英语语言学概论笔记
语言学概论第四章笔记句法学
语言学概论第四章笔记句法学Chapter 4 Syntax 句法学1．W hat is Syntax?Syntax studies the sentence structure of language. The term syntax came originally from Greek. It literally meant arrangement. It means that sentences are structured according to a particular arrangement of words. Well-arranged sentences are considered grammatical sentences. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.句法学研究语言的句子结构。
该术语来自希腊语，字意是排列。
句子是根据一种特定的排列词的方式构成的。
排列正确的句子被认为是合乎语法的句子。
合乎语法的句子是根据一套句法规则构成的。
句法是一个规则系统。
2. Syntax as a system of rules 句法是规则系统Syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. A sentence is considered grammatical when it is in agreement with the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers. Universally found in the grammars f all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统，句子由单词组合而成。
英语语言学笔记(DOC)
第一章Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsTeaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.Teaching difficulties: design features of language ; some important distinctions in linguistics Teaching procedures1. language1.1 Why study language?为什么学习语言A tool for communication交流的工具An integral part of our life and humanity 人类生活和人性中不可或缺的一部分.If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.如果不能完全理解语言的本质和结构,我们就会对人类的本质一无所知.1.2 What is language?什么是语言1.2.1 different senses of language 语言的不同意义1. what a person says( concrete act of speech)a person’s consistent way of speaking or writinga particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial languagean abstract system2. A webster’s New Dictionrary offers a frequently used sense of the word “language”:a. human speech 人类的言语b. the ability to communicate by this means 通过言语来交流的能力c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed,used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; 用来表达或交流思想和感觉的一套声音及这些声音互相结合的系统d. the written representation of such a system 系统的文字表达3. the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication.最简洁的定义:语言是言语交流的一种方式.Language is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiostic and communication canonly take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interactionincluding such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles.Language distinguishes us from animals.因为说和写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为,所以语言是实用性的;因为语言是社会符号,语言的交流只能在所有参与者广泛理解了人类的那些非言语的暗示,动机,社会文化角色等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进行,因此语言又是社会的,约定俗成的.语言使人类区别于动物.1.2.2 definitionsLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.What is communication?A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiveror listener).A system----since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules systematically, rather thanrandomly. They cannot be arranged at will. e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×) Why do we say language is arbitrary?Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning, between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer. Thisexplains and is explained by the fact that different language have different words for thesame object, it is good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language . it is only our tacitagreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound upin the utterance. A typical example to illustrate the arbitrary of language is a famousquotati on from shakepeare’s play:” Romeo and Juliet: A rose by any other name wouldsmell as sweet.一朵玫瑰不管它叫什么名字,闻起来都是一样香的.Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or voval forms to symbolize what they wishto refer to.Vocal-------- the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing systems are. