Paragraph Development
Paragraph Developing
Basic elements of formal definition
1. the term to be defined 2. the general group or class the term belongs to 3. the distinguishing characteristics of the term. Eg. A liberated woman is simply a woman who controls her own life rather than allowing it to be controlled by other people, traditions, or expectations.
Develop by definition
Analytical/formal definition
– Three basic elements: the term to be defined, the general group or class the term belongs to and the distinguishing characteristics of the term E.g.: A liberated woman is simply a woman who controls her own life rather than allowing it to be controlled by other people, traditions, or expectations.
Develop by exemplification
The examples should be in climatic order The good examples should be
英语作文写作技巧PPT课件
Unit 1 Text A
4
-
But in reality, many a time there is not a “concluding sentence”, especially one paragraph in a long story or essay.
Unit 1 Text A
5
-
Paragraph Development
Unit 1 Text A
3
-
Coherence — One of writing principles referring to the fact that the sentences should be organized in a logical manner and should follow a definite plan of development.
A Brief Introduction We had a wonderful vacation! (1) We visited my grand parents’ home for the holiday. (2) There we met all my cousins, aunts, and uncles. (3) We ate good food and played a lot. (4) We went shopping and sightseeing. (5) I didn’t feel like coming back! (6) Sentence (1) is a topic sentence. The controlling idea is “wonderful”. Therefore, in sentences (2), (3), (4) and (5), the author develops this controlling idea by means of providing details. In sentence (2) he uses “visited my grand
how to develop a paragraph(1)段落的展开法1
To avoid “transitions for transitions” sake
2019/12/28
8
Example
We enjoyed our visit to Dr. Hassan’s house.The
house was perched high up on a hill. First, we
2019/12/28
7
2.Order of space
Details are arranged according to their location & their relationship to each other.
Suitable to describe a limited interior, such as a classroom or the inside of submarine; also effective to write about a very broad area, such as the continent of Asia or the solar system.
6. develop by cause and effect
7. develop by classification
8. develop by definition
20199/12./2d8 evelop by a combined way
3
He(the King) got up and stepped out of
one inevitable duty-the duty of prayer-
the daily recognition of the Unseen and
Eternal. His daily devotions were more
Paragraph Development II
•
•
Examples
Passive Voice: I was a manager of a group of people. Active Voice: I managed a group of people.
Passive Voice: Teachers are accused by many parents of treating students unfairly. Active Voice: Many parents accuse teachers of treating students unfairly.
In the winter, I can bundle up, put on scarves, and wear my favorite sweater.
Best of all, in the winter I can do a lot of activities.
Winter is my favorite season because I like the clothes, the snow, and the activities.
Paragraph Development
Paragraphs
The purpose of a paragraph is to express one topic, idea, or opinion
Example
Topic: Students need free time in order to better focus on lessons in class. • Your paragraph should only talk about this topic and nothing else (unity)
9. Ways of Paragraph Development 段落展开
9 Ways of Paragraph Development
• • • • • • • • • Development by Time Development by Space Development by Process Development by Example and Generalization Development by Comparison and Contrast Development by Cause and Effect Development by Classification Development by Definition Development by a Combination of Methods
Hale Waihona Puke Study the following paragraph that is developed by time. Try to find out the chronological signals.
• The life of Grandma Moses proves that a person is never too old to develop his or her talents. As a child, Anna Moses loved to draw; she often made pictures with berry juice when paint颜料 was scarce稀少. When she eventually married and had a large family, she found little time to paint. Years later, with her children grown, she began to knit编织 pictures with yarn, but her fingers ached, and she returned to her first love, painting. She was seventy years old! An art dealer商人 saw her pictures in a local drugstore药房 and bought them. Grandma Moses, as she was called, soon became famous, with her paintings of simple country life exhibited展出 throughout the world. She continued to paint until her death at 101.
博士学术写作
2.Development by Space
Details may be arranged in a certain order, such as from right to left, near to far, up to down, north to south, side to side, center to side, and so on. use spatial transitions: at the gate of….; across the bridge/river/road…..; in the southwest/southeast/northwest…..; above; next to; close to; adjacent to; on the left/right; on top of…;in the distance) Sample: As you come into the room, you notice a piano, with a low music stool in front of it. Next to the piano is a tall bookcase, standing against the wall. On the left is a large window. Under the window there is a radiator, but you can’t see it, because it is behind the settee. On the settee there are two cushions.
