名校直通车论坛英语资料索引2012.11.12整理
名校内部版高考英语阅读理解精读含答案n
名校内部版高考英语阅读理解精读含答案When I was in fourth grade, I worked part-time as a paperboy. Mrs. Stanley was one of my customers. She’d watch me coming down her street, and by the time I’d biked up to her doorstep, there’d be a cold drink waiting. I’d sit and drink while she talked.Mrs. Stanley talked mostly about her dead husband, “Mr. Stanley and I went shopping this morning.”she’d say. The first time she said that, soda(汽水) went up my nose.I told my father how Mrs. Stanley talked as if Mr. Stanley were still alive. Dad said she was probably lonely, and that I ought to sit and listen and nod my head and smile, and maybe she’d work it out of her system. So that’s what I did, and it turned out Dad was right. After a while she seemed content to leave her husband over at the cemetery(墓地).I finally quit delivering newspapers and didn’t see Mrs. Stanley for several years. Then we crossed paths at a church fund-raiser(募捐活动). She was spooning mashed potatoes andlooking happy. Four years before, she’d had to offer her paperboy a drink to have someone to talk with. Now she had friends. Her husband was gone, but life went on.I live in the city now, and my paperboy is a lady named Edna with three kids. She asks me how I’m doing. When I don’t say “fine”, she sticks around to hear my problems. She’s lived in the city most of her life, but she knows about community. Community isn’t so much a place as it is a state of mind. You find it whenever people ask how you’re doing because they care, and not because they’re getting paid to do so. Sometimes it’s good to just smile, nod your head and listen.1. Why did soda go up the author’s nose one time?A. He was talking fast.B. He was shocked.C. He was in a hurry.D. He was absent-minded.2. Why did the author sit and listen to Mrs. Stanley according to Paragraph 3?A. He enjoyed the drink.B. He wanted to be helpful.C. He took the chance to rest.D. He tried to please his dad.3. Which of the following can replace the underlined phrase “work it out of her system”?A. recover from her sadnessB. move out of the neighborhoodC. turn to her old friendsD. speak out about her past4. What does the author think people in a community should do?A. Open up to others.B. Depend on each other.C. Pay for other’s helpD. Care about one another.Images of students wearing so-called “anti-cheating hats”during college exams have gone viral on social media in the Philippines, sparking amusement.Students at one college in Legazpi City were asked to wear headgear that would prevent them looking at others’papers. Many responded by creating homemade devices out of cardboard, egg boxes and other recycled materials.Their tutor told the BBC she had been looking for a “fun way”to ensure “integrity and honesty” in her classes. Mandane-Ortiz, a professor of mechanical engineering at Bicol University College of Engineering, said the idea had been “really effective”. It was carried out for recent mid-term exams, which were sat by hundreds of students at the college in the third week of October. Prof Mandane-Ortiz said her initial request had been for students to make a “simple”design out of paper. She was inspired by a technique reportedly used in Thailand some years previously. In 2013, an image went viral appearing to show a room of university students in Bangkok taking test papers while wearing “ear flaps”—sheets of papers stuck to either side oftheir head to obscure their vision. Prof Mandane-Ortiz said her engineers-in-training took the idea and ran with it—in some cases innovating complex headgear in “just five minutes”with any junk they found lying around. Others worehats, helmets or Halloween masks to fulfill the direction.A string of the professor’s Facebook posts—showing the youngsters wearing their elaborate(精心制作的) creations—gained thousands of likes in a matter of days, and attracted coverage from Filipino media. They also reportedly inspired schools and universities in other parts of the country to encourage their own students to put together anti-cheating headwear.Prof Mandane-Ortiz said her students performed better this year, having been motivated by the strict examination conditions to study extra hard. Many of them finished their tests early, she added, and nobody was caught cheating this year because they themselves expected justice in their exams.32. What do we know about the “anti-cheating hats”?A. Mandane-Ortiz did this in order to ensure her students’integrity and honesty.B. The students of Mandane-Ortiz got lower marks after wearing “anti-cheating hats”.C. Mandance-Ortiz did this to promote recycling materials and environmental protection.D. Anti-cheating headwear has been already popular both in Thailand and the Philippines.33. What does the underlined word “it”in Paragraph 3 refer to?A. PaperB. VisionC. Idea.D. Image.34. Why did the students follow Mandane-Ortiz’s direction to wear headgear?A. They themselves longed for a fair exam.B. They just wanted to go viral on social media.C. They desired not to be interrupted in the exam.D. They deliberately made fun of their professors.35. What’s Mandane-Ortiz’s attitude to “anti-cheating hats”?A. SkepticalB. Opposed.C. Uncaring.D. Supportive.。