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The factthat small children learn and can only learn to speak and listen before they write or readalso indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written.Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users.Human ----language is human-specific.Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.“Language Acquisition Device”(LAD)二.What characteristics of langauge do you think should be included in a good ,comprenhensive definition of language?Language is a rule-governed system; langauge is basically vocal; langauge is arbitrary ; langague is used for human communication.1.3 Design features of language 语言的结构特征Design features------ refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity/ productivity, displacement, clutural transmission and interchangeability.Design features----- are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.(指决定了人类语言性质的特征.例如任意性,二重性,创造性,移位性,文化转移性等.)The American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features.What is arbitrariness?任意性a. arbitrariness【'ɑːbɪtrərɪnɪs】----arbitrariness(任意性): one design feature of humanlanguage,which refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no naturalrelationship to their meaning.(人类语言的本质特征之一,指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系.)It was discussed by Saussure first.The link between them is a matter of convention.E.g. “house” uchi (Japanese)Mansion (French)房子(Chinese)(1) arbitrary between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning语言的音和义之间的任意性a. By “arbitrary”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. 语言的意义和语音之间没有逻辑关系。
英语语言学概论知识点总结
英语语言学概论知识点总结English linguistics is a fascinating field that delves into the structure, variation, and evolution of the English language. It encompasses phonetics, which studies the sounds of speech, and phonology, the system of sounds in a language.Morphology, the study of word formation, and syntax, which examines sentence structure, are crucial components of linguistics. They reveal how words are constructed and how they combine to form meaningful sentences.Semantics, the study of meaning in language, and pragmatics, which looks at language in use and the context in which it is spoken, help us understand how language conveys information and intention.Sociolinguistics explores the relationship between language and society, including how dialects and accents vary across different social groups and regions.Psycholinguistics, on the other hand, investigates the cognitive processes involved in language acquisition and use, shedding light on how we learn and understand language.Historical linguistics traces the development of the English language over time, from its roots in Old English through to the modern language we speak today.Finally, applied linguistics takes the theoretical knowledge from these areas and applies it to real-world problems, such as language teaching, translation, and language policy development.In summary, English linguistics offers a comprehensive view of the language, from its smallest units to its role in society, and from its past to its present and future forms.。
英语语言学概论第八章笔记
Chapter 8 Socio-linguistics 社会语言学1.What is socio-linguistics? 什么是社会语言学？Sociolinguistics is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies language in social contexts.社会语言学是语言学的一个分支，它研究社会环境中的语言。