I disagree with this point of view forቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱthree reasons. My first reason is…. My second reason lies in the fact that … My third reason is based on… …partly because of/due to… Many factors weigh heavily on… …is not the sole cause for…. …is also responsible for…
英语写作手册教案.docx
Part 1 Paragraph Development by Listing一、授课时间：Feb.22- Feb.25二、授课类型：理论课三、授课题目:Paragraph development by listing四、教学Fl的和要求：To make the students know how to develop paragraphs by listing五、教学重点及难点：The structure of a listing paragraph六、教学方法、基本内容与步骤讲授法、讨论法、师生互动Step I GreetingsStep II Introduction to TEM4Step III PresentationFocus:Listing is probably the most common way to develop a paragraphThe structure of a listing paragraphNotesSamples and analysesListing is an extremely common way to develop paragraphs. It can be used to analyze causes and effects, to state the importance of something, to list the shortcomings or benefits. It can also be used to refute opponents' ideas, or to state personal opinions.5.1The structureMost often listing paragraph starts with a general statement and proceeds to details. In other words, the paragraph starts with a topic sentence that states a point of view and then provides discussions usually ordered from the most important idea to the least important, or vice versa. The following formats show how paragraph can be built up by listing.1.The importance of English cannot be overemphasized.First, ....Second,....Third,....Finally, ....2.This book will have a major impact on both politics and economics in China.In politics, ...In economics, ....3.Reading extensively is obviously of great benefit in learning a new language.For one thing, •…For another, ....In the end,…4.The negative effects of the infections disease on service businesses were obvious in the first few months.Firstly/ for example, ....Secondly, ....Thirdly, ....Lastly, ....5.2NotesThere are several points that are worth our attention when we build a paragraph by listing: First, arrange the supporting ideas in a logical orde匚It is true that we should arrange the supporting ideas in a logical order in everything we write for other people; otherwise, paragraphs are not effective or cannot be best followed by readers. Chinese students, when writing in English, tend to focus all their attention on expressing ideas, and thus ignore the arrangement of the ideas.For example:Teachers of foreign languages should be extremely well-qualified in order to cany out their duties properly. Interest in teaching, social skills to deal with all kinds of students, mastery of modern audio-lingual techniques and competence in the target language are four basic requirements of language teachers...If the paragraph goes on from this topic sentence, the paragraph will not be quite effective as the supporting ideas are not arranged in an effective orde匚"competence in the target language^ is the most important idea among the four; therefore, it should be placed first. When the idea to be developed are placed in order of importance, the argument will be stronger.The second point we should pay attention to when we develop a listing paragraph is the correct use of listing expressions. Figure 1 shows the possible expressions used for listing.When we use these expressions, we should follow these rules:1 • Don't mix sets of listing expressionsChinese writers tend to mix sets of expressions used for listing. It is not good style to do so. Be consistent when using the following two basic sets of expressions used for listing:First firstly firstlySecondly second secondlyThirdly third thirdlyFinally, finally finally2.Distinguish "first'，and "at first”"first” is a listing word, but "at first” is not. "at first'5indicates a change・Compare the following two sentences.First, you should be frank.At first he was a little shy in class, but now he acts more natural."at first" is often used as the following: after a whileAt first... but now ....laterthen;e.g. At first he had one small shop; now he is the owner of a vast business with many branches.3.Distinguish "lastly" and "at last""lastly，，is a listing word, but "at last'，is not. "At last99 indicate that something happens after a long expectation.For example:Lastly, I would like summarize the points of my argument.We waited and waited, still at last, after a three-hour delay, the train arrived in the station. 5.3Samples and analysesSample paragraph 1:Sentence Functions in Paragraph DevelopmentThe sentence in the most well written paragraphs has one of four common functions- First, there are paragraph introducers, which are sentences that establish the topic focus of the paragraph as a whole. Second, there are several paragraph developers, which present examples or details of various kinds that support the ideas set forth by the paragraph introducers. Third, there are viewpoint or context modulators, which are sentences that provide a smooth transition between different sets of ideas. Fourth, there are paragraph terminators, which logically conclude the ideas discussed in the paragraph in a psychologically satisfying manner. Not all pieces of writing will conform to this analysis; however, most successful paragraphs usually contain some combination of these four sentence types.Analysis:This is a typical paragraph developed by listing and also a very unified and coherent paragraph.