建筑环境论文外文翻译(建筑环境学的可以借鉴哈)
建筑设计中英文对照外文翻译文献
建筑设计中英文对照外文翻译文献On the other hand, there is a significant amount ofliterature in the field of architecture design that is writtenin foreign languages. While it may not be as readily accessible for non-native speakers, there are many benefits to exploring literature in other languages. For example, architects who are fluent in multiple languages can have a broader understanding of different cultural approaches to architecture. By reading literature in foreign languages, architects can gain insights into design concepts and practices that may not be covered in English-language sources. This can lead to a more diverse and innovative approach to design.However, one challenge with accessing literature in foreign languages is the accuracy of translations. Architecture is a technical field with specific terminology, and it is important to ensure that translations accurately convey the intended meaning. In some cases, the translation of technical terms and concepts may not accurately convey their full meaning, which can lead to misunderstandings or confusion. Architects who rely on translated literature should be cautious and ensure they verify the accuracy of the translations with experts in the field.Despite these challenges, it is essential for architects to explore literature in multiple languages to stay informed and to gain a global perspective on architecture design. By consideringboth English and foreign language translated literature, architects can access a wider range of resources and insights. Additionally, architects should consider collaborating with colleagues who are fluent in different languages to ensure accurate translation and interpretation of foreign language sources.In conclusion, architecture design is a field that benefits from accessing literature in multiple languages. English provides a wealth of resources and is the global language of academia. However, architects who can access and read literature in foreign languages can gain new perspectives and insights into different cultural approaches to design. While caution should be taken to verify the accuracy of translations, architects should explore literature in multiple languages to broaden their understanding and enhance their creative problem-solving skills.。
(完整版)建筑学本科外文翻译毕业设计论文
本科毕业设计外文翻译题目：德黑兰城市发展学院: 城市建设学院专业: 建筑学学号:学生姓名:指导教师:日期: 二零一一年六月First Chapter：Development of the city of TehranAli MadanipourTehran :the making of a metropolis，First Chapter：Development New York John Wiley，1998，page five to page eleven。
第一章：德黑兰市的发展阿里.马丹妮普尔德黑兰：一个大都市的建造，第一章：德黑兰市的发展，阿1998，第五页到第十一页。
德黑兰市的发展全市已长成了一定的规模性和复杂性，以这样的程度，空间管理需要另外的手段来处理城市组织和不断发展的复杂性，并为城市总体规划做准备。
第二次世界大战后，在盟军占领国家的期间，有一个时期的民主化，在冷战时开始的政治紧张局势之后，它们互相斗争对石油的控制权。
这个时期已经结束于1953年，结果是由政变产生了伊朗王，那个后来担任了25年的行政君主的人。
随着高出生率和农村向城市迁移，德黑兰和其他大城市增长加剧甚至比以前更快地。
到1956年，德黑兰的人口上升到150万，到了1966至300万， 1976至450万，其规模也从1934年46平方公里到1976年的250平方公里。
从石油行业的收入增长创造的盈余资源，需要流通和经济的吸收。
50年代中期，特别是在工业化的驱动下德黑兰许多大城市有了新工作。
20世纪60年代的土地改革释放了大量来自农业的农村人口，这是不能吸收的指数人口增长。
这种新的劳动力被吸引到城市：到新的产业，到似乎始终蓬勃发展建筑界，去服务不断增长公共部门和官僚机构。
德黑兰的角色是国家的行政，经济，文化中心，它坚定而巩固地通往外面的世界。
德黑兰战后的城市扩张，是在管制、私营部门的推动，投机性的发展下进行的。
房屋一直供不应求，并有大量可用的富余劳动力和资本，因此在德黑兰建筑行业蓬勃发展，土地和财产的价格不断上涨。
建环毕业翻译(中英文对照)
外文翻译中文空调工作过程和节能技术的研究摘要:一台空调基本上是没有被隔离的箱子的一个冰箱。
它象氟里昂一样利用冷媒的蒸发提供冷却.在一台空调里氟里昂蒸发循环的过程和冰箱里的相同。
关键词:水塔、改变气候、压缩机、节能当外面的温度开始上升时，很多人寻找室内的空调的极好的安慰。
象水塔和电源线一样，空调是我们每天看见但是很少注意的那些东西之一. 它将不是很高兴的知道这些不可缺少的机器怎样运转他们的魔术吗？在这篇文章里，我们将检查空调–从微观到宏观–以使你对你所看见的知道得更多!低温的各个方面。
空调的定型是各种尺寸,冷却能力和价格。
我们经常看见的一种类型是窗式空气调节器.窗式空气调节器是冷却一个小的区域的一种容易和节约的方法。
居住在郊区的地区的大多数人通常在他们的后院有这些中之一：如果你住在一座公寓大厦里，这或许是一个熟悉的情景: 大多数商业和办公楼在他们的屋顶上有冷凝装置, 并且当你飞到上空时，仓库和商业区可能让人把10 或者20 套冷凝装置隐藏在他们的屋顶上：当你徘徊在很多医院，大学和办公室联合企业的周围时，你会找到连接空气调节系统的大的冷却塔：即使这些机器中的每个都有一个相当清楚的外表，他们全部以相同的原理工作。
让我们近距离地看一下。
基本的想法，一台空调基本上是没有被隔离的箱子的一个冰箱. 它象氟里昂一样利用冷媒的蒸发提供冷却。
在一台空调里氟里昂蒸发循环的过程和冰箱里的相同。
根据在线梅里厄姆织工字典,氟里昂一般“用于任何各种各样的调节器”。
根据在线梅里厄姆织工字典，氟里昂一般”用于作为致冷剂和作为气溶胶推进者使用的任何各种各样的不易燃的碳氟化合物."这就是在一台空调里的蒸发循环是怎么样工作(看出冰箱怎样为关于这个系列的完整的细节工作）：1. 压缩机压缩低温的氟里昂气体，产生高温，高压氟里昂气体。
2。
这种高温气体通过一套线圈，因此它能使它的热消散, 并且它凝结成一种液体。
3. 氟里昂液体充满一个膨胀阀，并且在这个过程里蒸发变得低温，低压氟里昂气体.4. 这种低温的气体通过一套线圈，允许气体吸收热并且使大楼里面空气冷却.在与氟里昂里混合是少量一种轻便的油. 这种油润滑压缩机。
建筑外文翻译（可编辑）
建筑外文翻译Building a culture rooted in the natural environment of Habitat Different geographical They certainly have different natural environment: topography, sunshine point of view, sun and tides, currents and winds, temperature, pressure, food, land, water, vegetation and so on. As an intermediary between man and nature of the construction, the external should be conducive to the formation of district external environment should be conducive to the protection of the domestic indoor environment Habitat. These buildings, like plants, the roots, making a day, or geographical areas of the natural environment suitable for the requirements of integration with nature In Southeast Asia and South Asia, in China's Hainan Island and Taiwan Island, Coconut Grove dense, hot weather, people with palm leaves, palm-leaf built to adapt to the tropical rainforest of thatched rooms, small, ventilation, cool, lightweight, simple , built a tropical rain forest building In Central Asia, West Asia, in China's western alpine region, people with stones, the mountain has been built on the powerful stone building, take shelter from the wind, blocking snow, heat, warm, building construction has become plateaus. Such as China, Tibet, Qinghai, Sichuan and other ethnic minorities in China's western mountains and on the potential tobuild a wide variety of mountain building Loess Plateau in China, the Gobi Mobei, low rainfall, dry climate, people use the hillside slopes built tunneling room, built with distinct characteristics of immature soil construction. Gansu Dunhuang Art Exhibition Hall of the building buried in the hillside, the semi-open entrance connected hillside retaining wall, construction features of immature soil is very obvious In the eastern part of the United States, in Australia, in China's south, rainfall, mild climate, people use wood, brick and mountains on the potential, in line with local conditions, build a shade shelter from the rain, ventilation, styling and unique architectural humid areas These architectural forms, of various styles, suitable for different regions of the natural environment, with the landscape, vegetation, terrain together, forming a natural environment is rooted in a variety of architectural culture. Building both rooted in the natural environment, but also subject to the natural environment, this is the architects must follow a basic principle Second, the social space-time caused by environmental differences in the diversification of architectural culture Different regions, different countries, different nations have different social and historical patterns. European countries, the Americas, Asia and Africa and other developing countries, land of different religious beliefs, economic development of the different regions have different cultural practices. Habitat in different parts ofthe social differences in time and space environment, resulting in the architectural culture and the diversity of time and space, resulting in ancient or modern Chinese architectural culture, the Russian architectural culture, architectural culture in Southeast Asia, Europe and the United States Architectural Culture, the African Architectural Culture and so on. Ancient Greek architecture in Europe, North Africa, the ancient Egyptian architecture, the South Asian Association for the ancient Indian architecture, ancient Chinese architecture is the world's architectural and cultural history of ethnic origins. Catholic, Jesus taught, Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism, such as the formation and development of religion, a profound impact on the religious beliefs of countries and regions, but also a profound impact on those areas of construction, forming a rich and colorful culture of religious architecture China several thousand years long history, has followed so far, both ancient and extensive, since ancient times by Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism, Zen, such as the impact of ethical thinking. Especially Confucianism ruled China for 2 000 years, deep-rooted. To this culture of Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism and Zen eclectic variety of ideas, together brilliant, independent nations of the world Architectural Culture under certain conditions, can be transformed. Geographical, ethnic and cultural construction under certain conditions, can be transformed into international architectural culture, and international architecturalculture can also be absorbed, the integration of the region and the national character of the new architectural culture. In today's world, building a culture of development and progress, both the transformation of the former to the latter, which also includes the absorption and integration of the former. The two also both opposing reunification, complement each other, affect each other and