西方文明史论文
西方文明史论文
从宙斯到朱庇特——由希腊神话与罗马神话看罗马文明的兴衰(为什么古希腊人口中的宙斯,变成了古罗马人的朱庇特?为什么酒神狄奥尼索斯,到了罗马就变成了巴克斯?)古希腊文明和古罗马文明是欧洲文明的发源地,是西方文明的摇篮。
作为先后称霸地中海乃至亚非欧三洲的强大文明,古希腊文明与古罗马文明有着千丝万缕的联系。
对于这两大文明的研究直到今天也没有停止,今天我想从一个简单的方面来说说我对这段历史的理解。
首先,对古希腊与古罗马的历史简单介绍一下。
据资料记载,古希腊的历史,最早可以上溯到爱琴文化时期(约公元前3000年—约公元前1100年),但它最繁荣的时期是公元前5世纪至公元前4世纪中期,史称“古典时期”。
公元前146年,古希腊被罗马所灭亡。
古罗马的历史可以追溯到公元前8世纪—公元前6世纪的“伊达拉里亚时期”。
以后经历了“共和时期”(公元前509年—公元前30年)、“帝国时期”(公元前27年—公元476年),以“帝国时期”最为强盛。
两大文明在时间上几乎是承前启后,而在关系上两者却又因果纠缠。
诗人贺维斯曾说:“希腊人成了罗马人的俘虏,希腊文化俘虏了罗马人。
”古罗马人用武力击败希腊人一跃成为地中海霸主,然而古罗马的文化却几乎是完全传承与古希腊。
这一点无论是建筑、雕塑、哲学,都能看出端倪。
大部分文化成就,古罗马都是照搬古希腊人的。
这种文化上的照搬使罗马成为当时世界上最强大的国家之一,然而也使古罗马文明走向灭亡。
而我想从神话传说方面来对问题进行探讨。
古希腊文化中最为主要的部分就是对于神祗的崇拜,神话叙事几乎在每部希腊文学中都扮演了重要的角色,甚至形成了成系统的一套《神谱》(赫西俄德著)。
而以武力著称的罗马文明远远没有如此系统和繁荣的神话体系,所以在征服了希腊地区后,罗马人便将希腊神话纳入了自己的文化体系。
于是,希腊神话中的神王宙斯,在罗马文化中便成为了朱庇特;天后赫拉便成了朱诺、海神波塞冬成了尼普顿、酒神狄奥尼索斯变成了巴克斯……这种罗马文明对希腊文明的剽窃绝不仅仅是巧合,我们可以从很多方面来看待这种现象。
我眼中的西方文明史(西方文明史论文)
西方文明史期末作业Written by XHNWestern civilization in my eyes After learning this lesson for one term，I know a lot about western in many fields such as mythology、philosophy、festival and communication. How can I describe the western civilization? I think it’s one part full of amazing、wisdom、freedom and convert during the synchronous development of the western world.We have learnt several mythologies and I find that the “god” in western mythology is not a serious image, opposite, ZeuS, gods’ leader, always does m any self-willed things which sounds uncomfortable. Just because of it, the “god” makes people feel real and vivid. Not as our country, western people may prefer to believe gods is more similar to normal people, I think, at the least in emotion part.How about philosophy? We also know many philosopher from our country like Lao Tz and Chuang Tse, they usually spread their idea by teach others and write some book. But in ancient Greece, there are three famous philosopher called Socrates、Plato and Aristotle. They prefer to communicate with others than teach others what they think about. I think if we defined that Chinese philosophy likes teaching, then, western philosophy may likes debating. I should admit that the academic atmosphere in that time in western was good, I still remember there are a paint named “the school of Athens”, painted by Raphael, describe how crowd during the school, it reflect that at that time there are many people have huge thirst of knowledge, they have some topic such as “what made the world”、“what’s the resource of the world”…… In a word, the philosophy in western civilization usually make me associate freedom and holy, it’s one thing that you are willing to devote your whole life to learn.There is one well known book called “the Bible”, many festivals are come into being from this book, like Christmas and Easter Day, two festival which used to commemorate the born and revive of Jesus. Different from our country, most of the western festival is closely related with religion, we can see that the belief is too important for western people.As for communicate, I think it’s more affected by political system, freedom and open atmosphere full of the whole western world so that people can express personal opinion without any hesitate. I think it’s a good society custom and will do well for one country’s development.In my eyes, the western civilization is one thing that we would appreciate rather than study it. The civilization show us a glorious thing which created by human, we should know not only our country have broad and profound culture, but also the western world have, so we should learn from each other in mutual emulation.。
期末论文--西方文明史
浅谈罗马帝国衰落的原因一提起罗马，大家应该都不陌生，一个历史上强大的帝国，然而却也最终逃不过灭忙的下场，个中原因，众说纷纭。
而我在本学期选修了雷芳老师的西方文明史后，对于这一事件也有了一些自己的看法，便说说自己的浅见吧。
我个人认为一个国家的灭亡，无非是四个方面出现问题：政治，经济，军事和文化。
下面我就从这几个方面分析一下罗马帝国。
一，政治第一，罗马帝国时期，罗马的政治制度缺乏明确的继承法，因此后来出现很多继承上的矛盾，领导者换的频率是非常高的，这对于一个国家的稳定是非常不利的。
第二，中央集权的专制制度太严重，普通的公民缺少参与政治的机会，共和国下的公民变成了臣民，人们对国家漠不关心，也不再那么忠诚了。
第三，当时的贪污腐败问题也是相当严重，这加速了国家与普通民众的矛盾。
第四，赋税太过沉重，加重了人民的负担，让国家失去了更多的人民支持。
二，经济罗马的经济问题主要是由奴隶制度与劳动力短缺造成的。
第一，罗马帝国时期，城市里面的很多产品都是靠奴隶制造的，而伴随着罗马帝国版图的增大，战争停止了，也就俘获不了奴隶，奴隶的来源大大减少，劳动力开始不足。
第二，罗马帝国政治的腐败也带给经济更多的压力，比如贫富差距太大。