七、作业、讨论题、思考题Write a paragraph by listing八、课后小结：九、参考资料：Cheryal Pavlik,《写作通》，辽宁教育出版社，2005 陈会军，《中国人英语写作全攻略技巧与训练》，外文出版社，2004 吕煦，《实用英语修辞》，清华犬学出版社，2005 Part 2 Paragraph Development by Classification一、授课时间：Mar.l・Mar.3二、授课类型：理论课三、授课题目:Paragraph development by classification四、教学Fl的和要求：To make the students know how to develop paragraphs by classification五、教学重点及难点：The structure of a classification paragraph六、教学方法、基本内容与步骤讲授法、讨论法、师生互动Step I GreetingsStep II Check of homeworkStep III PresentationFocus:Expressions for classificationOrganization of a classifying paragraphSamples and analysesNote: parallel classificationClassification is one of the most useful methods for explaining an object or idea. We break a general class down and group the parts into categories whose members share similar characteristics. With this method, we create order out of confusion and provide a clear overview of the information we offer.6.1Expressions for classificationExpressions in the following table are common words used for classification. They are in two groups:Verbs NounsFall into classDivide...into groupGroup •…into sortSort. •• into kindCategoryLabelTypeIn practice, to avoid sounding repetitions, writers often use a variety of classification words rather than just stick to only one word.6.2OrganizationLike other standard paragraphs, a classification paragraph may also consist of a topic introducer to introduce the subject to be classified, a topic sentence to provide the controlling idea, supporting details to clarify the nature of the classification and a concluding sentence to end the paragraph・ sometimes the topic introducer and the concluding sentence are unnecessary. Topic sentenceIf a paragraph starts with only a topic sentence, apart from a clear topic, the topic sentence for a classifying paragraph should indicate the criterion of classification and the number of smaller groups into which our topic group is broken. Fro example:1- There are different kinds of people in society.2.Any good library should contain three basic types of materials.Sentence 1 is not a good topic sentence, as it does not indicate the criterion by which the classification is made. The second sentence is a good topic sentence as it contains the topic "any good library/' and the controlling idea should contain three basic types of materials. The criterion is “basic types'9and the number “three.Note: The criterion of classification may also be clearly indicated in each support. Supporting detailsThe supporting items in a classifying paragraph are parallel and are presented by listing. Therefore, generally speaking, the classifying paragraph is also a listing paragraph, we makea list of the items and discuss them one by one. We achieve coherence by using listing words.6.3Samples and AnalysesSample 1The classification of ParagraphsIndividual paragraphs一the building blocks of essays, articles, chapters, and other longer papers一may be classified in a variety of ways. At the essay level, paragraphs may be sorted into functional groups such as introductory, developmental, transitional, and the like. Depending upon the purpose or intent of the writer, particular paragraphs may be thought of as aiming to persuade, inform, argue, or excite. Paragraphs may also be classified according to such techniques of development as comparison, contrast, and definition. Another developmental device might also be the classification paragraph, which organized items or ideas to be discussed into relatively homogeneous groups. Such classifications make it possible to talk about a large number of paragraphs by grouping them into a small number of classes.—author unknownAnalysis:This is a well-written classifying paragraph, it is unified・ The topic sentence presents the topic "paragraphs^ and the controlling idea “can be classified in a variety of ways. The word "classified" indicates the type of the paragraph and "a variety of ways” is the controlling idea to be developed. The specific criteria for classification are clearly stated in each supporting item. At the end, the writer makes a personal comment on the classification in the paragraph, thus binding the whole paragraph togethe匚There are no sentences that are unrelated.This paragraph is also a coherent paragraph, the structure itself prompts coherence. Furthermore, repetitions of the key word "paragraph^ plays an important role in binding all the details together.Sample:HotelHotels are found in every country and city of the world. Generally, they can be classified into three large groups based on location. First, airport hotels are located near airports. Their guests include passengers of short stay・overs or canceled flights and travelers who are on business. The second type is downtown hotels, also