common development, only the protection and development of a variety of architectural culture of all ethnic groups, the promotion of world architectural culture of pluralism, and ultimately to create a "different and" the human societyThree Chinese and foreign construction and cultural development and blend Architectural Culture in the global "big culture" systems, all nationalities, all geographical construction symbiotic culture in this form the world's architectural culture Symphony. Social process of globalization has brought to the cultural collision with the rendezvous, conflict and blend For thousands of years, the Chinese culture to external sources of long. Buddhist culture have originated in India, Zhang Qian as envoy to the Western Regions of the Western Han Dynasty, Tang Dynasty Master Xuan Zang went to India to learn from their experience Chuan-by, the impact of China's 2,000 years of Buddhism. However, the contents of Buddhism, Buddha, like Maung, the shapes with the Chinese Buddhist temple in cultures, the formation and development of a unique Chinese Buddhist architectural culture As early as the 20th century, 20 years, China's modern architectsreturned from studying abroad, most of whom are scholars in the United States, they are building at the time of Western academic and cultural concepts and China Architectural Culture nationalistic concept of the double impact, emphasizing cultural exchange between Chinese and Western architecture focused on the architectural style for the first time a creative way to design a number of products, creating a cultural exchange between Chinese and foreign construction of a new era. For example, the first batch of U.S. architect Mr. Lv Yanzhi Canton 20's design Zhongshan Memorial Hall, Dr. Sun Yat-sen in Nanjing and so on, in the Chinese construction industry has played a really ground-breaking effect in stimulating the Chinese and foreign architectural culture of the integration process The early founding of New China, the Chinese government, mechanisms copied the Soviet model, the Chinese all over the building of a group of Russian cultural identity building construction, the formation and development of China's 50's "socialism" of architectural culture. Since reform and opening up, China's open-door once again, the introduction of Western economic management model to imitate, "European style", RTHK construction, post-modernism almost swept the country, the formation and development of China's 80's "reform and opening-up" construction culture. It goes without saying that all countries in the world of architectural culture at that time are subject to local political systems, economic conditions, technical level ofrestraint, in conflict with each other, mutual exchanges, mutual influence, mutual integration. However, what kind of fusion and exchange with vitality, stand the test of time and space? Only those who learned the essence of eastern and western cultures, integration-oriented areas of national culture and national character of the construction only has great vitality Fourth, cultural exchange between old and modern architectural exploration and the pursuit of Ancient and modern cultures, the past serve the present, what? Need to analyze the "ancient" and "today" in the construction of content changes that have taken place. These qualitative change is the social system, production technology, living habits, work, cultural values, building materials in the construction sector caused by the inevitable result. As Mr. Wu Yurong in the evaluation of the French engineer Gustave. Eiffel designed the Eiffel Tower noted: "People are trying to adapt to every human life an art form the new direction of development and to make all the human activities and the rapidly changing era of emotion caused by the new suit." To explore ancient and modern blend of traditional architecture and modern architecture combining problem. China's traditional architectural culture has many features, such as the overall layout of buildings, in line with local conditions, and be full of change; architectural style, rich and colorful; space separated, flexible and diverse; interior decoration, pay attention to the connotation; color to use, colorful; garden green, it is implicitlylively, changeable, unique in the world. In the creation of modern architecture, the contemporary architects should learn from ancient architecture and cultural wealth of nutrition, according to the modernization of a wide range of requirements, from the analysis of the various contradictions in the exploration and pursuit of people's lives to adapt to the new direction of development and people's construction activities and the rapid caused by the changing times adapt to new emotions Since the founding of New China, focusing on the succession of Chinese tradition, carry forward the, creative architectural art of the problems the United States experienced a number of exploration and discussion. Experienced the liberation of the early to imitate the "big roof" retro nostalgia period; experienced a critical retro, and copy the Soviet "model" dogmatism stage; experienced the Cultural Revolution, servility to foreigners critical philosophy, the implementation of "dry-base hit," the poor during the transition; experienced early advocate of reform and opening up the West, the popular "Hong Kong style" period. After exploring the difficulties and setbacks, China began to follow the traditional architect, to adapt to function, the use of high-tech, to explore ancient and modern cultures, the realization of the modernization of architectural creation of the correct way In this paper, talking about building a culture of environment and blend only preliminary study, many deep theoretical issues need further study. Our generation of architectsshould be firmly established the "scientific concept of architectural culture" to the Chinese culture as the main body, to accelerate the construction of culture and environment, and the nation, and society, and the blending process with the times.一建筑文化根植于人居自然环境之中不同的地域自然有不同的自然环境:地形地貌、日照角度、日月潮汐、水流风势、气温、气压、食物、土地、水质、植被等等。
建筑外文文献及翻译(参考模板)
外文原文Study on Human Resource Allocation in Multi-Project Based on the Priority and the Cost of ProjectsLin Jingjing , Zhou GuohuaSchoolofEconomics and management, Southwest Jiao tong University ,610031 ,China Abstract----This paper put forward the a ffecting factors of project’s priority. which is introduced into a multi-objective optimization model for human resource allocation in multi-project environment . The objectives of the model were the minimum cost loss due to the delay of the time limit of the projects and the minimum delay of the project with the highest priority .Then a Genetic Algorithm to solve the model was introduced. Finally, a numerical example was used to testify the feasibility of the model and the algorithm.Index Terms—Genetic Algorithm, Human Resource Allocation, Multi-project’s project’s priority .1.INTRODUCTIONMore and more enterprises are facing the challenge of multi-project management, which has been the focus among researches on project management. In multi-project environment ,the share are competition of resources such as capital , time and human resources often occur .Therefore , it’s critical to schedule projects in order to satisfy the different resource demands and to shorten the projects’ duration time with resources constrained ,as in [1].For many enterprises ,the human resources are the most precious asset .So enterprises should reasonably and effectively allocate each resource , especially the human resource ,in order to shorten the time and cost of projects and to increase the benefits .Some literatures have discussed the resource allocation problem in multi-project environment with resources constrained. Reference [1] designed an iterative algorithm and proposeda mathematical model of the resource-constrained multi-project scheduling .Basedon work breakdown structure (WBS) and Dantzig-Wolfe decomposition method ,a feasible multi-project planning method was illustrated , as in [2] . References [3,4]discussed the resource-constrained project scheduling based on Branch Delimitation method .Reference [5] put forward the framework of human resource allocation in multi-project in Long-term ,medium-term and short-term as well as research and development(R&D) environment .Basedon GPSS language, simulation model of resources allocation was built to get the project’s duration time and resources distribution, as in [6]. Reference [7] solved the engineering project’s resources optimization problem using Genetic Algorithms. These literatures reasonably optimized resources allocation in multi-project, but all had the same prerequisite that the project’s importance is the same to each other .This paper will analyze the effects of project’s priority on human resource allocation ,which is to be introduced into a mathematical model ;finally ,a