nguage variation 语言变异a)Speech community 言语社区In sociolinguistic studies, speakers are treated as members of social groups. The social group isolated for any given study is called speech community. A speech community thus defined as a group of people who form a community (which may have as few members as a family or as many member as a country), and share the same language or a particular variety of language. The important characteristic of a speech community is that the members of the group must, in some reasonable way, interact linguistically with other members of the community. They may share closely related language varieties, as well as attitudes toward linguistic norms.社会语言学研究中，说话者被当作是社会群体的成员。
英语语言学概论第七章笔记.
Chapter 7 Historical Linguistics 历史语言学1. The purpose and significance of the historical study of language 研究语言变化的目的和意义The historical study of language is of great importance to our understanding of human languagesand human linguistic competence.Researches in historical linguistics shed light on prehistoric development in the evolution oflanguage and the connections of earlier and later variants of the same language, and providevaluable insights into the kinship patterns of different languages.The historical study of language also enables us to determine how non-linguistic factors, such associal, cultural and psychological factors, interact over time to trigger linguistic change.研究语言变化对于理解人类语言和人类的语言能力极其重要。
历史语言学的研究成果揭示语言变化的史前发展和同一语言早期和后期变体自己的联系，为不同语言的亲缘关系提供线索。
历史语言学的研究还可以使我们对非语言的因素，如社会文化和心理因素等在语言变化过程中所起的作用有更深的认识。
语言学概论笔记（第五章）（4）
㈡关系意义： 1）定义：句⼦通常都是由词语组合⽽成的，词语在组合时总要形成⼀定的结构关系，由这些关系所赋予的意义就是 “关系意义”。
2）分类：“语法关系意义”和“语义关系意义”。
①句⼦中的词语在语法结构关系中所赋予的意义就是语法关系意义。
②句⼦中的词语在语义结构关系中所赋予的意义就使语义关系意义。
㈢语⽓意义： 1）定义：反映说话⼈使⽤句⼦的⽬的和说话⼈情绪的意义就是“语⽓意义”。
2）内容和表达形式：包括陈述、疑问、祈使、感叹等不同的语⽓，语⽓⼀般都是通过语调形式来表达的。
4.语义结构关系：1）述谓结构2）语义指向 备注： （⼀）述谓结构 1）构成：从语义结构上看，⼀个句⼦包括“情态”和“命题”两部分。
⼀个命题在语义结构上可以进⼀步分析为⼀个“述谓结构”，⼀个述谓结构由⼀个“谓词”和若⼲个变元组成。
谓词⼀般就是句⼦中的谓语动词或形容词。
变元⼜称“题元”、“项”等，是与谓词有直接语义关系并受谓词⽀配的语义成分。
变元⼀般都是名词性的词语，在句⼦中经常充当主语或谓语。
2）述谓结构中，谓词处于⽀配地位的核⼼成分 ①谓词的语义规定了变元的数量和性质 ②谓词的语义规定了述谓结构的内容，从⽽规定句⼦的语义框架。
3）根据谓词和变元之间不同的语义关系，可以把变元分为若⼲个类型，这种变元的类型⼀般称之为“语义⾓⾊”。
常见的语义⾓⾊彩有“施事”、“受事”、“⼯具”、“结果”、“处所”等…… 4）述谓结构可以分为四种类型： ①简单述谓结构 ②复合述谓结构 ③从属述谓结构 ④降级述谓结构 A简单述谓结构和复合述谓结构区别： a有的述谓结构由⼀个谓词和若⼲个变元构成，其中所有变元都只是名词性成分⽽不是述谓结构，这样的述谓结构就是简单述谓结构。
b有的述谓结构由两个或两个以上相对独⽴的述谓结构按照⼀定的语义关系复合⽽成，这样的述谓结构就是复合述谓结构。
B从属述谓结构和降级述谓结构区别： a有的述谓结构中的变元本⾝也是⼀个述谓结构，这种充当其它谓词变元的述谓结构就是从属述谓结构。
英语语言学导论笔记
一、语言学总论1. design feature of language（语言的定义特征)defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication1）Arbitrariness(任意性): 象似性iconicity定义：the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.举例：书, book, livre喜欢，like，aimer2）Duality（二层性）:定义：the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level.举例：Sounds > syllables > words > phrases > clauses > sentences> texts/discourses3）Creativity/Productivity（创造性）:定义：Language can be used to create new meanings because of its duality.举例1：/k/ ,/a:/, /p/---- carp or park举例2：England, defeated, FranceEngland defeated France.France defeated England.4）Displacement（替代性、移位性）:定义：Human languages enable their users to symbolize something which are not present at the moment of communication.5）Cultural Transmission（文化传递性）:定义：language is passed on from generation to generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct.反例：印度狼孩2. Important Distinctions in Linguistics(语言学研究中几对重要的概念)1) Descriptive （描述性）vs. Prescriptive （规定性）Descriptive: describing how things are.prescriptive: prescribing how things ought to beImportant Distinctions in Linguistics举例：Don't say X.People don't say X.The first is a prescriptive command, while the second is a descriptive statement.2). Synchronic（共时性）vs. Diachronic （历时性）synchronic: takes a fixed instant as its point of observation.diachronic: the study of a language through the course of its history.