called commercial hotels. These hotels are near large office complexes and retail stores in the major metropolitan areas. They are attractive to people attending meetings and conventions, and to many tourists as well. Third, there are also resort hotels located near beaches or mountains. Resort hotels accommodate vacationers and recreatiominded people. Though there may be a few other areas where hotels are found, such as along highways, most of them are located near airports, in downtown areas, and in resort areas.Analysis:This is a unified and coherent paragraph developed by classification. It is different from sample paragraph 1 in that the paragraph begins with the topic introducer and the topic sentence e instead of the topic sentence only.The topic sentence of this paragraph is a very good topic sentence. Not only does it indicate the type of the paragraph by the word "classify：but it also presents the controlling idea "classify into three group s based on location^. The number of categories is made clear (“three") and the criterion of classification is also stated (“location").The mention of exceptions to the classification gives the writer an air of accuracy andthoroughnesSe The summary in the concluding sentence binds the supporting details together and thus ends the paragraph satisfactorily.Major cohesive devices the writer uses include effective organization of the paragraph, transitional expressions and repetition of the key word “hotels'，Sample 3Three types of ParentsAll parents throughout the world love their children whole heartedly, and so do Chinese parents.I know parents in China fall into three categories based on their attitude to the only child in the family. First is the satisfying. I haven't traveled much, but in my experience satisfying parents are all alike no matter where they live. They make every effort to meet all, even unreasonable demands made by the child. Second is the authoritative. From Fve read in the newspapers, authoritative parents think they are right all the time, so they want to the child to obey. The child should always be ready to do what they want him to do. Third are friend-like parents. They want to be and are the child's friends and will discuss things with the child. I dorft think I fit any of these categories, but you can place most parents in china into one of these three groups.—studentAnalysis:This paragraph, the sentence "blit I know peopled political views fall into only three categories^ tells that this is also a classifying paragraph, although this is a unified and coherent paragraph, several expressions in this paragraph indicate that the classification in this paragraph is based on limited experience. These expressions include T know”，“I hav en51 traveled much, but in my experience^, "from what fve read in the newspapers9' and "in my opinion". Such expressions make the writing rather informal, a style should be avoided in academic writing.A formal style of exposition is likely to lead to greater success in school as well as in one's professional career. It may be characterized as an academic style. In academic writing, personal indicators like “T：“in my opinion"，"as far as I am concerned^ should be used as little as possible・6.4Note: Parallel ClassificationIn classification, we should pay attention to two points:First, parallelism is essential to a good classification. If we classify types of writing, we may mention narration, description, exposition and argumentation. If writings are classified into novels, dramas, description, cause $ effect, comparison $ contrast, and argumentation, the classification is not good because the types classified are not parallel: As what the tree in Fig. 14-1 illustrates, description and argumentation are general categories; novels and dramas are particular literary genres, while cause & effect, comparison & contrast are specific forms of exposition. In a word, in a good classification, the parts must be parallel, and they should add up to a whole.Second, the criteria used for classification should be consistent. For example, if we classify paragraphs into argumentative, informative, cause & effect and comparison &contrast, we are using different criteria. Thus, the classification cannot be logically sound. We should apply one criterion in one classification.