这也激化了不同阶级的矛盾。
三，军事第一，罗马人崇尚武力，喜欢到处征战。
在罗马帝国时期，罗马人的爱国心、荣誉感、民族精神、尚武精神，加上巨大经济利益的驱使和政治地位提高的诱惑，造就了罗马军队强大的战斗力。
但是，繁荣盛世也成为了腐败的温床，当罗马帝国没有敌人可以征服的时候，他们开始沉浸于安逸的生活，花天酒地的生活磨灭了罗马人的进取心，腐蚀了罗马军人的斗志。
第二，罗马强大的军事力量被用于个人目的。
尤其是在罗马帝国后期，腐败导致帝王对军队的倚重和骄宠，对军队的过分骄宠更加加剧了官兵的腐败，从而形成了一种恶性循环，这大大销蚀了罗马军队的战斗力。
帝国后期，许多帝王荒淫豪奢、腐化至极，贵族地主挥金如土，醉生梦死，致使民不聊生、政局动荡。
西方文明史论文
西方文明史论文The Italian Renaissance1.IntroductionRenaissance was first appeared in the center Italy and it brought up a series of changes and achievements in Europe from the end of 13th century to 1600, marking the transition between Medieval and Early Modern Europe. The word …Renaissance?means …rebirth? which actually indicates the birth of the new culture. The Renaissance is an age rather than an event. There is no moment at which the Middle Ages ended. Late medieval society was artistically creative, socially well developed, and economically diverse. Y et, eventually, the pace of change accelerated, and it is best to think of renaissance as an era of rapid transitions. (Kishlansky, Geary and Brien 208) The renaissance has not only made great contributions to literature, arts, architecture etc. but also its huge influence on politics and the leading role in bringing immense changes on people?s minds and recognition.2.Body2.1A Brief SummaryThe renaissance first appeared in Italy, and then quickly spread to other countries, notably France, and thence to Germany and England and Spain and the Low Countries (i.e. Holland and Belgium).Italy became the first country that posses the conditions mainly because the newly appear of the capitalism and the revival of the classic culture. From northern Italy to central, cities were playing a leading role in Europe. Thanks to their highly developed economy, the signs of capitalism and emerging of bourgeois firstshowed in these areas. Cities as Florence and V enice first becoming independent politically and thus established as the cities of republic were homes to many humanists. Either following the ancient Greek or Rome or combining the classic culture with the native culture in Italy then, they began to do researches and creative activities. They contributed not only to inheriting and introducing the old traditions but also to the secularizing progress of modern Europe.Encompassing the two centuries between 1350 and 1550, it passed throughthree distinct phases. The first, from 1350 to 1400, was characterized by a declining population, the uncovering of classical texts, and experimentation in a variety of art form. The second phase, from 1400 to 1500, was distinguished by the creation of a set of cultural values and artistic and literary achievements that defined Renaissance style. The large Italian city-states developed stable and coherent forms of government, and the warfare between them gradually ended. In the final period, from 1500 to 1550, invasions from France and Spain transformed political life, and the ideas and techniques of Italian writers and artists radiated to all points of the Continent.( Kishlansky, Geary and Brien 208)2.2The reason why Renaissance first appeared in ItalyⅠ.From the cultural perspective, the classic Roman conventions remained in Italy is stronger than any other country in Europe. During the whole middle ages, Italians regarded themselves as the descendants of the ancient Romans. Besides, some schools in Italy kept the Roman educational system.Ⅱ.The prosperity of trade with overseas markets enabled Italy to restored the ancient civilization. The commercial cities inItaly gain tremendous profits by doing business with the eastern countries. Until the 14th century, some of the cities in Italy (i.e. Naples, Florence, V enice, etc.) became the richest cities in the world. Driven by trade, Italy was greatly influenced by eastern cultures, especially Byzantine and Saracens?cultures. Most importantly was that after a long period, the ancient Roman culture rarely remained in the local Europe, while some books were preserved in the Byzantine and Arab. By trading with easterners, the manuscripts were returned to Italy and thus Italians became the first ones who had the opportunity to admire those classic contents.