Genetic Algorithm is used to solve the model.2.EFFECTS OF PROJECTS PRIORITY ON HUMAN RESOUCE ALLOCATIONAND THE AFFECTING FACTORS OF PROJECT’S PRIORITYResource sharing is one of the main characteristics of multi-project management .The allocation of shared resources relates to the efficiency and rationality of the use of resources .When resource conflict occurs ,the resource demand of the project with highest priority should be satisfied first. Only after that, can the projects with lower priority be considered.Based on the idea of project classification management ,this paper classifies the affecting factors of project’s priority into three categories ,as the project’s benefits ,the complexity of project management and technology , and the strategic influence on the enterprise’s future development . The priority weight of the project is the function of the above three categories, as shown in (1).W=f(I,c,s…) (1)Where w refers to project’s priority weight; I refers to the benefits of th e project; c refers to the complexity of the project, including the technology and management; s refers to the influence of the project on enterprise .The bigger the values of the three categories, the higher the priority is.3.HUMAN RESOURCE ALLOCATION MODEL IN MULTI-PROJECTENVIRONMENT3.1Problem DescriptionAccording to the constraint theory, the enterprise should strictly differentiate the bottleneck resources and the non-bottleneck resources to solve the constraint problem of bottleneck resources .This paper will stress on the limited critical human resources being allocated to multi-project with definite duration times and priority.To simplify the problem, we suppose that that three exist several parallel projects and a shared resources storehouse, and the enterprise’s operation only involves one kind of critical human resources. The supply of the critical human resource is limited, which cannot be obtained by hiring or any other ways during a certain period .when resource conflict among parallel projects occurs, we may allocate the human resource to multi-project according to project’s priorities .The allocation of non-critical independent human resources is not considered in this paper, which supposes that the independent resources that each project needs can be satisfied.Engineering projects usually need massive critical skilled human resources in some critical chain ,which cannot be substituted by the other kind of human resources .When the critical chains of projects at the same time during some period, there occur resource conflict and competition .The paper also supposes that the corresponding network planning of various projects have already been established ,and the peaks of each project’s resources demand have been optimized .The delay of the critical chain will affect the whole project’s duration time .3.2 Model HypothesesThe following hypotheses help us to establish a mathematical model:(1)The number of mutually independent projects involved in resourceallocation problem in multi-project is N. Each project is indicated withQ i,while i=1,2, … N.(2)The priority weights of multi-project have been determined ,which arerespectively w1,w 2…w n .(3) The total number of the critical human resources is R ,with r k standingfor each person ,while k=1,2, …,R(4) Δk i = ⎩⎨⎧others toprojectQ rcer humanresou i k 01(5) Resources capturing by several projects begins on time. t E i is theexpected duration time of project I that needs the critical resources tofinish some task after time t ,on the premise that the human resourcesdemand can be satisfied .tAi is the real duration time of project I thatneeds the critical resource to finish some task after time t .(6) According to the contract ,if the delay of the project happens the dailycost loss due to the delay is △c i for pro ject I .According to the project’simportance ,the delay of a project will not only cause the cost loss ,butwill also damage the prestige and status of the enterprise .(while thelatent cost is difficult to quantify ,it isn’t considered in this articletemporarily.)(7) From the hypothesis (5) ,we can know that after time t ,the time-gapbetween the real and expected duration time of project I that needs thecritical resources to finish some task is △t i ,( △t i =t A i -t E i ). For thereexists resources competition, the time –gap is necessarily a positivenumber.(8) According to hypotheses (6) and (7), the total cost loss of project I is C i(C i = △t i * △C i ).(9) The duration time of activities can be expressed by the workload ofactivities divided by the quantity of resources ,which can be indicatedwith following expression of t A i =ηi / R i * ,.In the expression , ηi refersto the workload of projects I during some period ,which is supposed tobe fixed and pre-determined by the project managers on project planningphase ; R i * refers to the number of the critical human resources beingallocated to projects I actually, with the equation Ri * =∑=Rk ki 1δ existing. Due to the resource competition the resourcedemands of projects with higherPriorities may be guarantee, while those projects with lower prioritiesmay not be fully guaranteed. In this situation, the decrease of theresource supply will lead to the increase of the duration time of activitiesand the project, while the workload is fixed.3.3 Optimization ModelBased on the above hypotheses, the resource allocation model inmulti-project environment can be established .Here, the optimizationmodel is :F i =min Z i = min∑∑==Ni i N i Ci 11ω =min i i Ni i N i c t ∆∆∑∑==11ω (2) =min ∑∑==N i i N i 11ω )E i R i ki i t - ⎝⎛∑=1δη i c ∆ 2F =min Z 2=min ()i t ∆=min )E i R i ki i t -⎝⎛∑=1δη (3) Where wj=max(wi) ,(N j i 3,2,1,=∀) (4)Subject to : 0∑∑==≤R k ki N i 11δ=R (5)The model is a multi-objective one .The two objective functions arerespectively to minimize the total cost loss ,which is to conform to theeconomic target ,and to shorten the time delay of the project with highestpriority .The first objective function can only optimize the apparenteconomic cost ;therefore the second objective function will help to makeup this limitation .For the project with highest priority ,time delay will damage not only the economic benefits ,but also the strategy and the prestige of the enterprise .Therefore we should guarantee that the most important project be finished on time or ahead of schedule .4.SOLUTION TO THE MULTI-OBJECTIVE MODEL USING GENETICALGORITHM4.1The multi-objective optimization problem is quite common .Generally ,eachobjective should be optimized in order to get the comprehensive objective optimized .Therefore the weight of each sub-objective should be considered .Reference [8] proposed an improved ant colony algorithm to solve this problem .Supposed that the weights of the two optimizing objectives are αand β ,where α+β=1 .Then the comprehensive goal is F* ,where F*=αF1+βF2.4.2The Principle of Genetic AlgorithmGenetic Algorithm roots from the concepts of natural selection and genetics .It’s a random search technique for global optimization in a complex search space .Because of the parallel nature and less restrictions ,it has the key features of great currency ,fast convergence and easy calculation .Meanwhile ,its search scope is not limited ,so it’s an effective method to solve the resource balancing problem ,as in [9].The main steps of GA in this paper are as follow:(1)EncodingAn integer string is short, direct and efficient .According to thecharacteristics of the model, the human resource can be assigned to be acode object .The string length equals to the total number of humanresources allocated.(2)Choosing the fitness functionThis paper choose the objective function as the foundation of fitnessfunction .To rate the values of the objective function ,the fitness of then-th individual is 1/n。
建筑环境色彩外文翻译文献