七、作业、讨论题、思考题Write a paragraph by classification八、课后小结：九、参考资料：Cheryal Pavlik,《写作通》，辽宁教育岀版社，2005 陈会军，《中国人英语写作全攻略技巧与训练》，外文出版社，2004 吕煦,《实用英语修辞》，清华大学出版社，2005祁寿华，《西方写作理论、教学与实践》，上海教育出版社,2000Part 3 Paragraph Development by Comparison or Contrast一、授课时间：Mar.8 - Mar.l 0二、授课类型：理论课二、授课题目:Paragraph development by Comparison or Contrast四、教学目的和要求：To make the students know how to develop paragraphs by comparison or contrast五、教学重点及难点：The structure of a comparison or contrast paragraph六、教学方法、基本内容与步骤讲授法、讨论法、师生互动Step I GreetingsStep II Check of homeworkStep III PresentationFocus:Comparison or contrast indicatorsIndicators of comparisonIndicators of contrastOrganization of a comparison or contrast paragraphTopic sentencePoints of comparison or contrastEmphasis in comparison or contrastSupporting detailsItems to be compared or contrasted should be comparablePatterns of organizationConcluding sentenceSamples and analysesComparison or contrast paragraphs are used to show similarities or differences between two things. A comparison paragraph focuses on similarities, while a contrast paragraph on differences- A paragraph usually concentrates only on similarities or differences, not both at the same time. With comparison and contrast, the purpose is not just to point out similarities and differences or advantages and disadvantages, but to present information about something unfamiliar by comparing it with something familiar, or to show the superiority of one thing by comparing it with another, or to show the similarities or differences of two things to help the reader evaluate them.Comparison or contrast paragraphs use indicators to link similarities or differences.7.1Comparison or contrast indicators7.1.1Indicators of comparisonThere are several similarities between A and B.A andB have the same view of the world.A andB have a lot in common.In common with A, B prefers meat to fish.A resemblesB in that A is also interested in collecting stamps.Both A and B have long hai匚Both A and B are interested in shopping.A likes fishing,B likes fishing, too.A likes swimming, so does B.Just as A likes to be quiet, B likes to stay alone.Like A, B likes outdoor sports-A likes swimming. The same with A,B also likes swimming.A andB are the same in that they both like swimming in the sea.A andB have the same interests.A likes swimming in a pond; similarly,B likes swimming in the sea.7.1.2Indicators of contrast （表示对照的词语）Unlike A, B likes outdoor sports.In contrast to A, B likes outdoor sports.Different from A, B likes outdoor sports. Contrary to A, B likes outdoor sports. As opposed to A, B likes outdoor sports.A is different fromB in that B likes outdoor sports.A differs fromB in that B likes outdoor sports.A contrasts withB in that B likes outdoor sports.A like indoor activities; however/ in contrast/ on the other hand,B like outdoor sports.A likes indoor activities; B, however, likes outdoor sports.A likes indoor activities, butB likes outdoor sports.A likes indoor activities, whereas / whileB likes outdoor sports.A is not as active as B.A is more /less active than B.7.2OrganizationAs you have learned in previous lessons, a well-organized paragraph consists of topic sentence, supporting sentences, and concluding sentence. In writing comparison paragraphs, however, a topic introducer sometimes may be necessary. The topic sentence then controlling idea.7.2.1Topic sentenceIn a comparison or contrast paragraph, usually the topic introducer tells the two things to be compared or contrasted, and the topic sentence tells the controlling idea. Or if there is no topic introducer, the topic sentence introduces the two things to be discussed and the controlling idea.Points of comparison or contrastThe points to be compared or contrasted are usually indicated in the topic sentence. If you were asked to compare and contrast two people, you could compare their looks, backgrounds, philosophies, the ways they treat people, their attitudes toward life, their intelligence, their lifestyles, and so on. Then it is best to restrict the points of comparison to two-four points and choose the most significant points for comparison or contrast that would support the controlling idea. For instance, If you were comparing two politicians in order to show that one is more diplomatic, you would not bother with comparing and contrasting their tastes in food; it would be irrelevant.Emphasis in comparison or contrastThe topic sentence should also indicate the emphasis of the paragraph, either similarities or differences. In a comparison or contrast paragraph, the emphasis is usually on one or the other. Very commonly if you are comparing two rather dissimilar things, acknowledge theobvious similarities but focus on the differences. If you are comparing two obviously similar things, acknowledge the obvious differences but emphasize the similarities.Compare the following two topic sentences and see which one is better.1.Although both our pet cats look lovely, their differences in temperament is constant source of amusement.2.Our two pet cats are quite different.Obviously, topic sentence 1 is better than topic sentence 2 for three reasons: First, topic sentence 2 is too general to be developed in one paragraph, it does not restrict the controlling ideas as to what points of the two cats to contrast. Second, topic sentence 1 not only indicates the point to be contrasted but also reveals that the purpose of the writer is not just to show the difference but to reveal a source of amusement. Third, topic sentence 1 acknowledges the obvious similarity of the two pet cats, and then indicates the differences a s the focus of the paragraph・7.2.2Supporting detailsItems to be compared or contrasted should be comparableThe points or items to be compared or contrasted should be parallel or of the same