Ⅲ. The emergence of commerce destroyed the feudal system in Italy and created space for the development of cities and conditions for the development of new culture. The peasants left their land and got job opportunity in cities and the self-satisfied Fief System began to decline. The number of the establishment of cities stimulated the changing of the social system. The immense spending and large number of casualties of the Crusades lowered the reputation and authority of the Pope and the Church?scontrolling power over people had also descended. Cities became the dominant symbols of the major changes of the society which provided the proper environment for the modification of the civic culture.Ⅳ. The wealthy merchants in Late Medieval had special fondness on culture and they were willing to provide money voluntarily, which to some extent made it possible for Renaissance to develop in some big cities. In addition, the chiefs of churches and the leaders of various committees abandoned the convention of Abstinence and Ascetic and paid moreattention to these secular concepts. They pursued the luxury life as well as encouraged to expand their religion in secular ways.Ⅴ. The Rena issance was born in the political turmoil. When the Renaissance started, Italy was still not unified and was regarded as part of the Holy Roman Empire. The conflicts between the Italian Pope and the French King brought Italy into tens of little countries. The political chaos weakened the control of culture so it was easy for the formation of new ideas. Under such circumstances, Renaissance was in full swing.All in all, the process of the western society made room for the maturity of Renaissance. The towns and cities also introduced a new sense of social and political cohesiveness. The city was something to which people belonged. In urban areas, they would join social groups of their own choosing and developed networks of support that were not possible in rural environments. Blood relations remained the primary social group. Kin were the most likely source of aid in times of need, and charity began at home.2.3Influence on people?s lifeLife in Florence could be the typical one in the Renaissance period. As the birth place and the most important city at that time, Florence was a prosperous industrial city. Due to the various socialization, a series of social rules had been formulated.There were so many festivals celebrated in Italy and even today, Italy has more religious festivals than any other country. ( e .g . St. John?s Day, St. Peter?s Day and St. Paul?s Day ). The historic Carnival still keeps its attraction till today. The lively city life stimulated people?s pursuit of entertainment. They were no longerworked from dawn to dusk for the sake of happiness of their next life and the savior of their soul but for the instant benefitsand enjoyment. (Burk, Peter 435) In some Italian cities, wealth or occupation determined housing patterns. In others, like Florence, rich and poor lived side by side and identified themselves with their small administrative unit and with their local church. Thus, they could participate in relationships with others both above and below them in social scales. From their superiors they gained connections that helped their families; from their inferiors they gained devoted clients.A growing sense of civic pride and individual accomplishment were underlying characteristics of the Italian Renaissance, enhanced by the development of social cohesion and community solitary that both Church and city-state fostered, it is commonly held that the Renaissance was both elitist and male dominated, that it was an experience separate from that of the society at large,( Kishlansky, Geary and Brien 212)2.4The appearance of the giantsBorn in a family nearby Florence, Leonardo had a variety of interests when he was a child, especially in painting. Leonardo da Vinci?s creative genius embodied the Renaissance ideal of the “universal man.”His detailed anatomical drawings and the method he devised for rendering