Academic Word List sublists
Sublists of the Academic Word ListEach word in italics is the most frequently occurring member of the word family in the Academic Corpus.For example, analysis is the most common form of the word family analyse. British and American spelling is included in the word families, so contextualise and contextualize are both included in the family context.Sublist 1 of the Academic Word Listanalyseanalysedanalyseranalysersanalysesanalysinganalysisanalystanalystsanalyticanalyticalanalyticallyanalyzeanalyzedanalyzesanalyzing approachapproachableapproachedapproachesapproachingunapproachable 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incomeincomes indicateindicatedindicatesindicatingindicationindicationsindicativeindicatorindicators individualindividualisedindividualityindividualismindividualistindividualistsindividualisticindividuallyindividuals interpretinterpretationinterpretationsinterpretativeinterpretedinterpretinginterpretiveinterpretsmisinterpretmisinterpretationmisinterpretationsmisinterpretedmisinterpretingmisinterpretsreinterpretreinterpretedreinterpretsreinterpretingreinterpretationreinterpretationsinvolveinvolvedinvolvementinvolvesinvolvinguninvolvedissueissuedissuesissuinglabourlaborlaboredlaborslabouredlabouringlabourslegalillegalillegalityillegallylegalitylegallylegislatelegislatedlegislateslegislatinglegislationlegislativelegislatorlegislatorslegislaturemajormajoritiesmajoritymethodmethodicalmethodologicalmethodologiesmethodologymethodsoccuroccurredoccurrenceoccurrencesoccurringoccursreoccurreoccurredreoccurringreoccurspercentpercentagepercentagesperiodperiodicperiodicalperiodicallyperiodicalsperiodspolicypoliciesprincipleprincipledprinciplesunprincipledproceedproceduralprocedureproceduresproceededproceedingproceedingsproceedsprocessprocessedprocessesprocessingrequirerequiredrequirementrequirementsrequiresrequiringresearchresearchedresearcherresearchersresearchesresearching respondrespondedrespondentrespondentsrespondingrespondsresponseresponsesresponsiveresponsivenessunresponsive rolerolessectionsectionedsectioningsections sectorsectors significantinsignificantinsignificantlysignificancesignificantlysignifiedsignifiessignifysignifying similardissimilarsimilaritiessimilaritysimilarly sourcesourcedsourcessourcing specificspecificallyspecificationspecificationsspecificityspecifics structurerestructurerestructuredrestructuresrestructuringstructuralstructurallystructuredstructuresstructuringunstructured theorytheoreticaltheoreticallytheoriestheoristtheorists varyinvariableinvariablyvariabilityvariablevariablesvariablyvariancevariantvariantsvariationvariationsvariedvariesvaryingSublist 2 of the Academic Word Listachieveachievableachievedachievementachievementsachievesachieving acquireacquiredacquiresacquiringacquisitionacquisitions administrateadministratesadministrationadministrationsadministrativeadministrativelyadministratoradministrators 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commentcommentariescommentarycommentatorcommentatorscommentedcommentingcomments compensatecompensatedcompensatescompensatingcompensationcompensationscompensatory componentcomponentrycomponents consentconsensusconsentedconsentingconsents considerableconsiderably constantconstancyconstantlyconstantsinconstancyinconstantly constrainconstrainedconstrainingconstrainsconstraintconstraintsunconstrained contributecontributedcontributescontributingcontributioncontributionscontributorcontributorsconveneconventionconvenesconvenedconveningconventionalconventionallyconventionsunconventionalcoordinatecoordinatedcoordinatescoordinatingcoordinationcoordinatorcoordinatorsco-ordinateco-ordinatedco-ordinatesco-ordinatingco-ordinationco-ordinatorco-ordinatorscorecorescoringcoredcorporatecorporatescorporationcorporationscorrespondcorrespondedcorrespondencecorrespondingcorrespondinglycorrespondscriteriacriteriondeducededuceddeducesdeducingdeductiondeductionsdemonstratedemonstrabledemonstrablydemonstrateddemonstratesdemonstratingdemonstrationdemonstrationsdemonstrativedemonstrativelydemonstratordemonstratorsdocumentdocumentationdocumenteddocumentingdocumentsdominatedominancedominantdominateddominatesdominatingdominationemphasisemphasiseemphasisedemphasisingemphasizeemphasizedemphasizesemphasizingemphaticemphatically