文献信息文献标题：Strategies in colour choice for architectural built environment（建筑环境色彩选择策略）文献作者：Pietro Zennaro文献出处：《Journal of the International Colour Association》,2017, 19:15-22.字数统计：英文3211单词，16942字符；中文5483汉字外文文献Strategies in colour choice for architectural builtenvironmentIn the realisation of a colour design, or of a colour plan, every designer should have the availability of a set of basic tools to prevent him or her from performing prejudicial operations in the territory, in the landscape, in the city, in the neighbourhood, and in the individual building. The same designer should then know some rules in the colour choice that will enhance the built environment. The approach to colour selection depends on many factors, for example the building size and function, the combination of spaces, the urban form, the dimensions of streets, alleys, plazas, squares and so on, but especially the specificity of the place. By this we mean the history, traditions, culture, geographical location, the qualities and weaknesses, the range of possible design/conservation options and all those characteristics that distinguish one place from another. So it should be clear to the designer who faces a chromatic project, that he or she primarily needs a dedicated strategy, different from case to case, specific to each place. The diversity of the places establishes the richness of traditions and customs that should be preserved and/or possibly updated.Introduction“Starting the study of perception, we find in the language the concept of sensation, which seems immediate and clear: I have the sensation of red, blue, hot, cold.”The perception of space is a complex phenomenon. It takes into account not only the detection and appearance of the surroundings, but also involves the viewer in terms of synaesthesia, memory, personal experiences, moods, physical and psychological conditions, age, sex and a thousand other aspects that would be long even to list. In turn, the same perception produces innumerable and complex reactions, highly dependent from subject to subject. “We approach the variability of the outer world at several levels of experience simultaneously, partly naturally by ecologically based counterbalances in perception and body and partly through conscious actions, personal or cultural, through appropriate behaviours or through technical adaptability. ”Therefore anyone who wants to deal with the design of buildings cannot be unfamiliar with some basic knowledge that will enable the limitation of damage caused by his actions. Architectural design is a complex kind of work that has the purpose to aesthetically qualify the environment. Even just dealing with chromatic aspects in the project is not a minor thing. In fact, the colour of the planet is made up of infinitely many aspects that are certainly not easy to approach.Colour exerts a strong influence on the perception and interpretation of the surroundings. Colour affects mood and health. “In perceiving a colour we experience the objective meaning. Each colour is then an emotional precisely determined signal that is experienced unconsciously. The colour signals are therefore an emotional language understood at a subconscious level.”In social terms, for human beings colour is basically a means of communication and cultural transmission. “For many reasons (historical, economic, religious, military) the West has too well understood this law: all the cities are concentric; but, in accordance with the same movement of Western metaphysics, for which each centre is the location of truth, the centre of our city is always full: a marked place, where we collect and condense the values of civilisation: spirituality (with churches), power(with offices), money (with banks), the goods (with department stores), the word (with «agorà»: coffee and walks).” Analogously Western urban centres are a collection and a condensation of colours. Each city centre tends to show emblematic colours, representing the level of civilisation. Commonly the colours used in historical urban centres are often low in saturation. The newer cultures, preferring to live in a techno-scientific environment, are more attracted by highly-saturated colours.On the other hand, in the oriental culture we see empty urban centres. Considering Japan, in Tokyo the historical city is concentric and the centre is empty. It is occupied by the heart of the nation: the religious and political power. The Emperor, Japan's religious and political leader, occupies this big empty space. So the colours used are those of the tradition: red, gold and white. Similarly in the Chinese culture the urban centre is an empty space. In Beijing, the Forbidden City was exactly this kind of concentration of non-physical elements: power and religion. The colours used also in this case were those of the Emperor. After the Communist revolution red became the main colour in China. But the tradition persists and the main colours are those of the five elements: Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, and Water. In China, there are five very specific colours (i.e. blue-green, red, yellow, white, black) resonating with meaning through every layer of traditional and modern life, representing emotional, physical, spiritual and directional forces.As synthetically expressed, transmitting a culture not only requires knowing technical aspects, but also other aspects affecting a society and its evolution. Having care of colours is not only a personal pleasure but in architecture concerns the whole community. Everybody is influenced by colour and it seems necessary that designers should be provided with some basic information. The architectural profession also involves such tasks.What’s discussed in the following is the result of research experience at the University Iuav of Venice, in leading the Research Unit “Colour and Light in Architecture”, and in the professional activity of colour design and planning for villages/towns with historical centres, expansion zones, sprawl, isolated houses or industrial areas. The focus on the improvement of such places through the appropriateuse of colour is determined by the need for upgrading the man-land, and by putting in place suitable low- impact factors.DiscussionIn the perception of our surroundings, the colours are seen differently depending on weather conditions, seasonal, direct or indirect radiation, by reflection, by source of natural or artificial lighting and in many other aspects. The perception of the surroundings takes place in terms of synaesthesia, involving all the senses of the observer.Analysing the behaviour of colour and light in built places, there is no more emblematic experience than the evaluation on site or by pictures of what happens in a common sunny day. For convenience we have taken a Venetian example, where the presence of water and the density of the built façades more easily shows the interaction of light with the facing fronts. The presence of water, also, increasing the mirror effect of the canal that is less evident in common roads, shows better the transfer of a colour from an illuminated wall to the opposite one in shadow.In the scene of Figure 1, the left front is less exposed to bad weather than the right one. Since the colours painted on the walls are based on lime they have the tendency to wash out easily. In fact, the opposite façade at right is completely washed out and then shows a grey plaster. The sun, beating on the walls of Fondamenta Minotto (left), affords a transfer of the yellow colour by reflection over the water surface of the Rio Magazen to the shadowed opposite walls. Then a double phenomenon occurs, the specular reflection from the coloured wall to the water and its transfer onto the grey wall is added to the diffused reflection coming directly from the illuminated yellow wall. Another clue comes from the reflection of sunlight on the windows bouncing directly partly on the pavement and partly on the walls of Fondamenta Gaffaro (right). In turn, the wall in shadow casts its silhouette on the opposite façade darkening the yellow colour. The shape of the tympanum makes an almost grey shaded space. On the days when the sky is covered, the difference in brightness between the two walls is considerably more noticeable, darkening the greyto a greater degree and making the yellow less expressive.Figure 1: Rio del Magazen: Fondamenta Minotto (left) and Fondamenta Gaffaro (right).Thecolours are reflected between the walls and the waterIt is easy to understand that the materials used in building’s construction have intrinsic chromatic behaviour and considering a built system like that described above, their relationship with the surroundings can also modify their chromatic expressiveness. Moreover in the perception of the surroundings, built forms are perceived differently depending on: seasons, weather conditions, direct or indirect radiation, reflection, natural or artificial light source, and many other aspects.So the minimum designer's tools for colour design, necessary to avoid prejudicial operations, are:•To know that perception of the surroundings takes place in terms of synaesthesia (vision is only one of the five senses);•To have a cultural understanding of design and colour essentials;•To know the basic rules of colour combination and colour harmony in the built environment;•To know the history, traditions, culture, geographical location, the qualities and weaknesses and the range of possible options of the site/city/environment…;•To know the characteristics that distinguish one place from another;•To formulate a dedicated strategy different from case to case, specific to each place;•To make continuous iterations between theory, project and realisation.This list could be expanded, progressing from the basic to the more sophisticated level, where detailed study gives more information to the professional, finally to attain sufficient experience on the approach to colour design. Translating the above list into knowledge requires specific instruction on a topic that usually is little practised at universities where