them, his botanical observations, and his engineering inventions testify to his unrestrained curiosity. His paintings reveal a continuation of the scientific application of mathematics to matters of proportion and perspective. Leonardo?s popular Mona Lisa, is quite possible the best-known picture in the Western World. It is a portrait of a pretty lady whose smile is the essence of the painting and is till a mystery to people nowadays. When looking at her smile, you will get a mixture feeling. Through her smile, Leonardo presented people with a mysterious inner world of a lady. The naturalbackground formed a perfect comparison of the lady?s beauty. Thus an ideal effect showed. The painting showed Leonardo?s humanism to its fullest.The David and the paintings of the Sistine Chapel were the work ofMichelangelo?s youth. His crowning achievement, the building of Saint Peter?s basilica in Rome, was the work of age. The base work of Saint Peter?s had already been laid, and drawings for its completion had been made thirty years early by Donato Bramante. Michelangelo altered these plans in an effort to bring more light into the church and to provide a more majestic fa?ade outside. His main contribution, however, was the design of the great dome, which centered the interior of the church on Saint Peter?s grave. More than the height, it is the harmony of Michelangelo?s design that creates the scene of the building thrusting upward like a Gothic cathedral of old. Michelangelo did not live to see the Saint Peter?s completed.Renaissance art served Renaissance society, reflecting both its concrete achievements and its visionary ideals. This art was a synthesis of old and new, building on classic models, particularly in sculpture and architecture, but adding newly discovered techniques and skills.Renaissance artists did more than construct and adorn buildings or celebrate or beautify spiritual life. Inevitably, their work expressed the ideals and the aspirations of the society in which they lived-the new emphasis on learning and knowledge, on the here and now rather than the hereafter, and most important, on humanity and its capacity for growth and perfection.William Shakespeare stands out as the most outstandingmaster of literature as well as the highest achievements of the Renaissance period. According to the development of his works, his writing career could be divided into three stages. During the first period, he mainly focused on historian plays, comedies and poems. Midsummer Night’s Dream, The Twelfth Night and The Merchants of Venice were all based on love. The most famous one was Romeo and Juliet which depicted the love story between two young people who fell in love with each other but at the same time they were faced with the conflict of their families. The second period was famous for his four tragedies. During this period, his ideal of humanism was in serious collision with the reality. The tragedy of Hamlet was a reflection of the progress and the weakness of humanists.2.5The decline of the RenaissanceThe Italian Renaissance reached its peak in the mid 16th century and then began its declining process that many humanists and genius had passed away in the middle 16th century. Besides, the prosperity of the cultures in every nation had caused unexpected consequences.The most important reason is the end of stability with a series of foreign invasions of Italy known as the Italian Wars that would continue for several decades. These began with the 1494 invasion by France that wreaked widespread devastation on Northern Italy and ended the independence of many of the city-states. Most damaging was the May 6, 1527, Spanish and German troops' sacking Rome that for two decades all but ended the role of the Papacy as the largest patron of Renaissance art and architecture. (Baron, Hans 212)3ConclusionThe grand ideas and the splendid culture of the ItalianRenaissance attracted the worldwide attention. Taking place in the period of Europe?s transition from middle age to modern age, the Italian Renaissance led people?s epiphany in science, humanism, art and