ensureensuredensuresensuring excludeexcludedexcludesexcludingexclusionexclusionaryexclusionistexclusionsexclusiveexclusively frameworkframeworks fundfundedfunderfundersfundingfunds illustrateillustratedillustratesillustratingillustrationillustrationsillustrative immigrateimmigrantimmigrantsimmigratedimmigratesimmigratingimmigration implyimpliedimpliesimplying initialinitially instanceinstances interactinteractedinteractinginteractioninteractionsinteractiveinteractivelyinteractsjustifyjustifiablejustifiablyjustificationjustificationsjustifiedjustifiesjustifyingunjustifiedlayerlayeredlayeringlayerslinklinkagelinkageslinkedlinkinglinkslocatelocatedlocatinglocationlocationsrelocaterelocatedrelocatesrelocatingrelocationmaximisemaxmaximisedmaximisesmaximisingmaximisationmaximizemaximizedmaximizesmaximizingmaximizationmaximumminorminoritiesminorityminorsnegatenegativenegatednegatesnegatingnegativelynegativesoutcomeoutcomespartnerpartnerspartnershippartnershipsphilosophyphilosopherphilosophersphilosophicalphilosophicallyphilosophiesphilosophisephilosophisedphilosophisesphilosophisingphilosophizephilosophizedphilosophizesphilosophizingphysicalphysicallyproportiondisproportiondisproportionatedisproportionatelyproportionalproportionallyproportionateproportionatelyproportions publishpublishedpublisherpublisherspublishespublishingunpublished reactreactedreactsreactingreactionreactionariesreactionaryreactionsreactivereactivatereactivationreactorreactors registerderegisterderegisteredderegisteringderegistersderegistrationregisteredregisteringregistersregistration relyreliabilityreliablereliablyreliancereliantreliedreliesrelyingunreliable removeremovableremovalremovalsremovedremovesremovingschemeschematicschematicallyschemedschemesschemingsequencesequencedsequencessequencingsequentialsequentiallysexsexessexismsexualsexualitysexuallyshiftshiftedshiftingshiftsspecifyspecifiablespecifiedspecifiesspecifyingunspecifiedsufficientsufficiencyinsufficientinsufficientlysufficientlytasktaskstechnicaltechnicallytechniquetechniquestechnologytechnologicaltechnologicallyvalidinvalidateinvalidityvalidatevalidatedvalidatingvalidationvalidityvalidlyvolumevolumesvolSublist 4 of the Academic Word Listaccessaccessedaccessesaccessibilityaccessibleaccessinginaccessible adequateadequacyadequatelyinadequaciesinadequacyinadequateinadequately annualannually apparentapparently approximateapproximatedapproximatelyapproximatesapproximatingapproximationapproximations attitudeattitudes attributeattributableattributedattributesattributingattribution civilcodecodedcodescoding commitcommitmentcommitmentscommitscommittedcommitting communicatecommunicablecommunicatedcommunicatescommunicatingcommunicationcommunicationscommunicativecommunicativelyuncommunicativeconcentrateconcentratedconcentratesconcentratingconcentrationconferconferenceconferencesconferredconferringconferscontrastcontrastedcontrastingcontrastivecontrastscyclecycledcyclescycliccyclicalcyclingdebatedebatabledebateddebatesdebatingdespitedimensiondimensionaldimensionsmultidimensionaldomesticdomesticallydomesticatedomesticateddomesticatingdomesticsemergeemergedemergenceemergentemergesemergingerrorerroneouserroneouslyerrorsethnicethnicitygoalgoalsgrantgrantedgrantinggrantshencehypothesishypotheseshypothesisehypothesisedhypothesiseshypothesisinghypothesizehypothesizedhypothesizeshypothesizinghypotheticalhypotheticallyimplementimplementationimplementedimplementingimplementsimplicateimplicatedimplicatesimplicatingimplicationimplications imposeimposedimposesimposingimposition integrateintegratedintegratesintegratingintegration internalinternaliseinternalisedinternalisesinternalisinginternalizeinternalizedinternalizesinternalizinginternally investigateinvestigatedinvestigatesinvestigatinginvestigationinvestigationsinvestigativeinvestigatorinvestigators jobjobslabellabeledlabelinglabelledlabellinglabels mechanismmechanisms obviousobviously occupyoccupancyoccupantoccupantsoccupationoccupationaloccupationsoccupiedoccupieroccupiersoccupiesoccupyingoptionoptionaloptionsoutputoutputsoverallparallelparalleledparallelledparallellingparallelsunparalleledparameterparametersphasephasedphasesphasingpredictpredictabilitypredictablepredictablypredictedpredictingpredictionpredictionspredictsunpredictabilityunpredictableprincipalprincipallypriorprofessionalprofessionallyprofessionalsprofessionalismprojectprojectedprojectingprojectionprojectionsprojectspromotepromotedpromoterpromoterspromotespromotingpromotionpromotionsregimeregimesresolveresolutionresolvedresolvesresolvingunresolvedretainretainedretainingretainerretainersretainsretentionretentiveseriesstatisticstatisticianstatisticiansstatisticalstatisticallystatisticsstatusstressstressedstressesstressfulstressingunstressedsubsequentsubsequently