architecture design is taught. In these academies, the training of architectural design is still almost exclusively based on the knowledge of shape and dimensionality, as if a building were an abstract living sculpture. In fact, if we analyse critically the majority of the latest works having a strong appeal to contemporary academic and the professional world we would have more than a few doubts in distinguishing sculptures from architecture.But, without digression, it is perhaps enough to tell someone who works in the world of architecture that a simple action of painting on the walls of buildings can completely disrupt the interpretation of the shape. So it could be necessary to clarify to the reader, that knowing how to use the colour, starting from the design phase, can help to counteract changes to the original project conception, as well as provide new tools to modify a lot of buildings born speculatively or following ideologies with currently indigestible forms. For example, the buildings of the former socialist countries generally need requalification for energy consumption. Architects working around the problems in repetitive mega structures are also facing a lack in aesthetic quality. The use of colour design on the refurbishment of façades, in some cases, has given excellent results.But how can we approach the chromatic choice in architecture? The answer depends on diverse aspects such as:•The size and typology of the building’s façades;•The type and scale of aggregation;•The dimensions of streets, roads, alleys, squares and so on;•The dominant colours and accent colours, contrasts, architectural unity, etc.;•The colour project/planning strategy adopted;•The congruence with the environment and with local history and culture;•The presence/absence of colour harmony and chromatic cacophonies.We could add many other aspects in a kind of journey from the general to the particular, until we define every detail. Obviously this list cannot provide useful tools for colour selection, but can supply some precautions to be noted at the time of decisions and choices.In the perception of the surroundings, built forms are perceived differently depending on weather, seasonal conditions, direct or indirect radiation, by reflection or by natural or artificial light source, and by many other factors. The shape/colour ratio is also influenced by a series of secondary effects such as:•Distance: far, from afar, close, very close;•Space: very large, large, medium, small, very small;•Environment: wet, dry, humid, windy;•Light: on, off, sunny, shady, bright, dark;•Weight: light, heavy;•Time: short, medium, long;•Thermal: cold, hot and lukewarm;•Psychology: depressive, relaxing, soothing, stimulating, exciting, very exciting, exhilarating.Some of these effects depend on the wavelengths, colour hue/tone/saturation and other optical phenomena. The feeling of space, according to ponderable and temporal terms, changes with the wavelengths and varies according to the hue and intensity. Other effects depend on the combination of closeness/distance and the overall design or perceived detail. Others are consequences of physical, electrical, optical, physiological features and combinations.The selection of colours to paint walls and other parts of buildings must reference general guidelines when treating for example:•Narrow streets;•Wide Roads;•Squares and plazas;•Sprawl houses;•Farmhouses;•Buildings in barren, arid, stony fields;•Continuous façades;•Tall buildings;•Public buildings;•Industrial buildings;•Others.Figure 2 shows a narrow calle (Venetian street) in Burano Island on a sunny day after a rain shower. In these conditions of light, colours seem much more saturated when the walls are not washed out. The chromatic cadence is based almost exclusively on warm colours, if one excludes the green façade that can be seen on the right. On the basis of the list above we can say that the distance effect is between close and very close; the environmental effect is wet; the light effect is sunny and shady; the weight effect is heavy going to light; the thermal effect is lukewarm/hot; and the psychological effect is stimulating.Figure 2: Burano Island (Venice): Narrow street. A sunny day after a storm Burano island is a particular case of the use of colour in the façades of buildings, a case begun around the 1960s with the sale of synthetic materials for painting of external façades. The colour choice was left to the discretion of individual owners who, in order to stand out in relation to their neighbours, have engaged in an uncontrollable competition by using different colours for their properties. A new reality has thus exploded with a considerable increase of the saturation of colours and the birth of combinations without rules. The recent widespread marketing of siloxane paints has further increased such saturation and the duration of colours. Also the application techniques have changed considerably and, if previously the wall painting was carried out directly by the owners, now there are professional painters who apply the products and often give advice on the choice of colours.In the Italian mainland this random choice of the colour of the exterior of buildings has had the effect of creating a visual chaos that impinges on the usability of the places and the possibility of preserving or repurposing many historical centres. Some civic administrations, however, are equipping their planning instruments with colour schemes. These local regulations are producing contrasting effects. On the one hand there are restorers who tend to set a standard epoch that serves as a model for all buildings even though they connote very different epochs; others argue for a kind of scientific restoration, that is practised to recover the buildings according to their date of construction or their period of maximum glory; others are inclined to make choices coinciding with their personal taste, legitimising the colour choices on the basis of derivation from natural local elements; others are based on statistics, considering the prevailing colours and formalising a project that doesn’t deviate much from the state of fact; others behave with reasoning difficult to interpret. In short, the plans/projects of colour, at least in Italian society, are made by professionals who may have only a vague knowledge of colour (engineers, architects, planners, restorers, industrial designers, etc.). Of course all these different people adopt different approaches, producing results that are not always congruent with the places where they perform the colour plan. The one positive thing that can be said is that most of the colourdesigns are implemented through paint, and fortunately the paintings don’t have long durability. Usually time is a gentleman and erases many design hysteric results.ConclusionsThis paper arose from what the author has written in one of his recent books in the Italian language. In fact the motivation for transmitting some knowledge to colleagues (especially architects) was born from the consideration that a good part of the practice of Italian professionals is devoid of even minimal knowledge of the use of colour. Many times they use it in an ideological manner.“Light and colour together form our visual image of the surrounding world. Despite this, colour and light are too often treated as two distinct fields of knowledge. Colour specialists often lack knowledge about light, and light specialists often do not know enough about colour. Knowledge of both colour and light are separated between different professional and academic areas, each with its own set of theories, concepts and methods. Those who want to find their own understanding and be able to apply it in their work could easily get lost in all of this – with the result that only a small proportion of existing knowledge will be used in practice.”During the investigation we found that only those who have attended schools with an artistic orientation that enable access to the university had some notions about the use of colour. The others, who are the vast majority, are fixed to either childhood or adolescent education, and are therefore not sufficiently familiar with knowledge about chromatic mechanisms. Hence there is a need to produce manuals on the proper use of colour and colour harmony. Even the colour collection handbooks showing standard solutions often seem useful, to be taken as they are and transferred to the reality. But this is not colour design. I think that promoting colour culture towards Architects is a mission for those who deal in terms of training, skills and knowledge.What is proposed is a modest "Toolbox", with instruments to design buildings knowing from the outset which colours will be chosen. The earlier we know the chromatic directions, the better we can check the quality of form, embedding it in the thought processes inherent in planning. In the "Toolbox" there are various tools andtechniques, which depart from the general and extend up to the particular. Obviously equipment is useful and often necessary, but sometimes it can also be cumbersome. It becomes worthless at the moment in which the designer has matured his own poetic impulses and is equipped with an exclusive personal set of instruments. For example, in the world of painting, the colours of the paints are always the same, but the artworks they realise are absolutely different from artist to artist. The colour choices are personal, as well as the combinations, harmony and anything else the artist considers necessary to express his or her thoughts on the canvas. This ability sets apart the great painters. In the case of amateurs however, it often happens that when they begin to mix colours on the palette the result ends up as muddy brown, despite good intentions.Thus this paper aims to avoid amateurism in design and to provide some guidance to those who build up architectures, colour plans, furniture, objects and so on, without knowing anything about colour and its impact on the environment and the human psyche.中文译文建筑环境色彩选择策略在实现色彩设计或色彩规划时，每个设计师都应拥有一套基本的方法，以防止他或她在领域、景观、城市、邻近地区和个别建筑物中进行有害的操作。