举例：研究1800年的英语发音Synchronic studies (共时性研究)研究1800-1900的法语语法变化Diachronic studies (历时研究)3). langue（语言）& parole （言语）Theorist：Saussure（索绪尔）, father of modern linguisticslangue: abstract linguistic systemparole: actual realization of langueImportant Distinctions in Linguistics4) Competence（语言能力）and performance （语言运用）theorist: Chomsky(乔姆斯基)competence: user's knowledge of rules about the linguistic system.performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in concrete situations.二、语音学和音系学1.语音学(phonetics)和音系学(phonology)的定义和区别2.语音学重要概念: 清音和浊音3.音系学重要概念: 音子，音位, 超音段特征Phonetics studies all speech sounds in human languages: how they are produced, transmitted and how they are received.Phonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patternsand how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.区别: meaning(是否研究和表达意义有关的语音）举例:too 和tea 中的/t/发too中的/t/时, 舌位更靠近口腔前部发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部语音学要研究这种/t/发音的不同之处, 音系学不研究语音学分类articulatory phonetics(发音语音学): speakers productionacoustic phonetics（声学语音学）: transmission’s mediumauditory phonetics(听觉语音学): receiver’s receptionHow speech sounds are madeSpeech organsPosition of the vocal folds(声带): voicing(浊音) and voiceless (清音)Voiceless(清音)：vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting the air stream go through without causing obstruction清音举例：[p,s,t]Voicing/Voiced（浊音）：vocal cords held together, letting the air stream vibrates浊音: [b,z,d]The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of air stream.As there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels, the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same lines.音系学重要概念:Phone(音子)：a phonetic unit; the speech sounds we hear and produce during communication are all phones举例:too 和tea 中的/t/发too中的/t/时, 舌位更靠近口腔前部发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部所以too 和tea 中的/t/两个不同的音子Phoneme(音位): phonological and abstract unit, a unit of distinctive value;the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words.举例：tea 和sea, /t/和/s/是两个不同的音位morphemeSuprasegmental features (超音段特征)Suprasegmental features: phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments .The principal suprasegmentals are:stress （重音）举例: perfect (adj) 和perfect (v)tone (声调)/pitch (音高):定义: sound feature which are caused by the differing rate of vibration of the vocal folds.举例: mā妈, má麻, mă马，mà骂比较：英语单词，如meintonation （语调）：pitch, stress, and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation.三、Morphology 形态学1. 学科定义2. 语素的定义和分类3. 词的分类（classification of words）形态学研究的基本单位1. morpheme(语素）. The most basic element of meaning in language，an element that cannot be further divided into smaller units without altering its meaning.举例：ballfootballballsTypes of MorphemesFree morphemes vs. Bound morphemes（自由语素和黏着语素）:Free morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves, eg boy, girl, table, nation. Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, eg -s, -ed, dis-, un-.Types of Bound MorphemeInflectional morpheme (屈折语素)=inflectional affix(屈折词缀)：change the grammatical meaning (number, aspect, case, tense)Derivational morpheme（派生语素）=derivational affix (派生词缀）: change the lexical meaningDerivational morpheme(改变词义):改变词义：dis-, un-, multi-, micro-改变词性：en-, -full, -mentInflectional morpheme（改变语法含义）:改变名称的性，数，格：-ess, -s,改变动词的时, 态，体: -ing, -ed,改变形容词的级：-er, -est如何区分派生词（derivational word）和合成词(compound word) : 拆开后看各个组成的语素能否都单独成词，如果可以，就是合成词，如果不能就是派生词。
英语语言学笔记清华大学
英语语言学笔记清华大学英语语言学笔记(1)一、绪论语言学的定义语言学的研究范畴几对基本概念语言的定义语言的甄别特征What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 语言学是对语言科学地进行研究的学科。
语言学所要研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有语言的特性。