category; otherwise, the items would be incomparable. For example, if you were asked to compare two people: A and B, which of the following two suggestions you would follow:Table 1Table 2A andB in Table 2 can be compared because the items to be compared are the same and are comparable, whereas A and B in Table 1 cannot be compared because the items to be compared are incomparable. Therefore, when writing a comparison or contrast paragraph, we should pay attention to the point that the items to be compared or contrasted should be comparable.Patterns of organizationThere are two basic patterns for developing comparison and contrast paragraph: the alternative pattern and the block pattern. Suppose we are to compare two cars: car X and car Y. the points to be compared might be the cost of maintenance, performance, and comfort. Using the alternative pattern, we should organize the paragraph as the following. Alternative PatternTopic sentence: X is a better car than Y in terms of the cost of maintenance, performance and comfort.I.Cost of maintenance A. Car X B. Car YII.Performance A. Car X B. Car Yfort A. Car X B. Car YThe alternative pattern is easier to follow than the other: the block pattern.Block PatternTopic sentence: X is a better car than Y in terms of cost of maintenance, performance and comfort.l.CarXA.Cost of MaintenanceB.Performancefort2.Car YA.Cost of maintenanceB.PerformancefortNote that the points of comparison are the same and that they are discussed in the same order under each section. One of the problems with the block pattern is that it is sometimes difficult to remind the reader in the second section how the points are compared or contrasted in the first section. Therefore, generally speaking, the block pattern is used less often than the alternative pattern.723 Concluding sentenceNo matter whether it is a comparison or contrast paragraph, the concluding sentence is usually a restatement of the topic sentence or a summary of the points compared or contrasted in the development of the paragraph, to show a cautious attitude, the writer may mention little of exceptions.七、作业、讨论题、思考题Write a paragraph by comparison or contrast.八、课后小结：九、参考资料：Cheryal Pavlik,《写作通》，辽宁教育出版社，2005 陈会军，《中国人英语写作全攻略技巧与训练》，外文出版社，2004 吕煦，《实用英语修辞》，清华大学出版社，2005祁寿华，《西方写作理论、教学与实践》，上海教育出版社,2000Part 4 Paragraph Development by Cause and Effect一、 授课时间：Mar.15-Mar.17二、 授课类型：理论课三、 授课题 目:Paragraph development by Cause and Effect四、 教学目的和要求：To make the students know how to develop paragraphs by cause and effect五、 教学重点及难点：The structure of a cause and effect paragraph六、 教学方法、基本内容与步骤 讲授法、讨论法、师生互动Step I GreetingsStep II Check of homeworkStep III PresentationFocus:Indicators of cause and effectOrganization of a cause-effect paragraphPatterns of organizationTopic sentenceSupporting detailsConcluding sentenceSamples and analyses8.1 Indicators of cause and effectwomen to workoutside the home 2. The indicator of cause and effect is the verb in the sentence, with the effect in the subjectposition. Cause Effect Women working comes fromoutside the home stems fromresults from financial necessity. Indicators of cause and effect fall into four categories with different structures.1. The indicator of cause and effect is the verb in the sentence with the cause in position. Cause The high cost of living leads to contributes to results in is the reason for isresponsible forthe subject Effect women^s having to work outside the home. causesSo many women have that back to workMany women have so that gone back to work,EffectThe days of the “happy housewife^ are over&2 Organization8.2.1Patterns of organizationthe days of the "happyhousewife" are over.the days of the "happyhousewife^ are over.cause because so many women have since gone back to work. asis the result of isdue tois a consequence 3. The indicator of cause and effect joins two punctuation.CauseMany women have financial difficulties; thus,hence,as a resultMany women have financial difficulties,so consequently, therefore,and soand that is whyMany women have financial difficulties. For this reason, That is why, Accordingly, Because of this,4. In this group, theofindependent clauses. In this group, notice theEffectthey go back towork.they go back to work.they go back to work.indicator joins a subordination. Again, notice theRemember also that the subordinate clause can be either at the beginning or at the the sentence.Cause EffectSince BecauseAs Because of Owing to Thanks to Due toAs a result ofso many women havegone back to work,many womerf s havinggone back to work,the days of the “happyhousewife^ are over.the days of the"happy housewifeare over.The basic patterns of arranging a cause and effect paragraph (or an essay) are:Block organization :1.causes- effectsA causesB (and C, and D)2.effects -causesA is caused byB (andC and D,…)Chain organization:cause -effect- cause- effectA causes B,B causes C, andC causes DWhen these patterns are applied to a single paragraph, A, B, C and D each may be contained in one or two sentences; when applied to an essay, each letter may be the subject of an entire