sumsummationsummedsummingsums summarysummariessummarise summarisedsummarisessummarisingsummarisationsummarisationssummarizationsummarizationssummarizesummarizedsummarizessummarizingundertakeundertakenundertakesundertakingundertookSublist 5 of the Academic Word Listacademyacademiaacademicacademicallyacademicsacademies adjustadjustedadjustingadjustmentadjustmentsadjustsreadjustreadjustedreadjustingreadjustmentreadjustmentsreadjusts alteralterablealterationalterationsalteredalteringalternatealternatingaltersunalterableunaltered amendamendedamendingamendmentamendmentsamends awareawarenessunaware capacitycapacitiesincapacitateincapacitated challengechallengedchallengerchallengerschallengeschallengingclauseclausescompoundcompoundedcompoundingcompoundsconflictconflictedconflictingconflictsconsultconsultancyconsultantconsultantsconsultationconsultationsconsultativeconsultedconsultsconsultingcontactcontactablecontactedcontactingcontactsdeclinedeclineddeclinesdecliningdiscretediscretelydiscretiondiscretionaryindiscreteindiscretiondraftdrafteddraftingdraftsredraftredraftedredraftingredraftsenableenabledenablesenablingenergyenergeticenergeticallyenergiesenforceenforcedenforcementenforcesenforcingentityentitiesequivalentequivalenceevolveevolutionevolvedevolvingevolvesevolutionaryevolutionistevolutionistsexpandexpandedexpandingexpandsexpansionexpansionismexpansiveexposeexposedexposesexposingexposureexposuresexternalexternalisationexternaliseexternalisedexternalisesexternalisingexternalityexternalizationexternalizeexternalizedexternalizesexternalizingexternally facilitatefacilitatedfacilitatesfacilitiesfacilitatingfacilitationfacilitatorfacilitatorsfacility fundamentalfundamentally generategeneratedgeneratesgenerating generationgenerations imageimageryimages liberalliberaliseliberalismliberalisationliberalisedliberalisesliberalisingliberalizationliberalizeliberalizedliberalizesliberalizingliberateliberatedliberatesliberationliberationsliberatingliberatorliberatorsliberallyliberalslicencelicenceslicenselicensedlicensinglicensesunlicensedlogicillogicalillogicallylogicallogicallylogicianlogiciansmarginmarginalmarginallymarginsmedicalmedicallymentalmentalitymentallymodifymodificationmodificationsmodifiedmodifiesmodifyingunmodifiedmonitormonitoredmonitoringmonitorsunmonitorednetworknetworkednetworkingnetworksnotionnotionsobjectiveobjectivelyobjectivityorientorientateorientatedorientatesorientationorientatingorientedorientingorientsreorientreorientationperspectiveperspectivespreciseimprecisepreciselyprecisionprimeprimacypsychologypsychologicalpsychologicallypsychologistpsychologistspursuepursuedpursuespursuingpursuitpursuitsratioratiosrejectrejectedrejectingrejectionrejectsrejections revenuerevenues stableinstabilitystabilisationstabilisestabilisedstabilisesstabilisingstabilizationstabilizestabilizedstabilizesstabilizingstabilityunstable stylestyledstylesstylingstylishstylisestylisedstylisesstylisingstylizestylizedstylizesstylizing substitutesubstitutedsubstitutessubstitutingsubstitution sustainsustainablesustainabilitysustainedsustainingsustainssustenanceunsustainable symbolsymbolicsymbolicallysymbolisesymbolisessymbolisedsymbolisingsymbolismsymbolizesymbolizedsymbolizessymbolizingsymbols targettargetedtargetingtargets transittransitedtransitingtransitiontransitionaltransitionstransitorytransits trendtrends versionversions welfarewhereasSublist 6 of the Academic Word Listabstractabstractionabstractionsabstractlyabstracts accurateaccuracyaccuratelyinaccuracyinaccuraciesinaccurate acknowledgeacknowledgedacknowledgesacknowledgingacknowledgementacknowledgements aggregateaggregatedaggregatesaggregatingaggregation allocateallocatedallocatesallocatingallocationallocations assignassignedassigningassignmentassignmentsassignsreassignreassignedreassigningreassignsunassigned attachattachedattachesattachingattachmentattachmentsunattachedauthorauthoredauthoringauthorsauthorshipbondbondedbondingbondsbriefbrevitybriefedbriefingbrieflybriefscapablecapabilitiescapabilityincapablecitecitationcitationscitedcitingcitescooperatecooperatedcooperatescooperatingcooperationcooperativecooperativelyco-operateco-operatedco-operatesco-operationco-operativeco-operativelydiscriminatediscriminateddiscriminatesdiscriminatingdiscriminationdisplaydisplayeddisplayingdisplaysdiversediverselydiversificationdiversifieddiversifiesdiversifydiversifyingdiversitydomaindomainsediteditededitingeditioneditionseditoreditorialeditorialseditorseditsenhanceenhancedenhancementenhancesenhancingestateestatesexceedexceededexceedingexceedsexpertexpertiseexpertlyexpertsexplicitexplicitly federalfederationfederations feefeesflexibleflexibilityinflexibleinflexibility furthermore gendergenders ignorantignoranceignoreignoredignoresignoring incentiveincentives