The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴Phonetics语音学\Phonology音系学\Morphology形态学\Syntax句法学\Semantics语义学\Pragmatics语用学\Sociolinguistics社会语言学\Psycholinguistics心理语言学\Applied linguistics应用语言学Prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定性与描述性Descriptive：a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.Prescriptive: it aims lay down rules for "correct" behavior.Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken data.Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high" written languageSynchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历史性The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic studyThe description of a language as it changes through time isa diachronic studyIn modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons:（1） speech precedes writing in terms of evolution（2）a large amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in writing（3） speech is the form in which infants acquire their native languageLanguage and parole 语言与言语Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communityParole refers to the realization of language in actual useCompetence and performance 能力与运用Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users' knowledge of the rules of his languagePerformance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationWhat is language? 什么是语言？Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicationCharacteristics of language: 语言的特性Language is a rule-governed systemLanguage is basically vocalLanguage is arbitrary （the fact different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quotation fromShakespeare's play "Romeo and Juliet": "A rose by any other name would smell as sweet."）Language is used for human communicationDesign features of language 语言的甄别特征American linguist Charles Hockett specified 12 design features:1） arbitrariness 武断性2） productivity 创造性3） duality 二重性4） displacement移位性5） cultural transmission 文化传递性英语语言学笔记(2)二、音系学语言的声音媒介什么是语音学发音器官音标……宽式和严式标音法英语语音的分类音系学和语音学语音、音位、音位变体音位对立、互补分部、最小对立几条音系规则超切分特征Two major media of communication: speech and writingThe limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音，这些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介。
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《英语语言学概论》课程教学大纲一、课程说明:《语言学概论》课程是英语专业本科阶段的一门必修课。
《语言学概论》研究始于20世纪初，其目的是揭示人类深层结构，对语言和语言交际作出客观、科学描述。
现已形成了语音学、音系学、形态学、句法学、语义学、语用学等一系分支学科。
语言学研究社会学等人文学科的结合逐步形成了社会语言学这样的交叉学科。
对于主修语言学的学生来说，了解语言学的知识和语言理论是完全必要和有益的。
本课程的对象是英语专业高年级学生，在本科阶段第６学期和第７学期开设。
其中第一、二、三、四、五、七、八、十一章为必修，其余章节为选修。
二、教学目的及要求:本课程的具体要求是：比较全面，系统地了解《语言学概论》这一领域的研究成果，以及一些最主要、最有影响的语言理论和原则，从而加深对人类语言这一人类社会普遍现象的理性认识，并具备一定的运用语言学理论解释语言现象、解决具体语言问题的能力。
本课程是一门知识性比较强的课程。
在教学过程中，应重点讲授主要理论、原则、和研究方法，使学生着重掌握基本概念和基本理论，在理解消化的基础上记忆。
本课程的对象是英语专业学生，在讲解过程中原则上采用英语范例，但不排除一些有助于学习者理解的、针对性强的汉语例子。
应鼓励学生结合自己的语言实践提供更多的例子来解释相关理论，以达到理论和实践相结合的目的。
三、教学重点与难点:本课程的教学重点是语言学的基本知识和基本理论，语音学、词汇学、句法学、语义学和语用学这些语言学的核心内容。
本课程的教学难点是音韵学理论、句法结构和各个语言学流派的理论观点及其局限性。
四、与其它课程的关系:本课程是一门主干性课程。
与其相关的课程，如语法学、词汇学和语体学等都是语言学的分支，属于选修课程。
五、学时与学分:学时：７２学时学分：４学分六、教学内容：第一章绪论本章主要教学内容:1．语言学习的意义。
2．语言的定义。
3．语言的定义特征。
4．语言的起源。
5．语言的功能。
6．语言学的定义。
7．语言学的核心内容。
8．宏观语言学的定义及分支。
9．语言学研究中的重要概念区分。
本章教学目的和要求:本章是全书的绪论。
学习的目的是认识语言学的性质，以及人类语言的本质和特点。
要求学生认知、理解语言学的的研究对象，语言学的各个分支，明晰语言学研究中几对基本概念的区别。
本章教学重点及难点:1.语言定义和区别性特征。
2.语言的功能。
3.几对重要概念的区分。
4.语言的区别性特征。
5.几对重要概念的区分。
第二章语言声音本章主要教学内容:1．发声与感知。
2．发音器官。
3．音标。
4．元音及辅音。
5．宽式音标窄式音标。
6．音位理论。
7．音韵的过程。
8．区别性特征。
9．音节和重读的概念及功能作用。
本章主要教学目的及要求:本章的中心是语音，要求对各种发音器官有所了解。
对英语的元音、辅音的描述，分清宽式音标和窄式音标，以及音韵学的一些基本概念和基本规律。
二．本章教学重点及难点:本章的教学重点是语音学的概念及分类，发音器官，元音及辅音的定义和分类方法，宽式音标和窄式音标，音位理论，区别性特征，重读的概念及功能。
第三章词汇一．本章主要教学内容:1．单词的概念。
2．构词法。
1）词素和形态学。
2）词素类型。
3）曲折变化和单词构成。
4）音韵学和形态学的对照。
3．词汇变迁。
二．本章教学目的及要求:本章要求了解语素这个概念；掌握英语常见的构词法；了解词汇的历史变迁。
三．本章教学重点及难点:1．词素的概念和词素的类型、曲折变化、词汇的变迁。
2．词素的概念、词素变体、词语的三层含义和音韵学与形态学的对照。
第四章句法学本章主要教学内容:1．传统语法包括数、格等语法范畴。