society. The spiritual treasure the masters created will be the invaluable property for the European as well as the whole world. Many masterpieces of that time have become milestones which can only be emulated but cannot be overwhelmed.In all, the Italian Renaissance?s significance has far overweighed any event before and set a new era of civilization for all the humans.W orks CitedMark Kishlansky, Patrick Geary and Patricia O?Brien, A Brief History of Western Civilization: The Unfinished Legacy 中国人民大学出版社，2008Baron, Hans.The Crisis of the Early Italian Renaissance: Civic Humanism and Republican Liberty in an Age of Classicism and Tyranny.Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966Burke, Peter. The Italian Renaissance: Culture and Society in Italy Princeton University Press, 1999.。
西方文明史论文
亚历山大与希腊化时代“希腊化”（Hellenistic）一词意即“希腊似的”，主要是指希腊文明随着希腊统治的扩张而传播到东方各地，东方被希腊化了。
开启希腊化时代的主角是马其顿人。
马其顿地处希腊的东北边缍，这个偏辟落后的小国是怎样崛起、进而发展成为一个地域辽阔的大国的呢？亚历山大又是怎样在他的帝国内传播希腊文化的呢？亚历山大又对希腊化时代做出什么养的贡献呢？公元前四世纪后半叶。
正当希腊腹地发展了200年的城邦政治制度日趋衰微之时，腓力二世领导下的马其顿王国即蓬勃崛起、一技独秀。
腓力选择借鉴了希腊城邦和波斯帝国的经验，对马其顿的政治制度和币制进行了改革。
公元前338年，马其顿在克罗尼亚战役，进一步挫败了以雅典、底比斯为首的反马其顿盟军，迫使几乎全希腊都承认了他的霸权。
此后，腓力又拟订了进一步开疆拓土的战略方针，他在希腊的拥护者号召把战争引向亚洲，把财富夺回希腊，并举行了向波斯宣战的集会。
公元前336年，壮志未酬的腓力遇刺身亡。
“亚力山大是马其顿国王腓力二世的儿子，也就是该国的王子，他实际上是杀死他父亲之后登上王位的，接着便开始了他惊人的征服之旅，很大程度上是受波斯人在公元前五世纪入侵希腊、洗劫雅典的启发，亚历山大生活在公元前四世纪中叶，大约是波斯战争一百多年后，他随后开始了惩罚波斯帝国的征程。
”（澳大利亚悉尼大学博士丹·坡茨）雄才大略的亚历山大是人类历史上第一位所向披靡、横扫欧亚非的军事天才。
“公元前334年，以亚历山大为首的希腊东征军跨过了赫勒斯滂海峡，在格拉尼库斯河畔首战告捷，第二年又在叙利亚的伊苏斯平原，大败十万波斯军，俘虏了波斯国大流士三世的母亲、妻子和两个女儿。
”（中国人民大学历史系副教授米辰峰）然后亚历山大挥师南下，迅速攻占了腓尼基、巴勒斯坦，兵不血刃、占领了埃及。
“厚颜无耻的埃及法老神庙祭司立刻尊奉亚历山大为阿蒙神之子，埃及法老的合法继承人。
在平定了埃及以后，亚历山大又挥师北上，在公元前331年，在亚述古都尼尼微的附近高加美拉与号称百万的波斯大军展开了决战，开战不久，波斯国王大流士三世又一次弃阵逃跑、全军溃散。
西方文明史读本读后感-西方文明史论文
西方文明史读本读后感-西方文明史论文西方文明史 What Happened in Europe after the Second World WarWith Germany and Japanese defeated,the second world war, which took more lives and caused more destruction than any other war in history, finally came to the main battle field, most of Europe lay in ruins. There was a lot of work to do to restore Europe.The war stroke a deadly blow to Europe in the second world war, millions of people were homeless, the European economy had been destroyed. The war forced the people development to go backwards several years. The common people is the most innocent and heaviest war cost the United Kingdom more than a quarter of its national wealth. As a result, Britains debt was described by some in the American administration as a " millstone round the neck of the British economy"(Dorothy Crisp); As the main murder of the war, German had to spare no effort to pay reparations. Hilters guilty left the poor Germany nothing but a broken-down stall. Certainly, the other European countries experienced the same tragic story and triedtheir best to recover collapsed economy. Thanks to the Marshall Plan from the United States, the European economy began to save itself out of its economic economic historian Herman Van der Wee concludes the Marshall Plan was a great success:"It gives a new impetus to reconstruction in Western Europe and made a decisive contribution to the renewal of the transport system, the modernization of industrial and agricultural equipment, the resumption of normal production, the raising of productivity, and the facilitating of intra-European trade."In return of the Marshal Plan ,European countries must follow the US to prevent Communism and the USSR, which the US was beginning to regard as its biggest enemy.Politically, the war seriously undermined the ability of Germany, Britain and France to continue playing the leading role in the world. Without the support of advanced economy and mighty military, the traditional powerful empire lost the ability to dominate the Europe. It followed that, the new two superpowers took their place, and became the new rulerof the ,German was divided into two parts, the east part,which had a Communism government, dominated by the USSR, and the west part, which was a democratic state, was under the yoke of the Berlin Wall was the unforgettable hurtThe cold war between the two superpower spread the whole Europe, which