incidenceincidentincidentallyincidents incorporateincorporatedincorporatesincorporatingincorporation indexindexedindexesindexing inhibitinhibitedinhibitinginhibitioninhibitionsinhibits initiateinitiatedinitiatesinitiatinginitiationinitiationsinitiativeinitiativesinitiatorinitiatorsinputinputsinstructinstructioninstructedinstructinginstructionsinstructiveinstructorinstructorsinstructsintelligentintelligenceintelligentlyunintelligentintervalintervalslecturelecturedlecturerlecturerslectureslecturingmigratemigrantmigrantsmigratedmigratesmigratingmigrationmigrationsmigratoryminimumministryministeredministeringministerialministriesmotivemotivatemotivatedmotivatesmotivatingmotivationmotivationsmotivesunmotivatedneutralneutralisationneutraliseneutralisedneutralisesneutralisingneutralityneutralizationneutralizeneutralizedneutralizesneutralizingneverthelessoverseasprecedeprecededprecedenceprecedentprecedesprecedingunprecedentedpresumepresumablypresumedpresumespresumingpresumptionpresumptionspresumptuousrationalirrationalrationalisationrationalisationsrationaliserationalisedrationalisesrationalising。
Supervised by
Department of Computer Science and Engineering The Chinese University of Hong Kong Shatin, N.T., Hong Kong
Multimedia Security – Digital Video Watermarking
5 6 7 8 9
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, CUHK
Page 3
Multimedia Security – Digital Video Watermarking
P. W. Chan
1 Introduction
The past few years have seen an explosion in the Internet and the use of digital media; digital data owners are now easier to transfer multimedia documents across the Internet. This leads to wide interest of multimedia security and multimedia copyright protection and it has become a great concern to the public in recent years. Industry is marking significant investments to deliver digital audio, image, and video information to consumers and customers. In the early days, encryption and control access techniques were used to protect the ownership of media. Recently, the watermark techniques are utilized to keep the copyrights. In this report, it will focus on using digital watermarking technique to protect the digital multimedia intellectual copyright and a new algorithm of video watermarking is proposed.
Tips for Quick Reading Questions in College Englis
Learn to allocate appropriate amounts of time to each question based on its diversity level
Develop a hat of reading regulation in English to improve your reading speed, comprehension, and vocabulary
Recognize fixed combinations
Identify and memorize fixed word combinations that often appear together, such as "in terms of," "due to," or "as a result of."
Recognize common sense patterns, such as cause and effect, comparison and contrast, and problem solution
Analyze the logical relationships between senses, such as transition words and phrases that indicate relationships like "however," "there before," "in addition," etc
Expand vocabulary and improve guiding ability
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英语新闻听力直通车 (12)
ECONOMICS REPORT - Inflation and the U.S. Consumer Price IndexBy Mario RitterBroadcast: May 21, 2004This is Bob Doughty with the VOA Special English Economics Report.Concern about inflation is in the news a lot lately. In the United States, prices have risen especially for gasoline and other forms of energy. Higher energy prices lead to higher prices for other goods.Oil prices are high. But experts say this is not the only reason for the current fuel prices. They say companies in the United States are making as much oil into gasoline as they can. But drivers need lots of fuel for popular sport utility vehicles and personal trucks.Government economists reported that inflation rose at a yearly rate of four-point-four percent between December and April. For all of last year, the United States had an inflation rate of one-point-nine percent. These numbers are based on the Consumer Price Index.The Consumer Price Index is a way to measure average change in prices over time. It shows how inflation affects the average person. The Bureau of Labor Statistics gives a report each month.Some economists say the economy may be growing too fast and causing prices to rise. They expect the Central Bank to raise interest rates. Such action raises the cost to borrow money. Less borrowing and spending can help keep down prices.The Federal Open Market Committee met this month and decided not to raise interest rates. But the committee meets again in June. One measure it will look at is the Consumer Price Index.Here is how an index works. Let us say that some object cost an average of ten cents in nineteen-ninety. An economist then gives that price an index value of one-hundred.In the next year, the price goes up to eleven cents. That