2．结构主义语法。
3．生成语法（可结合附录中有关生成语法的内容）。
4．功能语法。
本章教学目的及要求:本章从传统语法、结构主义语法、生成语法和功能主义语法四个角度阐述了句法学的主要内容。
要求学生了解这四种方法的具体内容以及一些重要的概念，并深刻认识到语言的语法体系是一套高度抽象自律性规则系统、句子的线性与层次性、深层结构与表层结构等关系。
本章教学重点及难点:传统语法中的数、格、性时态和语态、结构语法中的直接成分分析法和向心结构、离心结构、生成语法中的深层结构和表层结构。
第五章意义本章主要教学内容:1．意义的意义。
2．所指理论。
3．意义关系。
4．成分分析。
5．句子意义。
本章教学目的及要求:本章对意义进行研究。
要求学生对几种主要的对意义研究的途径有所了解。
明析词汇与词汇之间和句子与句子之间的关系，了解近代语言学中对词义研究的重要方法。
本章教学重点及难点:本章的教学重点是：所指理论、意义关系和成分分析。
本章的教学难点是：所指理论和成分分析。
句子意义这一部分内容可用于补充阅读材料。
第七章语言、文化、社会本章主要教学内容:1.语言与文化的关系。
1)语言和文化如何关联。
2)萨皮尔-沃夫假说。
3)个案研究。
4)文化在语言学研究中的地位。
5)文化在语言课堂教学中的作。
6.语言与社会的关系和社会语言学。
本章教学目的及要求:本章重点教授语言和文化、社会的关系，使学生对语言现象以及附带的社会、文化内涵产生兴趣，并了解一些相关的理论。
本章教学重点及难点:1.萨皮尔-沃夫假说、文化在语言课堂教学中的作用、社会语言学的定义和研究范围、社会语言学的应用。
2.萨皮尔-沃夫假说、文化在语言课堂中的作用及社会语言学的概念。
第八章语言使用本章主要教学内容:1.言语行为理论。
2.会话含义理论。
3.其他理论。
本章教学目的及要求:本章重点讲授语用学的概念和著名的语用学理论、原则和研究成果。
要求学生对这些理论、原则有初步的了解，并能用来解释一些生活中语言现象。
本章教学重点及难点:1.谚语行为理论、言内行为、言外行为、言后行为、合作原则、会话含义。
2.言语行为理论、违反合作原则所产生的会话含义。
本章的第三部分作为补充材料供学生课外阅读。
第十一章语言学与语言教学本章主要教学内容:1.语言学和外语教学的关系。
2．不同的观点、理论对外语教学的影响。
3．大纲的制订。
4.语言学习。
5.错误分析。
6.测试。
本章教学目的及要求:本章的中心内容是语言学和外语教学的关系，介绍了影响外语教学的几种语言学理论和实践教学活动中常见的问题及对应策略，要求学生了解基本理论、掌握分析、测试的基本方法。
建议师范类本科学生此章作为必修。
本章教学重点及难点:1.各种语言学理论在语言教学中的指导作用、交际能力理论、教学大纲的制定、语言学习中的输入和中介语的产生、错误分析的步骤和方法、两种不同的测试方法、测试类型和要求、测试内容和形式。
2.结构主义语言学在语言教学中的作用、转换生成语言学的理论观点、功能语言学在语言教学中的应用。
Chapter1InvitationtoLinguistics1.DefinitionoflanguageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhum ancommunication.2.Disignfeatures:Definition:Designfeaturesrefertothedefiningpropertiesof humanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcom munication2.1ArbitrarinessDefinition:Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweenalinguistic symbolandwhatthesymbolstandsfor.Ontheotherhand,languageisnotentirelyarbitrarya.onomatopoeticwords(rumble,bang,crash)compoundwords(photocopy)b.atthesyntacticlevel,thereisacertaindegreeofcorrespondencebetweenthesequenceofclausesandtherealhappening.Forexample,Hecameinandsatdown.Hesatdownandcamein.Hesatdownafterhecamein.c.convention:thelinkbetweenalinguisticsignanditsmeaningisamatterofconvention2.2DualityDefinition:Dualitymeansthepropertiesofhavingthele velsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomp osedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevel shasitsownprinciplesoforganization●T heterm”human”ismeanttospecifythatlanguageishuman-specific●D iscussthesaying“Languageishuman-specific”.Inotherwords,whatmakeslanguagedifferentfromanimals’systemofcommunication.Forexample,thebears’dancing.●L anguageisasystem,whichconsistsof2setsofstructures.Atthelowerorbasiclevelthereisastructureofsounds,whicharemeaninglessbythemselves.Butthesoundsoflanguagecanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargernumberofunitsofmeaning,whicharefoundatthehigherlevelofthesystem.●S ounds→words→phrases→sentences●T helowestlevelconsistsofdozensofbitsofmeaninglesssoundswhichoccurinchumpsthatwecallsyllables.2.3Creativity(Productivity)Definition:Languageiscreativeinthatitmakespossiblethec onstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.●Thethree-leggedwhitemonkeysleptonthebedofthekingofFrance.●Gibboncalls-alimitedrepertoire●Beedancing-onlytoindicatefoodsources2.4DisplacementDefinition:Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremove dfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.●H umanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofcommunication.●L anguagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces2.5CulturalTransmissionDefinition:Languageisnotbiologicallytransmittedfromge nerationtogeneration.Thedetailsofthelinguisticsystemmustbel earnedbyeachspeaker.2.6InterchangeabilityDefinition:Interchangeabilitymeansthatanyhumanbeing canbebothaproducerandareceiverofmessages.3.FunctionsofLanguage1)InformativefunctionThisfunctionisthemajorroleoflanguage.