arose panic among the people. They worried about a new war broke out. At that time, the situation of the world was just like a chess game, the US and the USSR are the two players, the rest of the world were their chessman, including Europe who had lost the right to express their voice.On the other hand, Europe no longer had the financial and military capacity to expand their vast territories in Asia and generally was labeled "decolonization" because of the decline of European colonial and the rise of the third British pulled out of India in 1947, leaving behind two new countries of India and Pakistan. Burma, Sri Lanka and Malaysia followed the road of independence not long after. The Dutch fought a losing war but finally conceded independence to Indonesia, the former Dutch East Indies,in 1949. France tried to regain its colonies in Indochina but was forced out in 1954 after a humiliating defeat at the hands of Vietnamese forces. The Europeans African empires crumbled in the 1950s and early 1960s. The United Nations grew from 51 nations in 1945 to 189 by the end of the century(Margaret MacMillan).The age when the western powers controlled is over. The people of Asia and Africa can guide their own destinies.The war changed the role of Europe, but the current Europe where locate the most developed countries , is still the main artery of the world.Works CitedHerman Van der Wee, Prosperity and Upheaval: The World Economy, 1945-1980 (1984) p. 44Margaret MacMillan "Rebuilding the world after the second world war" The Guardian, Friday 11 September 2016Dorothy Crisp,The Dominance of England, Holborn Publishing, London 1960, pages 22-26,西方文明史作业遥想当年---古希腊文明与文艺复兴的异同点分析古希腊文明与文艺复兴在人类的历史文化中都占有很重要的地方，当历史的长河流淌至今，让我们再次通过的理性的分析来解读一下人类文化历史上两颗摧残的明珠。
西方文明史论文
罗马帝国衰落的原因罗马帝国（前27年—395年），正式名称为元老院与罗马人民，是古罗马文明的一个阶段。
罗马的不断扩张使其成为一个帝国。
安东尼王朝皇帝图拉真（公元98年-117年）在位时，罗马帝国版图达到最大，经济空前繁荣，西起西班牙、不列颠，东到幼发拉底河上游、南自非洲北部，北达莱茵河与多瑙河一带，地中海成为帝国的内海，全盛时期控制了大约590万平方公里的土地，是世界古代史上最大的君主制国家之一。
395年，罗马帝国一分为二，实行永久分治。
西罗马帝国于476年灭亡，东罗马帝国于1453年灭亡。
偌大的一个强大的帝国是如何历经了分裂、灭亡的呢？狄奥多西一世在392年瓦伦提尼安二世被杀后，宣布基督教为国教，反对一切异教和异端。
狄奥多西一世在394年击败了西部的篡位者欧根尼乌斯后，成为了帝国的唯一统治者，这是罗马帝国的最后一次统一。
此年的罗马统治下的人口有3600万人。
395年狄奥多西去世，他把帝国一分为二，东部分给长子阿卡狄乌斯，西部分给幼子霍诺里乌斯。
东西罗马帝国分裂后，哥特人首领阿拉里克在东北亚游牧民族匈奴族人的强大压力下不断入侵罗马帝国。
而东西罗马帝国不是团结起来一致抗敌，而是坐视阿拉里克强大，希望他去攻击对方。
405年冬，阿拉里克和匈奴联军突破了罗马帝国的莱茵河防线，罗马并无有效的抵抗，实际上等于放弃了高卢的大部分地区。
407年，驻守不列颠的将领君士坦丁三世造反，西罗马帝国皇帝霍诺里乌斯企图使阿拉里克去攻击君士坦丁三世，阿拉里克要求4000磅黄金为代价。
随后，由于霍诺里乌斯先答应而后食言，阿拉里克和匈奴联军入侵意大利，霍诺里乌斯从米兰逃亡到拉韦纳。
阿拉里克南下，围困了罗马。
罗马城内爆发了饥荒和瘟疫，元老院和阿拉里克媾和，交出了5000磅黄金、30000磅白银一起其他许多贵重物品和财宝。
409年，阿拉里克和匈奴联军第二次包围罗马，扶立了一个傀儡皇帝，而龟缩在拉韦纳的霍诺里乌斯在东罗马帝国的支援下才保住皇位。
西方文化导论论文
In my opinion, the Ancient Greek Culture is one of the most shining parts in the western culture. It can be looked on as the start of the western civilization and the end of the barbarous age.Without the Greek Culture as the foundation, the development of the western countries can’t be so outstanding in the world.When we talk about the Ancient Greece, its democracy, economy, and colorful culture always occur to our minds.DemocracyAs early as the 6th century BC, the archon solon tried to reduce the power of the old aristocrats by establishing the jury system for legal judgments in order to restrict the rights of nobility. Then Cleisthenes carried out the legislative reform, by establishing the boule which was composed of five hundred representatives selected from each of ten demes. We should feel surprised at the high standard of the democracy. Even today, the democracy system is still in use.In America, the President Selection through the Senate and House of representatives just can’t be a better e xample of the great influence of the Greek democracy. The strength of the democracy system can reflect the power of people to some degree. What’s more, it makes a great contribution to the development of western politics.EconomyAs it’s known to all, good politics may have a positive effect on the economy. In the Ancient Greece, it proved to be true The economy of increasing prosperity .In this period, the use of iron tools instead of bronze ones leaded the further economic development .So