " . . . ."Is this clear? Handbook writers call quotations without tag lines "dropped quotations." A quotation should never appear in the prose of your essay without some of your words attached to it. Don't just borrow someone's else's words because they sound good (even if you provide a citation). Writing is hard work. Do it.When do you set off a quotation from the body of prose of your essay? If a passage of prose is fifty words or four typed lines (or longer), or if you are quoting four or more lines of poetry, nest the quotation, indenting the left margin 10 spaces (your tab is five spaces). When you set off a quotation, you do not use quotation marks. For example:In contrast with her mature, understated, though biting, social satire found in the later novels, Jane Austen's Sense and Sensibility exemplifies the author's most vicious comedicvoice. Certainly Austen can be gentle toward the romantic Marianne, as her description of Barton Cottage as "defective" for being regularly shaped and tastefully decorated illustrates (61); but she does not spare the characters who are capable of great cruelty:Mrs. John Dashwood had never been a favourite with any of her husband's family; but she had had no opportunity, till the present, of shewing them with how little attention to the comfort of other people she could act when occasion required it. (41)Notice that the parenthetical reference follows the period in a set off quotation; the period or semicolon follows the parentheses when the quotation is in the body of your essay. If your quotation contains a quotation, indicate so by single quotation marks inside double quotation marks in a quotation in the body of your paper (FOR EXAMPLE: John Dashwood speaks somberly before acting hypocritically: "'It was my father's last request to me,' replied her husband, 'that I should assist his widows and daughters.'"); use double quotation marks within a set-off quotation. You will find that British punctuation differs from American punctuation. Follow American punctuation for your essays written in the United States.Plagiarism. When you use secondary sources, and when you refer to the primary work, you must be sure to cite your source properly. You will find formats for citing sources at the end of this document. The College defines plagiarism this way: "(1) Direct quotation without appropriate punctuation and citation of source; (2) Paraphrase of expression or thought without proper attribution; (3) Dependence upon a source for a plan, organization or argument without appropriate citation."There are also positive reasons to cite sources. Your reader will certainly want to know the context of your quotation or paraphrase, whether of a literary or a critical work. If a critical work sounds interesting, your reader may want to know where to find it. Finally, it is important to distinguish a critic's ideas from your own so that you get credit for the original thinking you have done.Weak conclusions. The following are inappropriate ways to conclude a literary essay:Sudden stop. One way to avoid the task of reflecting upon what you have just written is to omit your conclusion and simply end your paper with your last example. Both you and your reader will find this unsatisfying, however. A conclusion makes you responsible for what you have claimed. Think of it as the opportunity to assert something about your topic that you could not have asserted before you presented your examples. Most writers find that they have made discoveries about their topic in the process of writing their essays. This is。