is a ten-percent increase. So the index value for the year is one-hundred-and-ten. Changes are recorded this way year after year.The Department of Labor gathers prices that Americans pay for medicines, housing, clothes and food. It gathers prices for education, transportation and other activities.The Consumer Price Index is made up of thousands of measures. But it does not measure prices in areas outside of cities and large towns. Also, it does not measure how price changes affect individual groups, like the poor or retired people.The measure mostly widely reported is called the Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers. It measures prices paid by about eighty-seven percent of Americans.This VOA Special English Economics Report was written by Mario Ritter. This is Bob Doughty.注释sport utility vehicle 多功能运动休闲车statistics [ ] n.统计学, 统计表。
大学英语b网考直通车译文（新版）资料讲解
大学英语b网考直通车译文（新版）资料讲解词汇与语法B资料说明：2011年4月大学英语B 网考英语B 统考英语B 电大英语B 计算机应用基础必备资料“大学英语B”网考是什么性质的考试？回答：“大学英语B”网考是高校网络教育统一考试之一，主要针对电大及各网络高等教育的非英语专业和非艺术专业的本科学生。
通过“大学英语B”网考是该类学生获得毕业证书的必要条件之一，因此，上述学生必须通过“大学英语B”网考方可顺利毕业。
大学英语B网络统考：适用范围为各电视大学，远程教育学院，各种网络教育学院的专升本考试，统一组织的上机考试，题目随机从题库抽选，每年3次，4月，9月，12月本资料由学长特供在2011年3月27日为有复习基础的同学准备的复习资料，请尊重汇编者的努力，不要随意修改后转发。
根据中华人民共和国著作权法律规定：汇编作品由汇编人享有著作权。
1. He _______ finding a taxi for me, even though I told him I lived nearby.A.insisted onB.insisted atC.insisted thatD.insisted in答案：A2. He ________ me do the work.A.givesB.helpsC.mindsD.cares答案：B3*.I am going to _______ the meal, I insist.A.payB.pay forC.pay aboutD.pay on答案：B4*.I can't find my book. Perhaps I ______ it behind in the office yesterday.A.forgotB.leftC.putD.set答案：B5*.The music was so loud that she had to raise her voice to make herself ____.A.hearB.heardC.to hearD.hearing答案：B6*.I was talking with my mother on the phone when we were ____ suddenly.A.cut downB.cut offC.cut acrossD.cut back答案：B7*.The new assembly line having been adopted, the factoryproduced ____ cars in 1999 as the year before.A.as twice manyB.twice many asC.twice as manyD.as many as twice答案：C8*.Do you think you have talked too much? What you need now is more action and ____ talk.A.lessB.littleC.fewerD.few答案：A9*.Several screws(螺丝) need ______.A.wideningB.enlargingC.tighteningD.shortening答案：C10*._______ him go out if he wants to.A.AllowB.LeaveC.LetD.Permit答案：C11*.Singing these songs, I could not help ______ the good old days.A.thinking overB.thinking outC.thinking ofD.thinking up答案：C12*.The plane was about to _______, and yet I left my ticket behind.A.take offB.take onC.take upD.take in答案：A13*.We saw him _______ the white building and go upstairs.A.enterB.enteringC.to enterD.entered答案：A14*.It ________that they had no idea at the moment.A.seemedB.was seemedC.is seeingD.is seamed答案：A15*.Stars have better players, so I _______them to win.A.hopeB.preferC.expectD.want答案：C16. Professor, would you slow down a bit, please? I can't _______you.A.keep up withB.put up withC.make up toD.hold on to答案：A17*.You'd better ______in bed. It's bad for your eyes.A.not to readB.not readC.don't readD.read答案：B18*.How often do you _________your brother?A.hear aboutB.hear ofC.hear toD.hear from答案：D19*.It was well known that Thomas Edison______the electric lamp.A.inventedB.discoveredC.foundD.developed答案：A20*.Don't ________ your study. We are going to help you.A.worryB.be afraidC.be worriedD.worry about答案：D21.It's ________ that he was wrong.B.clarityC.clearD.clearing答案：C22*.The patients are quite ______ to the nurses for their special care.A.enjoyableB.helpfulC.confidentD.grateful答案：D23*.This is the ______ photo I have ever taken.A.worseB.betterC.bestD.most worst答案：C24*.It is _______ for people to feel excited when they start doing something new.A.normalB.ordinaryC.averageD.regular答案：A25*.Chinese is spoken by the _____number of people in the world.A.smallestB.most/doc/f910281107.html,rgest答案：C26*.This is ____________film I have ever seen.A.a wonderfulB.the most wonderfulC.wonderfulD.most wonderful答案：B27.I won't make the _______mistake next time.A.likeB.sameC.nearD.similar答案：B28*.Who's ________, Jim, Jack or John?A.tallB.tallerC.much tallerD.the tallest答案：D29*.That company doesn't take credit cards, so customers have to pay ______.A.dollarsB.financeC.coinsD.cash答案：D30*.Helen was seriously injured in a car ______.A.incidentB.accidentD.matter答案：B31*.Many countries are increasing their use of natural gas, wind and other forms of _______.A.energyB.sourceC.powerD.material答案：A32*.The music sounded _______. I enjoyed every minute of it.A.wellB.boringC.wonderfullyD.beautiful答案：D33*.Every morning Mr. Smith takes a ______to his office.A.20 minutes' walkB.20 minute's walkC.20-minutes walkD.20-minute walk答案：D34. Don’t laugh ________ people when they are ________ trouble.A.in….at…B.at….at…C.at… in…D.on… in…答案：C35*.He