the society was restructured, along class lines，based on the property ownership . City-states come into being, in this way, the civilization of Ancient Greece continued.CultureIt’s generally acknowledged that the Greek Culture is the most precious treasure left not only for Europe but also for the whole world.It falls into four categories, namely the Greek mythology and religion, the Greek art and science, the Greek literature, and the Greek philosophy.i.Greek mythologyAre you familiar with these names, such as Zeus, Athena, Apollo. They are the names of some major gods in the Greek mythology. According to Karl Marx, the Greek mythology is not only a treasure house, but also the soil for Greek art.So it’s certain that the religious tales became fully developed myths and thus contributed a lot to the later development of Greek art.In the Greek mythology, we can find numerous characteristics in the gods and goddesses. Sometimes we may find many tales reflected the feature and life of human beings.ii.Greek art and scienceWe can’t ignore the Greek art and science achievements because they are so amazing. Towards us, they’re so important in fully understanding the Greek Culture. The Greek art is made up of three main parts, they’re architecture, sculpture, and painting.You can find noble simplicity and calm grandeur from the greatest building in Athens, the Parthenon. In addition, you can also find the kindred art of vase decoration which will make you astonished.Then what about the science? As we know, the Greeks did three biggest things: astronomy, philosophy, and democracy. We can draw a conclusion that the geography, astronomy, and mathematics achievements were all remarkable.In this period, there’re some prestigious scholars. Pytheasapplied his solid scientific training primarily to geography. Hipparchus, he perfected measuring instruments and calculated the movements of stars .Another ever greater achievements are in mathematics and physics. The best known mathematician was Euclid who established the science of plan geometry. The other familiar name is Archimedes who discovered the principle of floatation and lever. His famous words “Give me a piece to stand, I will move the earth” impressed me most.iii.Greek literature and historyThe Greek literature is well-established for its epic, lyrical poetry, and drama. The most out-standing epics are Odyssey and Iliad written by Homer. The Trojan War takes up the most part. So we can see the epics related with the history. The person who is “the father of history” na med Herodotus. With his book Histories, which deals with the Persian Wars.Thanks to their works, we can fully witness what has happened during this time.iv.Greek philosophyWhen we talk about “Platonic Love”, we can think of the famous Plato, besides his teacher Socrates.Socrates had a reputation for irony and a sense of humor. And in my view, the Republic is his representative. In this work, Plato built up an ideal kingdom for us, his thoughts made much influence on the followers.Have you heard abou t “I love my teacher, but I love science more”. This is from Aristotle, he was regarded as the greatest thinker and most learned person of ancient times. His works cover wide ranging areas including philosophy, psychology, logic, rhetoric, literary, etc. His thoughts were completely different from Plato. He was a materialist. He indeed made great contribution to the Greek philosophy.Owing to this class: “Western Culture Introduction”, it makes megain a good knowledge of Greek Culture. We marvel at so many wonderful achievements made by the people in the old times. Meanwhile, I believe we can benefit a lot from the Greek Culture, and treasure it forever.。
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亚历山大与希腊化时代“希腊化”（Hellenistic）一词意即“希腊似的”，主要是指希腊文明随着希腊统治的扩张而传播到东方各地，东方被希腊化了。
开启希腊化时代的主角是马其顿人。
马其顿地处希腊的东北边缍，这个偏辟落后的小国是怎样崛起、进而发展成为一个地域辽阔的大国的呢？亚历山大又是怎样在他的帝国内传播希腊文化的呢？亚历山大又对希腊化时代做出什么养的贡献呢？公元前四世纪后半叶。
正当希腊腹地发展了200年的城邦政治制度日趋衰微之时，腓力二世领导下的马其顿王国即蓬勃崛起、一技独秀。
腓力选择借鉴了希腊城邦和波斯帝国的经验，对马其顿的政治制度和币制进行了改革。
公元前338年，马其顿在克罗尼亚战役，进一步挫败了以雅典、底比斯为首的反马其顿盟军，迫使几乎全希腊都承认了他的霸权。