建筑环境的可持续发展 英文作文
建筑环境的可持续发展英文作文英文回答：Sustainable development in the field of architecture and the built environment is of great importance in today's world. With the increasing concerns about climate change and environmental degradation, it is crucial for us to adopt sustainable practices in the design, construction, and operation of buildings.Firstly, sustainable development in the built environment means minimizing the negative impact on the environment. This can be achieved through various means, such as using energy-efficient materials and technologies, incorporating renewable energy sources, and implementing effective waste management systems. By reducing energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions, we can contribute to mitigating climate change and preserving natural resources.Secondly, sustainable development also entails creating a healthy and comfortable living environment for occupants. This can be achieved by designing buildings that prioritize natural daylighting and ventilation, as well as using non-toxic and environmentally friendly materials. Additionally, incorporating green spaces and promoting biophilic design can enhance the overall well-being of occupants and improve their productivity.Furthermore, sustainable development in the built environment also involves considering the social and economic aspects. It is important to design buildings that are accessible and inclusive for people of all abilities, as well as considering the needs of different age groups and cultures. Moreover, sustainable buildings cancontribute to the local economy by creating job opportunities in the construction and maintenance sectors.In conclusion, sustainable development in the field of architecture and the built environment is essential for the well-being of both the planet and its inhabitants. By adopting sustainable practices, we can minimize thenegative impact on the environment, create healthy living spaces, and contribute to the social and economic development of our communities.中文回答：建筑环境的可持续发展在当今世界中具有重要意义。
建筑设计毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译文献
毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译文献Architecture StructureWe have and the architects must deal with the spatial aspect of activity, physical, and symbolic needs in such a way that overall performance integrity is assured. Hence, he or she well wants to think of evolving a building environment as a total system of interacting and space forming subsystems. Is represents a complex challenge, and to meet it the architect will need a hierarchic design process that provides at least three levels of feedback thinking: schematic, preliminary, and final.Such a hierarchy is necessary if he or she is to avoid being confused , at conceptual stages of design thinking ,by the myriad detail issues that can distract attention from more basic consideration s .In fact , we can say that an architect’s ability to distinguish the more basic form the more detailed issues is essential to his success as a designer .The object of the schematic feed back level is to generate and evaluate overall site-plan, activity-interaction, and building-configuration options .To do so the architect must be able to focus on the interaction of the basic attributes of the site context, the spatial organization, and the symbolism as determinants of physical form. This means that ,in schematic terms ,the architect may first conceive and model a building design as an organizational abstraction of essential performance-space in teractions.Then he or she may explore the overall space-form implications of the abstraction. As an actual building configuration option begins to emerge, it will be modified to include consideration for basic site conditions.At the schematic stage, it would also be helpful if the designer could visualize his or her options for achieving overall structural integrity and consider the constructive feasibility and economic of his or her scheme .But this will require that the architect and/or a consultant be able to conceptualize total-system structural options in terms of elemental detail .Such overall thinking can be easily fed back to improve the space-form scheme.At the preliminary level, the architect’s emphasis will shift to the elaboration of his or her more promising schematic design options .Here the architect’s structural needs will shift toapproximate design of specific subsystem options. At this stage the total structural scheme is developed to a middle level of specificity by focusing on identification and design of major subsystems to the extent that their key geometric, component, and interactive properties are established .Basic subsystem interaction and design conflicts can thus be identified and resolved in the context of total-system objectives. Consultants can play a significant part in this effort; these preliminary-level decisions may also result in feedback that calls for refinement or even major change in schematic concepts.When the designer and the client are satisfied with the feasibility of a design proposal at the preliminary level, it means that the basic problems of overall design are solved and details are not likely to produce major change .The focus shifts again ,and the design process moves into the final level .At this stage the emphasis will be on the detailed development of all subsystem specifics . Here the role of specialists from various fields, including structural engineering, is much larger, since all detail of the preliminary design must be worked out. Decisions made at this level may produce feedback into Level II that will result in changes. However, if Levels I and II are handled with insight, the relationship between the overall decisions, made at the schematic and preliminary levels, and the specifics of the final level should be such that gross redesign is not in question, Rather, the entire process should be one of moving in an evolutionary fashion from creation and refinement (or modification) of the more general properties of a total-system design concept, to the fleshing out of requisite elements and details.To summarize: At Level I, the architect must first establish, in conceptual terms, the overall space-form feasibility of basic schematic options. At this stage, collaboration with specialists can be helpful, but only if in the form of overall thinking. At Level II, the architect must be able to identify the major subsystem requirements implied by the scheme and substantial their interactive feasibility by approximating key component properties .That is, the properties of major subsystems need be worked out only in sufficient depth to very the inherent compatibility of their basic form-related and behavioral interaction . This will mean a somewhat more specific form of collaboration with specialists then that in level I .At level III ,the architect and the specific form of collaboration with specialists then that providing for all of the elemental design specifics required to produce biddable construction documents .Of course this success comes from the development of the Structural Material.1.Reinforced ConcretePlain concrete is formed from a hardened mixture of cement ,water ,fine aggregate, coarse aggregate (crushed stone or gravel),air, and often other admixtures. The plastic mix is placed and consolidated in the formwork, then cured to facilitate the acceleration of the chemical hydration reaction lf the cement/water mix, resulting in hardened concrete. The finished product has high compressive strength, and low resistance to tension, such that its tensile strength is approximately one tenth lf its compressive strength. Consequently, tensile and shear reinforcement in the tensile regions of sections has to be provided