“Languageservesfortheexpressionofcontext:thatis,ofthes peaker’sexperienceoftherealworld,includingtheinnerworldof hisownconsciousness”(Halliday)2)InterpersonalfunctionThisisthesocialuseoflanguageThroughlanguagepeopleestablishandmaintaintheirstatus inasociety.“Languageservestoestablishandmaintainsocialrules,whic hincludethecommunicationrolescreatedbylanguageitself”(Hal liday)Theinterpersonalfunctionoflanguageisthefunctionofexpr essingidentity.3)Performativefunction(Whatdowedowhenusinglanguage)LanguageisusedtodothingsThisperformativefunctionoflanguageistochangethesocial statusofpersons.Forexample,inmarriageceremony,thesentenci ngofcriminals,thenamingofaship4)EmotivefunctionLanguageisusedtorevealsomethingaboutthefeelingsandat titudesofthespeaker.Forexample:ejaculationssuchas”Goodhe avens”;“myGod”;”I’mextremelysorryaboutit”Itisusedtochangetheemotionalstatusofanaudiencefororag ainstsomeoneorsomething.Itcanbeentirelypersonalandtotallywithoutanyimplication ofcommunicationtoothers5)PhaticcommunionItreferstothesocialinteractionoflanguage.Whenlanguageisusedtoestablishanatmosphereormaintai nsocialcontactratherthanforexchanginginformationorideas,it fulfillsthephaticfunction.Forexample:farewells,commentsont heweather,greetingsMalinowski(马林诺夫斯基)—thesocialinteractionoflanguage.Itistomaintainacomforta blerelationshipbetweenpeoplewithoutinvolvinganyfactualcont ent.Eg.Ritualexchangesabouthealthandweather6）RecreationalfunctionTheuseoflanguageisforthesheerjoyofusingit.EgVerbalduelingPoetrywriting1. Linguistics▪1.1Definition▪1.2Majorbranchesoflinguistics▪1.3Macrolinguistics▪1.4Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics▪1.1Definition▪Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.▪Ittriestoanswerthefollowingquestions:▪Whatislanguage?▪Howdoeslanguagework?▪Explanation:▪―Scientific‖meansthatitisbasedon thesystematicinvestigationoflinguisticdata,conductedwithreferencetosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.▪―Study‖meansinvestigation.▪―Language‖meanslanguagesinge neral,thatis,linguisticsstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguagesingeneral.▪1.2Majorbranchesoflinguistics▪1.2.1Phonetics▪Phoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsarepr odudced,transmitted,andperceived.Itincludesth reeparts:▪Articulatoryphonetics▪Acousticphonetics▪Auditoryphonetics▪1.2.2Phonology▪Phonologyisthestudyofthesoundpatternsa ndsoundsystemsoflanguages.▪Phonemeisthedepartingpointofthephonolo gicalstudy.Itisthesmallestlinguisticunitofsoundt hatcansignaladifferenceinmeaning.Forexample,pin,bin,tin,din--/p,b,t,d/arephonemeswhichcand istinguishmeaningsofthesewords.▪Thenwhatistherelationbetweenphoneticsa ndphonology?Thinkaboutthisquestionandwewil ldiscussitinChapter2.▪1.2.3Morphology▪Morphologystudiestheinternalstructureof wordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.▪Morphemesarethesmallestmeaningfulunit sinalanguage.▪1.2.4Syntax▪Syntaxisthestudyoftherulesgoverningthew ayswordsarecombinedintosentencesinalangua ge.▪Wordsareorganizedintostructuresmoretha njustwordorder,e.g.,▪A.Thechildrenwatched[thefireworkfromthe hill].▪B.Thechildrenwatched[thefirework][fromth ehill].▪1.2.5Semantics▪Semanticsisthestudyofmeaning.▪Itstudiesthemeaningsoflinguisticunitswith outconcerningtheinfluenceofthecontextofsituati on,i.e.,itstudiesthede-contextualizedmeaning.▪1.2.6Pragmatics▪Pragmaticsisthestudyofmeaningincontext. (Thenwhatisthedifferencebetweensemanticsand pragmatics?)