paragraph.8.2.2Topic sentenceThe topic sentence of a cause-effect paragraph should indicate the focus of the paragraph: causes or effects.Examples:1.This surge of demand for oil will soon begin to send shock waves through Americans economy and transportation system.2.There are many reasons why languages change, but three major causes help illustrate the concept.3- (Thirty-six per cent of the freshmen entering a large New York university are dismissed during or at the end of the first year.) Studies indicate that this alarming rate of failure is due to a variety of causes, some of which are beyond the control of the student.823 Supporting detailsIf the topic sentence states a cause, most probably, the paragraph will focus on effects; thus, the developing sentences of the paragraph are to predict the effects. Otherwise, if the topic sentence states an effect, most probably, the paragraph will focus on the causes of the effect; then the development of the paragraph is to examine the causes. The most commonly used methods include details, examples and statistics, etc.When we develop a paragraph by cause and effect, we should be clear that the technique of cause and effect has great flexibility, for the relationships between causes and effects are not always clear-cut, as the two terms seem to sugges匸For example, causes may not all carry the same weight. Several contributing causes may be grouped together to form an important cause. There may be one effect to a cause, or there may be many. Effects may be less important than causes, or vice versa.&2.4 Concluding sentenceThe concluding sentence usually summarizes the causes examined in the development, or restates the topic sentence, or suggests what measures should be taken based on the causes or effects, or predicts what is going to happen in the future, or raises a related question after the analysis of the causes or effects.8-3 Samples and AnalysesSample 1According to official statistics, more than 10,000 people in the country were killed in car accidents last year. The increasing rate of car accidents can be attributed to three general causes. Mechanical problems of cares, such as faulty brakes, bald tires, and flat tires,。
English Paragraph Development
《新世纪实用英语写作》
Description of a Process
Language, like any other aspect of life and human behavior, changes from one generation to the next. As children we learn our first or native language from our parents. It is then modified through association with playmates, who learned their language from their elders. This learning process is heightened and extended in school. In adulthood our language attains relative stability. It reflects our education, our occupation, our personal interests and contacts—in short, our total environment. By this time, however, we are already conveying the language to our children, and the process begins a new cycle. The history of a language is an account of what has happened to it in the course of its continuous transmission from one generation to another. 本段运用一般现在时、以时间顺序叙述了人类的语言习得过程。
Chapter 4 Developing Paragraphs
7 Development by classification
We can also write a paragraph by using the method of classification. Very often, when we face a number of ideas, people or objects, we want to classify them into groups according to their similarities or differences, because this gives us a clear and inindepth view of them and sometimes, a feeling of order. Clear classification often helps us to see the different values of people or ideas. the most important thing for a good classification is the category as well as its defining features. features. Words and Phrases used for classification main kinds of, kinds of, basic kinds, minor, primary, secondary
6 Development by cause and effect
Development by cause and effect is another way we use in writing. In a paragraph developed by cause and effect, we often ask "why" first and then give the reasons or causes behind it, for very often an effect may have many causes and a cause ,may have many effects, and find out the logical relationship between them. Logical thinking is particularly important in writing paragraphs of cause and effect. Words and Phrases used in discussing cause and effect so, thus, hence, since, due to, the reason for, for this reason, the cause of, it follows that, accordingly, consequently
The development of paragraph
Developing a Paragraph by Process Developing a paragraph by process is a step-by-step description of how something is done. In a sense it is also a kind of chronological order, since it follows the natural order in which the event takes place. When reading such paragraphs, the reader is actually following the writer through the proagraph by Citing Statistics
Developing a Paragraph by Time
Developing a paragraph by time is to describe events by the order of time in which they take place. This method is also called chronological sequencing. It is mainly used in simple stories as well as in biographies(列传， 传记), historical essays, and explanations of scientific processes and experiments, etc.