to compensate for the weak tension regions in the reinforced concrete element.It is this deviation in the composition of a reinforces concrete section from the homogeneity of standard wood or steel sections that requires a modified approach to the basic principles of structural design. The two components of the heterogeneous reinforced concrete section are to be so arranged and proportioned that optimal use is made of the materials involved. This is possible because concrete can easily be given any desired shape by placing and compacting the wet mixture of the constituent ingredients are properly proportioned, the finished product becomes strong, durable, and, in combination with the reinforcing bars, adaptable for use as main members of any structural system.The techniques necessary for placing concrete depend on the type of member to be cast: that is, whether it is a column, a bean, a wall, a slab, a foundation. a mass columns, or an extension of previously placed and hardened concrete. For beams, columns, and walls, the forms should be well oiled after cleaning them, and the reinforcement should be cleared of rust and other harmful materials. In foundations, the earth should be compacted and thoroughly moistened to about 6 in. in depth to avoid absorption of the moisture present in the wet concrete. Concrete should always be placed in horizontal layers which are compacted by means of high frequency power-driven vibrators of either the immersion or external type, as the case requires, unless it is placed by pumping. It must be kept in mind, however, that over vibration can be harmful since it could cause segregation of the aggregate and bleeding of the concrete.Hydration of the cement takes place in the presence of moisture at temperatures above 50°F. It is necessary to maintain such a condition in order that the chemical hydration reaction can take place. If drying is too rapid, surface cracking takes place. This would result in reduction of concrete strength due to cracking as well as the failure to attain full chemical hydration.It is clear that a large number of parameters have to be dealt with in proportioning a reinforced concrete element, such as geometrical width, depth, area of reinforcement, steel strain, concrete strain, steel stress, and so on. Consequently, trial and adjustment is necessary in the choice ofconcrete sections, with assumptions based on conditions at site, availability of the constituent materials, particular demands of the owners, architectural and headroom requirements, the applicable codes, and environmental reinforced concrete is often a site-constructed composite, in contrast to the standard mill-fabricated beam and column sections in steel structures.A trial section has to be chosen for each critical location in a structural system. The trial section has to be analyzed to determine if its nominal resisting strength is adequate to carry the applied factored load. Since more than one trial is often necessary to arrive at the required section, the first design input step generates into a series of trial-and-adjustment analyses.The trial-and –adjustment procedures for the choice of a concrete section lead to the convergence of analysis and design. Hence every design is an analysis once a trial section is chosen. The availability of handbooks, charts, and personal computers and programs supports this approach as a more efficient, compact, and speedy instructional method compared with the traditional approach of treating the analysis of reinforced concrete separately from pure design.2. EarthworkBecause earthmoving methods and costs change more quickly than those in any other branch of civil engineering, this is a field where there are real opportunities for the enthusiast. In 1935 most of the methods now in use for carrying and excavating earth with rubber-tyred equipment did not exist. Most earth was moved by narrow rail track, now relatively rare, and the main methods of excavation, with face shovel, backacter, or dragline or grab, though they are still widely used are only a few of the many current methods. To keep his knowledge of earthmoving equipment up to date an engineer must therefore spend tine studying modern machines. Generally the only reliable up-to-date information on excavators, loaders and transport is obtainable from the makers.Earthworks or earthmoving means cutting into ground where its surface is too high ( cuts ), and dumping the earth in other places where the surface is too low ( fills). Toreduce earthwork costs, the volume of the fills should be equal to the volume of the cuts and wherever possible the cuts should be placednear to fills of equal volume so as to reduce transport and double handlingof the fill. This work of earthwork design falls on the engineer who lays out the road since it is the layout of the earthwork more than anything else which decides its cheapness. From the available maps ahd levels, the engineering must try to reach as many decisions as possible in the drawing office by drawing cross sections of the earthwork. On the site when further information becomes available he can make changes in jis sections and layout,but the drawing lffice work will not have been lost. It will have helped him to reach the best solution in the shortest time.The cheapest way of moving earth is to take it directly out of the cut and drop it as fill with the same machine. This is not always possible, but when it canbe done it is ideal, being both quick and cheap. Draglines, bulldozers and face shovels an do this. The largest radius is obtained with thedragline,and the largest tonnage of earth is moved by the bulldozer, though only over short distances.The disadvantages of the dragline are that it must dig below itself, it cannot dig with force into compacted material, it cannot dig on steep slopws, and its dumping and digging are not accurate.Face shovels are between bulldozers and draglines, having a larger radius of action than bulldozers but less than draglines. They are anle to dig into a vertical cliff face in a way which would be dangerous tor a bulldozer operator and impossible for a dragline. Each piece of equipment should be level of their tracks and for deep digs in compact material a backacter is most useful, but its dumping radius is considerably less than that of the same escavator fitted with a face shovel.Rubber-tyred bowl scrapers are indispensable for fairly level digging where the distance of transport is too much tor a dragline or face shovel. They can dig the material deeply ( but only below themselves ) to a fairly flat surface, carry it hundreds of meters if need be, then drop it and level it roughly during the dumping. For hard digging it is often found economical to keep a pusher tractor ( wheeled or tracked ) on the digging site, to push each scraper as it returns to dig. As soon as the scraper is full,the pusher tractor returns to the beginning of the dig to heop to help the nest scraper.Bowl scrapers are often extremely powerful machines;many makers build scrapers of 8 cubic meters struck capacity, which carry 10 m ³ heaped. The largest self-propelled scrapers are of 19 m ³struck capacity ( 25 m ³ heaped )and they are driven by a tractor engine of 430 horse-powers.Dumpers are probably the commonest rubber-tyred transport since they can also conveniently be used for carrying concrete or other building materials. Dumpers have the earth container over the front axle on large rubber-tyred wheels, and the container tips forwards on most types, though in articulated dumpers the direction of tip can be widely varied. The smallest dumpers have a capacity of about 0.5 m ³, and the largest standard types are of about 4.5 m ³. Special types include the self-loading dumper of up to 4 m ³ and the articulated type of about 0.5 m ³. The distinction between dumpers and dump trucks must be remembered .dumpers tip forwards and the driver sits behind the load. Dump trucks are heavy, strengthened tipping lorries, the driver travels in front lf the load and the load is dumped behind him, so they are sometimes called rear-dump trucks.3.Safety of StructuresThe principal scope of specifications is to provide general principles and computational methods in order to verify safety of structures. The “ safety factor ”, which according to modern trends is independent of the nature and combination of the materials used, can usually be defined as the ratio between the conditions. This ratio is also proportional to the inverse of the probability ( risk ) of failure of the structure.Failure has to be considered not only as overall collapse of the structure but also asunserviceability or, according to a more precise. Common definition. As the reaching of a “ limit state ” which causes the construction not to accomplish the task it was designed for. Ther e are two categories of limit state :(1)Ultimate limit sate, which corresponds to the highest value of the load-bearing capacity. Examples include local buckling or global instability of the structure; failure of some sections and subsequent transformation of the structure into a mechanism; failure by fatigue; elastic or plastic deformation or creep that cause a substantial change of the geometry of the structure; and sensitivity of the structure to alternating loads, to fire and to explosions.