never laughs ______ people when they are ______trouble.A.to… inB.at… inC.at… atD.to… at答案：B36. He helped me ______ my homework.A.withB.toC.aboutD.of答案：A37*. I didn't buy the apples; she gave them to me ______ nothing.A.withB.asC.forD.by答案：C38*.Who should be responsible ______ the loss of the documents?A.inB.onC.ofD.for答案：D39*.It is believed that if a book is ________, it will surely ________ the reader.A.interested… interestB.interesting… be interestedC.int erested… be interestingD.interesting… interest答案：D40*.Farmers use water in many ways. ________, they use water to grow crops.A.In factB.For exampleC.BesidesD.Because of this答案：B41*.They all go outing on such a warm spring day ______ Mark. He is busy with his lessons now.A.besideB.besidesC.except forD.except答案：D42*.The Japanese, ______ average, live much longer than the Europeans.A.withB.inC.toD.on答案：D43*.She leaned _______ the wall while she was speaking to her friend.A.toB.againstC.towardsD.for44. Robert, there's a man at the front door, saying he has _____news of great importance.A./B.theC.aD.an答案：A45*. Little Tom is used to getting up _______eight every morning.A.atB.onC.inD.of答案：A46*.Do you often wait for a long time ______the bus stop?A.inB.onC.atD.under答案：C47*.They were the only men who received votes ______me.A.nextB.besidesC.unlessD.accept答案：B48*.My father is leaving ______Shanghai tomorrow.A.forB.inD.to答案：A49.He _______ lives in the house where he was born.A.alreadyB.yetC.stillD.ever答案：C50*.Can you look after my children for a while? I don't want to leave them _______.A.lonelyB.awayC.aloneD.along答案：C51*.I couldn't find my English-Chinese dictionary _______.A.anywhereB.everywhereC.nowhereD.somewhere答案：A52*.Who jumps ________in your class?A.farB.fartherC.farthestD.longer答案：C53*.Of all the students in our class, Betty writes ___________.A.very carefullyB.most carefullyC.more carefullyD.the most carefully答案：B54*.They were all very tired, but _______of them would stop to take a rest.A.anyB.someC.noneD.neither答案：C55*.He is an old friend of ________.A.myB.mineC.meD.myself答案：B56*.-- Is this your shoe?-- Yes, but where is ________?A.the other oneB.other oneC.another oneD.the others答案：A57*.I invited Joe and Linda to dinner, but ________of them came.A.neitherB.eitherC.noneD.both58*.The weather in Harbin is quite different from ________ in Hainan.A.thatB.itC.the oneD.one答案：A59*.The people in this city have planted ________ trees along both sides of the streets.A.a great deal ofB.muchC.a large amount ofD.a lot of答案：D60*.If you ride your bike too fast, there may be _____accident.A.aB.theC.anD.不填答案：C61. At that time, she ______ on a journey with her friend.A.isB.wasC.has beenD.is being答案：B62.Tom was watching TV when someone______./doc/f910281107.html,es/doc/f910281107.html,eD.has come答案：C63*.Selecting a mobile phone for personal use is no easy task because technology_______so rapidly.A.is changingB.has been changedC.will have changedD.will change答案：A64*.We were all surprised when he made it clear that he _____________office soon.A.leavesB.would leaveC.leftD.had left答案：B65*.There's no food in the fridge. They _______shopping.A.goC.are goingD.are going to go答案：C66.I fell and hurt myself while I ________basketball yesterday.A.was playingB.am playingC.playD.played答案：A67. I don't know _______ to deal with such matter.B.howC.whichD./答案：B68. Don't forget ________ the window before leaving the room.A.to have closedB.to closeC.having closedD.closing答案：B69. Do you know ________ in English?A.how say itB.how to say itC.how saying itD.how to saying it答案：B70*.Either the shirts or the sweater ______ a good buy.A.isB.hasC.areD.was答案：A71*.Are you going to fix the car yourself, or are you going to have it _______?A.fixingB.to fixC.fixD.fixed答案：D72*._______playing basketball here?--- Sorry, we'll leave right away.A.Would you mind notB.Would you don't mindC.Would you mind noD.Would you mind73*.When will you finish _______the outing for next Friday?A.planB.to planC.planningD.planned答案：C74*.The boys enjoyed _______football very much.A.playedB.playingC.playD.to play答案：B75.- The public store is to close at 9:00 p.m.- _______ no need to worry; it is just 7:30 p.m.A.You haveB.They haveC.It isD.There is答案：D76*.The little girl put on a _______ dress for the happy occasion.A.red bright silkB.silk bright redC.silk red brightD.bright red silk答案：D77*.A _______ boy was the only survivor in the plane crash.A.two years oldB.two-year-oldC.two-years oldD.two-years-old答案：B79.He likes to swim _______.A.and to play footballB.and playing footballC.but play footballD.and he also likes playing football答案：A80. -Have you got _____E-mail address?