▪Pragmaticsisconcernedwiththewaylangua geisusedtocommunicateratherthanwiththewayl anguageisinternallystructured▪1.3Macrolinguistics–aninterdisciplinarynature▪Itconcernswiththerelationbetweenlanguag eandotherdisciplineswhicharealsopreoccupied withlanguage,forexample,psycholinguistics,soc iolinguistics,anthropologicallinguistics,comput ationallinguistics,neurolinguistics,appliedlingui stics,etc.1.4.1Descriptivevs.Prescriptive▪Examples:▪1.a)ItisI.▪b)Itisme.▪2.a)Whodidyouspeakto?▪b)Whomdidyouspeakto?▪3.a)Ihaven’tdoneanything.▪b)Ihaven’tdonenothing▪Descriptive–Thelinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzeth elanguagepeopleactuallyuse.▪Prescriptive–thelinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesfor “correctandstandard”behaviorinusinglanguage,i.e.totellpeoplewhatth eyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay.▪Descriptiveexplanationsofthethreeexampl es:▪1)TheLatinruleisnotuniversal.InEnglish,“me”isinformaland“I”isfelttobeveryformal.▪2)“Whom”isusedinformalspeechandinwriting,and“who”ismoreacceptableininformalspeech.▪3)Languagedosenothavetofollowlogicalre asoning.Heretwonegativesin3b)onlymakeamore emphaticnegative.Thissentenceisnotacceptable inStandardEnglishnotbecauseitisillogicalbutbe causelanguagechangesandrejectsthisusageno w.▪Tosumup:▪Prescriptive:Do/Don’tsayX.▪Descriptive:Peopledo/don’tsayX.▪Ifadescriptivegrammarofanon-prestigevari etyofEnglishwerewritten,itmightshow,forexampl e,thatspeakersofthisvarietysaid:▪Iseen’im.for Isawhim.▪’im’nmedoneit.for HeandIdidit.Chapter2SpeechSoundsPhoneticsPhonologyI.Phonetics1.1DefinitionPhoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsareproduced,t ransmittedandperceived;itisconcernedwiththesoundst hatoccurintheworld‘slanguages.1.2ThreeAreasofPhonetics1.Articulatoryphonetics—thestudyoftheproduction ofspeechsounds2.Acousticphonetics—thestudyofthephysicalprope rtiesofthesoundsproducedinspeechsounds3.Auditoryphonetics—thestudyoftheperceptionofs peechsounds.1.3Speechorgans(vocalorgans)1.speechorgansarethosepartsofthehumanbodyinv olvedintheproductionofspeech.2.Theyarecontainedinthreeareas:1)thepharyngealcavity—thethroat2)theoralcavity—themouth3)thenasalcavity—thenose3.Theairstreamcomingfromthelungsmaybemodifie dinthesecavitiesinvariousways.1.31Thepharyngealcavity1.Airstreamfromthelungs→windpipe→glottis2.Vocalcordsaretwotissues.Whentheyarefoldedbac k,airpassesfreelyandsilently;whentheyheldtogether,air vibratesthematdifferentspeedswhenforcingitspassaget hroughthem;whentheyaretotallyclosed,noaircanpassth roughthemandthenreleasetheairstreamsuddenly.1.32Theoralcavity1.Theoralcavitycontainstheuvula,thesoftpalate(the velum),thehardpalate,theteethridge(thealveolus),thetee th,thelips,andthetongue.2.Inphonetics,thetongueisdividedintofiveparts:thet ip,theblade,thefront,thebackandtheroot.3.Inphonology,thesoundsmadewiththesepartsofthe tongueareoftenreferredtoasCoronal,DorsalandRadical.1.4ClassificationofEnglishSpeechSounds1.41VowelsVowelsareproducedwhentheairstreammeetswithno obstruction.1.42ConsonantsConsonantsaresoundsproducedbyobstructingthefl owofairintheoralcavity.Thedistinctionbetweenvowelsandconsonantsliesin theobstructionofairstream,thatis,whetherthereisa―stric ture‖intheproductionofthesound.1.43Classificationofconsonants1.Theproductionofconsonantsatleastinvolvestwoar ticulators.2.Twowaysofclassification:1)Mannerofarticulation:therelationshipbetweenthe articulatorsandthewayinwhichtheairpassesthroughcert ainpartsofthevocaltract.3.Threemajormannersofarticulation:a)thearticulatorsmaycloseofftheoraltractforaninsta ntorarelativelylongperiod;b)theymaynarrowthespaceconsiderably;c)theymaysimplymodifytheshapeofthetractbyappr oachingeachother.2)Placesofarticulation:whereinthevocaltractthereis approximation,narrowing,ortheobstructionofair.背书P35并熟悉下面出题方式。