(2)Service limit states, which are functions of the use and durability of the structure. Examples include excessive deformations and displacements without instability; early or excessive cracks; large vibrations; and corrosion.Computational methods used to verify structures with respect to the different safety conditions can be separated into:(1)Deterministic methods, in which the main parameters are considered as nonrandom parameters.(2)Probabilistic methods, in which the main parameters are considered as random parameters.Alternatively, with respect to the different use of factors of safety, computational methods can be separated into:(1)Allowable stress method, in which the stresses computed under maximum loads are compared with the strength of the material reduced by given safety factors.(2)Limit states method, in which the structure may be proportioned on the basis of its maximum strength. This strength, as determined by rational analysis, shall not be less than that required to support a factored load equal to the sum of the factored live load and dead load ( ultimate state ).The stresses corresponding to working ( service ) conditions with unfactored live and dead loads are compared with prescribed values ( service limit state ) . From the four possible combinations of the first two and second two methods, we can obtain some useful computational methods. Generally, two combinations prevail:(1)deterministic methods, which make use of allowable stresses.(2)Probabilistic methods, which make use of limit states.The main advantage of probabilistic approaches is that, at least in theory, it is possible to scientifically take into account all random factors of safety, which are then combined to define the safety factor. probabilistic approaches depend upon :(1) Random distribution of strength of materials with respect to the conditions of fabrication and erection ( scatter of the values of mechanical properties through out the structure );(2) Uncertainty of the geometry of the cross-section sand of the structure ( faults andimperfections due to fabrication and erection of the structure );(3) Uncertainty of the predicted live loads and dead loads acting on the structure;(4)Uncertainty related to the approximation of the computational method used ( deviation of the actual stresses from computed stresses ).Furthermore, probabilistic theories mean that the allowable risk can be based on several factors, such as :(1) Importance of the construction and gravity of the damage by its failure;(2)Number of human lives which can be threatened by this failure;(3)Possibility and/or likelihood of repairing the structure;(4) Predicted life of the structure.All these factors are related to economic and social considerations such as：(1) Initial cost of the construction;(2) Amortization funds for the duration of the construction;(3) Cost of physical and material damage due to the failure of the construction;(4) Adverse impact on society;(5) Moral and psychological views.The definition of all these parameters, for a given safety factor, allows construction at the optimum cost. However, the difficulty of carrying out a complete probabilistic analysis has to be taken into account. For such an analysis the laws of the distribution of the live load and its induced stresses, of the scatter of mechanical properties of materials, and of the geometry of the cross-sections and the structure have to be known. Furthermore, it is difficult to interpret the interaction between the law of distribution of strength and that of stresses because both depend upon the nature of the material, on the cross-sections and upon the load acting on the structure. These practical difficulties can be overcome in two ways. The first is to apply different safety factors to the material and to the loads, without necessarily adopting the probabilistic criterion. The second is an approximate probabilistic method which introduces some simplifying assumptions ( semi-probabilistic methods ) .文献翻译建筑师必须从一种全局的角度出发去处理建筑设计中应该考虑到的实用活动，物质及象征性的需求。
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通过建筑围护结构的设计来提高能源效率摘要建筑物及其周边环境还有相关联的企业比其他任何一个人类企业或工厂，都要产生更多的CO2、制造更多的污染、消耗更多的能源及浪费更多的自然资源。
并且，这些环境的冲击的相当大的一部分源于住宿业。
旅社建筑的多功能化设计，从而提供不同的舒适度和服务顾客。
一般渴望享受独家的设施。
度假村一般在最原始的、敏感的生态系统开发，很少甚至没有对自然环境或人文环境加以考虑。
大多数策略是边设计边实施的，很多住宿设施所提供的服务需要消耗大量的能量、水和不耐用的物品。
从建筑开始设计到最终的使用者，旅店的设施的资源利用效率通常较低，并且旅店对环境的影响比其他类型的类似规模的商业建筑物要严重的多。
对于建筑物的管理者，建筑设计期间做出的决策在减少环境影响中扮演着重要的角色。
随着旅社建筑的总能量性能的全球性提高，本文描述一个研究设计工程。
该工程坐落在土耳其的伊兹密尔市，基于被动式太阳能设计技术的影响来设计建筑物的围护结构体系，从而来开发和论证高的性能。
关键字：建筑围护结构设计酒店能源性能能效建模一、引言各种用途的费用代表着来自旅店老板的使用费的快速增长，并且在2004年至2006年期间以每年平均12%的速率增长。
旅店业在能量使用、花费和温室气体的排放上有一个显著的增加。
有一篇关于能量是什么时间在什么地方怎样被使用的，和从旅社设施管理者的立场上可能发生的存储的调查研究。
然而，旅社的能量损耗的很显著的一部分可以在建筑设计中减少。
因为，建筑设计对选择和制定建筑物的机械系统有直接的影响，而机械系统的选择和制定反过来影响建筑使用期限中的能量损耗。
因此，从建筑设计师、业主和公共事业设备的观点来看，检验减少建筑物能量损耗的可能性的关键是识别建筑物组成部分的能量损耗，不仅仅通过检验建筑物系统和管理部门的高效率，而且通过建筑物的建筑学特征。
这个研究的目的是展示如何用被动式设计来满足减少能耗的要求。
适当的建筑物设计能够显著地减少能量损耗。
此外，低能源消费减少温室气体的排放（二氧化碳、甲烷、一氧化二氮），并降低运行成本。
已经完成的旅社能源效率的研究，就旅社能源损耗模型给出了一个清楚的理解。
旅社能源强度年均为87 kBtuh/ft2(274.8 kWh/m2). 其中61% 来自电，39% 来自天然气和其他燃料。
如表1和图1、2所示，这些转换成电能的为53.1 kBtuh/ft2(167.74 kWh/m2) 和天然气0.34therms/sf(106.55kWh/m2)。
当把旅社与像事务所和零售处等其他商业建筑物相比，旅社的年均能源密集度是最高的。
办公大楼的年均能量密集度是79.8 kBtuh/ft2 (251,57 kWh/m2) ，甲级零售物业的是81.5 kBtuh/ft2 (256,93 kWh/m2) 。
因此，以节能的观点来评估旅社建筑物变得越来越关键。
然而，没有一个研究根据建筑物的能耗，给出任何关于建筑物维护结构的重要性的信息。
这些来自在下方给出文献的迄今为止的研究实例中可以看出，没有一项实施的研究考虑过建筑物维护结构体系的重要性。
在美国，2007年每年住宿房的平均能量强度从15 kBtuh/ft2 (48 kwh/m2) 到300 kBtuh/ft2 (947 kwh/m2)不等。
通常情况下，一个旅社或者汽车旅馆几乎75%的能源使用都归因于空间供暖、水供暖、照明和制冷的综合使用。
剩下的25%用于程序、电梯和厨房。
这些数据与加拿大渥太华的旅社能源性能不同。
据报道渥太华地区的每年平均的能量密集度为218 kBtuh/ft2 (688.7 kwh/m2) ，该结果来自于1991年对渥太华地区的41家旅社中的19家进行问卷调查得到的。
其不同能源类型的百分比分布与美国住房建筑能源分布的电、汽油和蒸汽分别占居28.9%, 26.4% 和44.7% 的百分比不同。
空间取暖消耗35% ，而水加热、制冷和照明的消耗分别为15%、33% 和8%。
在英国，几个有关旅社建筑物能源性能方面的研究案例已有报道。
例如：1988年，伦敦旅社每个建筑面积的平均能源消耗为226.3 kBtuh/ft2 (715 kwh/m2),，其中大约74% 来自于天然气的消耗。
在香港，有个早期关于旅社电能需求的研究指出平均电能消耗强度为81.6 kBtuh/ft2 (257.8 kwh/m2) 和115.9 kBtuh/ft2 (366 kwh/m2)。
然而香港的这些研究仅仅针对于电能使用。
也有一些关于地中海气候类型的旅社的研究。
希腊158所旅社的能源损耗平均为86.4 kBtuh/ft2 (273 kwh/m2) 。
突尼斯旅店各部门的年均总能源损耗的变动范围是54.1 到117.8 kBtuh/ft2 (170.9e372 kwh/m2.) 。
分析了土耳其安塔利亚地区的旅社，测定其能源损耗为40.8到204.6 kBtuh/ft2 (129e646.3 kwh/m2) 之间。
这篇研究论文将综合以上提到的各个研究的结果，进一步强调建筑物维护结构的能源效率的重要性。
大规模建筑物的能源效率的提高不能仅通过应用先进的动机械系统，而且也要通过经营管理的设计方案来提高，能够意识到这些是至关重要的。
这些决策应该在建筑设计的开始阶段就制定，正如本文强调的，此时决策对能源效率的影响是及其显著的。
这是一个多学科的问题，要求包括工程学、建筑学、环境管理、设计及国家政策在内的各学科的协调工作。
每个新结构的搭建，如果没有遵守可承受的原则，将使建筑的使用寿命降低。
从能源的损耗和浪费这一代的观点来看，建筑设计决定了一个建筑物在它的整个使用期限如何运作的。
建筑设计影响营业成本。
用于空间调节尤其是制冷的能量是地中海国家最关心的事情。
过去的十年间，欧洲南部的国家对机械空调的使用不仅在旅社中戏剧性地增加，而且在其他建筑业也有增加。
这一结果主要归因于生活水平的提高和空调设备组件的费用的增加。
欧盟成员国的国民生产总值的销售额有明显的增长趋势。
对电能损耗的影响令人担忧。
在欧洲南方的大部分地区，夏天开始出现电能的最大值负荷。
本研究展示了自然能源流在减少热和冷负荷方面的优势，即使当用于像被动地设计的旅社这种现存的大规模建筑物也同样存在优势。
能源损耗的减少以百分数的形式给出。
在这个特使案例的研究中，作为重点的不只有冷负荷，还有热负荷，因为旅社大多在夏季旅游观光季节使用，但也在冬季开放。
2.旅馆建筑的能源损耗的建模e-QUEST (基于美国能源部的DOE2.2计划)能源分析计划被用于模拟土耳其的伊兹密尔市的旅社建筑。
该城市坐落在爱琴海沿岸，是全国第三大人口密集的城市和著名的乡村旅游景点。
其地理坐为北纬38度25分，东经27度8分。
伊兹密尔以长期而炎热的夏天和适度而多雨的冬季为特征，是典型的热带地中海气候。
这样的气候一年又300天的日照，有很长的旅游季节。
夏天很干燥，夏天的月份（六月到九月）的特点是缺乏水及日间平均气温为82.4F（28摄氏度）或者更高。
另一方面，冬季是温和的，伴随着偶热的降雪和一般的降雨量。
事实上，总降水量的77%发生在冬季的一月到下年三月。
冬季月份的平均最高气温在48到55F （8.8到13摄氏度）间变动。
如图3、4所示由于适合DOE2能源计划使用的8760个小时的气候数据对伊兹密尔却行不通。
巴勒莫、意大利的气候被作为最相近的使用。
一月和七月的温度曲线和干湿球温度计的温度值如图3至5所示。
3.建筑模型为了进行评估，建立一个假设的模型。
一个典型的21层轻结构的建筑物（基于伊兹密尔现存的一个1992年建造的旅社）被建立，来评估其能源效率，如图6到8所示。
在90世纪期间，土耳其没有一个关于能源性能的管理规则。
政府部门和社区是有关建筑物的规章制度的责任团体。
建筑物能源性能的的规章制度在2008年十二月开始生效。
然而，仍需要评估建筑能源性能的方法，并且也存在一些漏洞，尤其对大规模的建筑。
4. 能源分析能源效率的是根据美国能源部制定的DOE2.2能源分析程序中的e-QUEST、表格、输入图形建模界面来运行。
e-QUEST是为建筑师使用设计的，尤其是在早些时候，用于在设计中做出关于外形和建筑方位这些重要决策。
它用来分析建筑物的外表面和几何结构在一年8760个小时中，对内在负荷和外在天气情况的响应。
这些负荷包括太阳辐射的热量和来自居住者、电灯和仪器设备的热量以及通过渗透物或者由墙、房顶和装配玻璃的传导来实现的获得或散失的热量。
由于本研究的目的是无源设计，在三种情况下机械系统和工厂用来消除影响。
选择高效节能的机械器具和设备是很重要的。
外貌和规划的细节都不是这次研究真的关心考虑的，但是建筑的能效模型与建筑学的观点并不相同。
例如，在能源仿真中，对分析者来说，窗户的可操作性和其遮阳物比其形状更重要。
能源分析需要建筑材料的信息，建筑材料可能影响建筑物的热质量。
因此，例如，在设计阶段从木材和混凝土中做出符合建筑学的选择是很容易的。
能源建模也要关心颜料和室内设计，这些影响室内的反射率和白天的绩效，而外面的装饰会影响太阳能的获得。
基本上，建筑物能源消耗在供暖及制冷、热水、照明设备及服务项目和设备。
该项目的年能量密集度为 67 kBtu/ft2 (211 kwh/m2)。
总能源损耗中，27%的建筑物能耗来自天然气和73%来自电力。
其中37%的电能损耗来自空间调节，包括空间制冷和通风设备（图10）。
仅仅如果在建筑设计阶段考虑这些因素，通过应用被动式设计技术可以减少相当大一部分的损耗。
因此在设计中对机械系统需求最小化可以减少建筑的总能耗。
5、被动式太阳能应用的设计技巧建筑物内被动式太阳能的设计相对的决定了建筑材料的选用。
这其中包括框架结构材料，绝缘材料以及玻璃的类型。
然而，旧的建筑外或者不合理设计的建筑物由于不好的建筑物维护体系而处于过度耗能的状态（例如，隔热性能不好的墙壁和窗户）。
被动设计方案主要包括一下几个因素：a，建筑维护结构；b，括彼此连接的屋顶阳台等维护结构的遮阳；c，相邻结构材质的遮阳；d，自然通风（可以打开或关闭的窗户）；e，冬季的太阳能辐射；f，每日的照明。
被动式太阳能设计策略把a到e都纳入了模型。
所建立的模型方位被定位在伊士麦的一家酒店处，由于当地建筑都是晚上占用并且自动照明控制不适用，所以日照对当地居民建筑影响很小。
然而，酒店类建筑的定位是非常重要的。
因为，除了要考虑太阳辐射可以利用外，它还和以下因素相关联：●视野；●客房与其隔壁房间的隔离；●建筑内功能和社会的联系。
建筑内简单的平面布置却能够满足各种活动的需求；并且减少的地板面积，提高了效率。
在温带气候和夏季炎热气候地区，遮阳处理在平衡白天室温方面非常有效，也就论证着遮阳策略在节省能源方面有着重要的作用。