Developing a Paragraph by Space
Sample Paragraph Our dormitory, shared by eight students, is on the fifth floor of the Students’ Dormitory Building No. 7. Its windows face a noisy street. It’s a small room, about 12 square meters. Against both the left and right walls stand four bunks. In the middle of the room, there are four desks, always piled with books, newspapers and magazines. There is a stand for basins near the door. We have made it beautifully by putting our favorite pictures on the walls. Though it is crowded, it’s a nice place to us.
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
Step 5. Complete the paragraph's idea or transition into the next paragraph
remind the reader of the relevance of the information in this paragraph to the main idea of the paper. transition your reader to the next development in the next paragraph.
Step 2. Explain the controlling idea Step 3. Give an example (or multiple examples) the students should look at the list of facts again, eliminate those unnecessary or unimportant ones, rearrange them in a logical order, and write an outline.
Suppose that we wanted to start the piranha paragraph with a transition sentence—something that reminds the reader of what happened in the previous paragraph. Let's suppose that the previous paragraph was about all kinds of animals that people are afraid of, like sharks, snakes, and spiders.
Topic: The School Library Thesis: The library plays a very important part in a student’s life
Outline: I. Students has to borrow books from the library A. He needs reference books for his courses. B. He may want to read novels, stories and plays.
Although most people consider piranhas to be quite dangerous, they are, for the most part, entirely harmless. Piranhas rarely feed on large animals; they eat smaller fish and aquatic plants. When confronted with humans, piranhas' first instinct is to flee, not attack. Their fear of humans makes sense. Far more piranhas are eaten by people than people are eaten by piranhas. If the fish are well-fed, they won't bite humans.
Among the possible thesis are:
1) The library is a nice place to work in.
2) The library plays a very important part in a student’s life. 3) The work of the library needs improvement.
Problem: the paragraph has no topic sentence.
Imagine each paragraph as a sandwich. The real content of the sandwich—the meat or other filling—is in the middle. It includes all the evidence you need to make the point. But it gets kind of messy to eat a sandwich without any bread. Your readers don't know what to do with all the evidence you've given them.
Like sharks, snakes, and spiders, pirahnas are widely feared. Although most people consider piranhas to be quite dangerous, they are, for the most part, entirely harmless. Piranhas rarely feed on large animals; they eat smaller fish and aquatic plants. When confronted with humans, piranhas' first instinct is to flee, not attack. Their fear of humans makes sense. Far more piranhas are eaten by people than people are eaten by piranhas. If the fish are well-fed, they won't bite humans.
Paragraph Development
5-step Process to Paragraph Development
Step 1. Decide on a controlling idea and create a topic sentence Free writing, brainstorming -- When a topic is assigned, the student should first read the topic carefully and try to think of as many as relevant facts as he can and write them down on a piece of paper (without caring about the form and order of the items). Then try to find a proper thesis or theme.
The School Library
A large number of useful books All kinds of dictionaries and reference books The reading-rooms are spacious and quiet Newspapers and magazines The librarians patient and helpful Closed on Sunday and holidays A little crowded in the evening Students leave books on chairs to reserve seats Very few newspapers from abroad Students are not allowed to take schoolbags into the First Reading-Room Seniors would not be able to write their graduation papers without using the library
Step 4. Explain the example(s)
an explanation of each example and its relevance to the topic sentence This explanation shows readers why you chose to use this/or these particular examples as evidence to support the major claim in your paragraph.
Original paragraph
Piranhas(水虎鱼) rarely feed on large animals; they eat smaller fish and aquatic (水生的) plants. When confronted with humans, piranhas' first instinct is to flee, not attack. Their fear of humans makes sense. Far more piranhas are eaten by people than people are eaten by piranhas. If the fish are well-fed, they won't bite humans.
III. He needs the library all the more in his junior and senior years. A. The library provides him with books for his research B. He would not be able to write his graduation paper without using the library.
II. He needs newspapers and magazines in the library. A. Many new magazines are on display in the FirstReading-Room. B. There are newspapers fromБайду номын сангаасall provinces. C. Back numbers may be borrowed at the counter.