此后，腓力又拟订了进一步开疆拓土的战略方针，他在希腊的拥护者号召把战争引向亚洲，把财富夺回希腊，并举行了向波斯宣战的集会。
公元前336年，壮志未酬的腓力遇刺身亡。
“亚力山大是马其顿国王腓力二世的儿子，也就是该国的王子，他实际上是杀死他父亲之后登上王位的，接着便开始了他惊人的征服之旅，很大程度上是受波斯人在公元前五世纪入侵希腊、洗劫雅典的启发，亚历山大生活在公元前四世纪中叶，大约是波斯战争一百多年后，他随后开始了惩罚波斯帝国的征程。
”（澳大利亚悉尼大学博士丹·坡茨）雄才大略的亚历山大是人类历史上第一位所向披靡、横扫欧亚非的军事天才。
“公元前334年，以亚历山大为首的希腊东征军跨过了赫勒斯滂海峡，在格拉尼库斯河畔首战告捷，第二年又在叙利亚的伊苏斯平原，大败十万波斯军，俘虏了波斯国大流士三世的母亲、妻子和两个女儿。
”（中国人民大学历史系副教授米辰峰）然后亚历山大挥师南下，迅速攻占了腓尼基、巴勒斯坦，兵不血刃、占领了埃及。
“厚颜无耻的埃及法老神庙祭司立刻尊奉亚历山大为阿蒙神之子，埃及法老的合法继承人。
在平定了埃及以后，亚历山大又挥师北上，在公元前331年，在亚述古都尼尼微的附近高加美拉与号称百万的波斯大军展开了决战，开战不久，波斯国王大流士三世又一次弃阵逃跑、全军溃散。
”（中国人民大学历史系副教授米辰峰）亚历山大相继攻陷巴比伦、苏撒和波塞波利斯三大古都，亚历山大的军队对古都进行了洗劫。
“大肆洗劫王宫，仅仅在古都波塞波利斯一地就报抢劫了12万塔兰特的金银财宝，不久逃往大夏的波斯国王大流士三世被谋反的当地总督所杀，宫毁人亡，标志着以亚历山大为首的希腊入侵者取代了波斯帝国，在古代西亚的统治地位。
”（中国人民大学历史系副教授米辰峰）公元前327年，亚历山大进一步向东扩张。
“他越过了东伊朗的北部，到达索格底亚纳、大夏地区即现在的乌兹别克斯坦和阿富汗北部，随后进入印度北部、西印度的北部即现在的巴基斯坦，到达印度河谷后，他停止了前进，他不想再继续了，于是决定回师，他决定从陆地返回，他们穿过俾路支斯坦和伊朗东部的沙漠，旅途异常艰辛、损失惨重。
”（澳大利亚悉尼大学博士丹·坡茨）亚历山大于公元前324年初返回巴比伦，历时10年的东征方告结束。
他认定未来世界的中心不在相对贫穷的西方，而在富庶的东方，故定都巴比伦。
从此，古代世界前所未有的庞大的亚历山大帝国崛起。
这个横跨欧亚非的帝国西起巴尔干半岛，南达利比亚、埃及，东至印度、中亚大夏一带，北达多瑙河和黑海北岸。
在东征期间，亚历山大每占一地，都要留下驻军委任总督。
据说，他在亚非大陆新建了七十多座军事要塞，都叫亚历山大里亚。
“一个很普遍的现象就是古代的资料，有很多对亚历山大新建城市的叙述，不断扩建殖民地在这次征服过程中，发挥了十分重要的作用，借此希腊的领土从爱琴海几乎一直伸展到喜玛拉雅山。
”（澳大利亚悉尼大学博士丹·坡茨）最大的军事要塞位于埃及开罗的西北部。
公元前332年，亚历山大占领埃及后，下令在濒邻地中海岸边的拉格底梯斯小村一带建一座军事要塞，建成以后不久，托勒密一世即定都于该城。
公元前四世纪后，亚历山大里亚成为地中海和东方各国贸易及文化交流的中心。
“亚历山大里亚是东地中海的大港口，在亚历山大死后很久它仍占据极为重要的地理位置，它以亚历山大而得名，拥有著名的灯塔，有一个有名的图书馆，后被阿拉伯人焚毁，然而亚历山大里亚一直是东地中海地区极为重要的港口。
”（澳大利亚悉尼大学博士丹·坡茨）马其顿希腊人虽然把希腊文化传播到西亚、北非等广大地区，但并没有完全消灭或同化本地文化，住在城市的少数讲希腊语的上层统治者和周围广大的原住民之间难免产生许多矛盾。
为了弥合民族矛盾，亚历山大采取了一些促进融合的强硬措施。
首先是拉拢波斯上层，将一部分降臣委任为地方官；然后是鼓励希腊军人与波斯贵族女子通婚。
亚历山大本人在攻陷大夏时已娶当地王公之女罗克姗娜为妻，后又纳大流士的女儿斯塔提娜等为妃，他下令凡马其顿人与亚洲女子通婚的皆可免税。
公元前323年，正欲继续征服阿拉伯半岛的亚历山大突患热病去世.亚历山大死时没有继承人，唯一的遗腹子也无法和亚历山大那些强有力的部将对抗。
于是，他的将领们为瓜分帝国征战20年，最终形成了占西亚、中亚的塞琉古王朝，占埃及、小亚的托勒密王朝和占希腊本土的安提柯王朝三国鼎立的局面。
从前334年亚历山大东征到前30年罗马消灭托勒密王朝，这近300年的历史通常被称为“希腊化时代”，同时将这段时间在亚历山大帝国废墟上建立起来的包括西亚塞琉古王国、埃及托勒密王国、马其顿安提柯王国、小亚帕加玛王国和本都王国在内的一众国家称作“希腊化国家”，把他们的文化称作“希腊化文化”。
“希腊化”是一个带有浓厚的希腊中心主义色彩的用语，它并不能充分反映出这一时代的特点，事实上，希腊化时代的文明是一种综合了古代东西方文明诸因素后而发展起来的独特的、新型的阶段性文明，它对以后的地中海地区及整个世界历史的发展都产生了深远的影响：1.政治方面：东方的君主专制政治与西方的城邦体制出现了一种结合。
在希腊马其顿地区，君主政治代替了城邦政治。
在埃及、叙利亚、两河流域以及小亚细亚、中亚等原属东方文明的地区，在承袭东方原有体系的同时，也增添了一些希腊的因素，主要代表就是希腊人在东方建立的自治城市。
这些新建的希腊自治城市把希腊的民主传统和商品经济引入东方，产生了重大影响；2.经济方面：大型奴隶制经济在国家集权的控制下迅速发展，呈现出兴盛景象，奴隶们的劳动使农业和手工业生产生机蓬勃。
此外，通过远征而形成的欧亚非三洲一体的希腊化世界，对沟通希腊和埃及、西亚、中亚以至印度的商业贸易具有非常积极的意义；3.文化方面：亚历山大的征服使东西方文化在历史上出现了第一次大规模的冲撞与交融，这使得富于理性和逻辑的西方哲学与古代埃及、西亚丰富的数学、天文学知识相结合，使希腊化时代的自然科学发生了突破性的飞跃发展,产生了一大批著名的科学家。
东西方的艺术形式和风格也相互影响，希腊雕像的艺术风格甚至通过印度传入了中国；4.思想方面：亚历山大帝国开阔了人们的视野和胸怀，希腊人从此走出了狭小的城邦界限，不再认为只有自己是“文明人”。
人们开始以一种全新的平和的眼光看待世界和别人。
公元前2世纪，由于帝国型奴隶制走向严重的两极分化，三大王国的外战内乱不断消耗国力，王朝统治集团日益昏庸腐败，希腊化文明开始趋向衰落。
公元前2世纪中叶，马其顿被罗马人征服；公元前64年，塞琉古王国被罗马大将庞培消灭；公元前30年，托勒密王国被罗马帝国屋大维消灭。
希腊化文明终结了。
很多“雅典中心主义者”认为：伯罗奔尼撒战争不仅结束了雅典的霸权，而且毁灭了整个希腊世界的自由，黄金时代的雅典结束了。
曾经属于希腊的光辉，从此暗淡了，黑暗笼罩着希腊。
“亚历山大之后，希腊的政治活动变得狭窄，而且堕落了——再也吸引不了读者，或者说再也不是世界的主宰了……整个来说，从公元前300年起，到罗马吞并希腊这段期间，其本身并没有多少兴趣，其价值充其量不过是有助于我们理解先前几个世纪的历史罢了。
”(注：转引自M.M.Austin,The Hellenistic World from Alexander to the Roman Conquest,Cambridge University Press 1981,p.Ⅶ.) ，“从亚历山大以后，不但希腊的政治自由和独立行动开始熄灭，而且多产的天才也开始枯萎。
公元前4世纪在柏拉图和德谟斯提尼身上展示出来的完美的文学和秀丽的修辞也每况愈下。
”(注：转引自汤普森：《历史著作史》(下)，谢德风译，李活校，商务印书馆1992年，第675页。
)其实古希腊文明并没有衰落，它只是随着亚历山大大帝的远征而在空间上大大拓宽了，其结果造成了分享希腊文明的社会集团大大扩展了，文化中心增多了，已经到了“绿叶成荫子满枝”的时代了——从另一个角度来看，也就是文化中心发生了转移。
亚历山大及其继承人都热心于发展希腊文明，在整个亚历山大帝国中到处都分布着希腊式的剧院、希腊式的庙宇、希腊的文学与艺术、希腊的商业以及希腊式的城市。
这些新的希腊城市逐渐取代了雅典的文化中心地位，而成为新的希腊艺术、文学和科学的中心。
我们可以列举出最卓越的四个来：尼罗河口的亚历山大里亚、小亚细亚的帕加马、叙利亚的安条克和小亚细亚海岸外的罗得岛。
(注：海斯：《世界史》(上)，三联书店1974年版，第182页。
)从广义上来讲这并不是古希腊文明的衰落，只是古希腊文明向外辐射，相对消耗了自身的元气，从而迈向完成古希腊文明使命的第一步罢了。
只不过这些被希腊文明辐射的地区，在那些以雅典为中心的人看来是“蛮族”地区而已。
尽管这些地区在文学、历史、哲学、艺术尤其是自然科学方面所取得的成就很大，但“雅典中心主义者”还是对此有视无睹。
德罗伊森(J.G.Droysen，1808~1884年) 是最先揭示出亚历山大大帝对全世界的影响，也是他开创了希腊化时代的历史研究。
《亚历山大大帝传》(Geschichte Alexander der Grossen)是他对希腊化研究的集合。
在这本书里，他所强调的不是亚历山大的破坏方面，而是他的创造方面；他极高地估计了亚历山大个人的作用，倾全力为他的政策辩护；东方与西方之间的相互影响被说成是一个更丰富的历史生活的开端。
在写了《亚历山大大帝传》之后，德罗伊森进而研究了他的继承者的命运，于1836年在汉堡出版了《亚历山大的继承人》一书。
在这本书中，他首先赋予“hellenism”一词以新意，认为是“古希腊政治、教育制度在东方民族中的扩散”，但他忽略了社会经济因素。
以后的学术界就采用了这个术语——“希腊化”。
他试图证明，只有在军国主义的马其顿王国的领导下才能把希腊各分散的城邦统一起来并把希腊文化传播到东方。
(注：《近代现代外国哲学社会科学人名资料汇编》，商务印书馆1978年版，第661-662页。