-Yes, mine is Li Ping @ /doc/f910281107.html,.A.theB.anC.aD./答案：B82*.You'd better wear more clothes. It's _____cold today.A.much tooB.too muchC.very muchD.much very答案：A83*.Suzan speaks English _______John.A.so fluently asB.as fluent asC.more fluent thanD.much more fluently than答案：D84*.The electric fan has blown away the terrible smell in the hall, ______?A.can't itB.isn't itC.hasn't itD.doesn't it答案：C85*.India had the second ______population in the world./doc/f910281107.html,rgest/doc/f910281107.html,rgerC.mostD.smallest答案：A86*.He _______less time reading stories about film stars than before.A.takesB.spendsC.costsD.pays答案：B87*.We will have a ________holiday after the exam.A.two monthB.two-monthC.two month'sD.two-months答案：B88*.There _______a basketball match this afternoon.A.is going to beB.is going to haveC.is going to isD.is going to has答案：A89*.The tall man is _____with robbery.A.chargedB.accusedC.doneD.dealt答案：A90*.You have finished the work, _____you?A.haven'tB.haveC.don'tD.do答案：A91*.It is not always easy to tell the right ______the wrong.A.fromB.withC.thanD.to答案：A92.Nancy is considered to be ________ the other students in her class.A.less intelligentB.the most intelligentC.intelligent as wellD.as intelligent as93.Yesterday was _______ day that we decided to go swimming.A.such beautifulB.so beautifulC.such a beautifulD.a so beautiful答案：C94*._______ he saw his mother in person did he apologized.A.OnlyB.UntilC.Only whenD.Only until答案：C95*.If Mary _______shopping this afternoon, please ask her to write a shopping list first.A.will goB.goesC.wentD.has gone答案：B96*.Henry looked very much _____when he was caught cheating in the biology exam.A.discouragedB.embarrassedC.disappointedD.bewildered答案：B97*.The football game will be played on _____.A.June sixC.the sixth of JuneD.the six of June答案：C98*.We moved to the front row _____we could hear and see better.A.so asB.so thatC.becauseD.such that答案：B99*.I'll have a cup of coffee and _____.A.two breadsB.two piece of breadsC.two pieces of breadsD.two pieces of bread答案：D100*.He spoke so quickly that I didn't ______what he said.A.receiveB.acceptC.listenD.catch答案：D101*.I don't like uniforms ______they will look so ugly on us.A.soB.andC.becauseD.until答案：C102*.He put forward a theory, _______ of great importance tothe progress of science and technology.A.I think which isB.which I think isC.which is I thinkD.I think it is答案：B103*.This is the student _______ I know will pass the TOEFL test.A.whoB.whomC.whoseD.what答案：A104*.I hate the news, _____made us very sad.A.thatB.whichC.whatD.it答案：B105*.A number of people _____at the street corner.A.amB.isC.areD.be答案：C106*.The number of students of this school ______large.A.areB.are notC.isn'tD.aren't答案：C107*.This maths problem is easy ______________.A.work outB.to be working outC.workedD.to work out答案：D108*.When father was young, he ______from morning till night.A.was made workB.was made workingC.made to workD.was made to work答案：D109*.Three-fourths of the homework ______today.A.has finishedB.has been finishedC.have finishedD.have been finished答案：B110*.Nobody _________to smoke in the cinema.A.allowB.allowsC.is allowedD.are allowed答案：C111*.The reason I didn't go to Canada was _______ a new job.A.because I gotB.how I gotC.that I gotD.why I got答案：C112*._______fashion differs from country to country may reflect the cultural differencesfrom one aspect.A.WhatB.ThatC.ThisD.Which答案：B113*.Miss Wang wanted to know _______for the film.A.why was he lateB.why is he lateC.why he is lateD.why he was late答案：D114*._____she was invited to the hall made her very happy.A.ThatB.IfC.WhenD.Because答案：A115.Professor Smith promised to look _______my paper, that is, to read it carefully before the thesis defense.A.afterB.overC.onD.into答案：B116.As the bus came round the corner, it ran ______ a big treeby the roadside.A.intoB.onC.overD.up答案：A117.Had you come five minutes earlier, you ______ the train to Birmingham. But now you missed it.A.would catchB.would have caughtC.could catchD.should catch答案：B118. Eggs, though rich in nourishments, have ______ of fat.A.a large numberB.the large numberC.a large amountD.the large amount答案：C119.The girl is ____ of a film star.A.somebodyB.somethingC.anybodyD.anyone答案：B120.Therefore, other things ____ equal, the number of workers that employers want decreases.A.isB.areC.beingD.having答案：C121.The manager will not _________ us to use his car.A.haveB.letC.agreeD.allow答案：D122._________her and then try to copy what she does.A.MindB.SeeC.Stare atD.Watch答案：D123.It's bad ________ for you to smoke in the public places where smoking is not allowed.A.behaviorB.actionC.mannerD.movement答案：A124.- It's a good idea. But who's going to_________ the plan?- I think John and Peter will.A.carry outB.get throughC.take inD.set aside答案：A125.The computer system suddenly while he was searching for information on the Internet.A.broke downB.broke outC.broke upD.broke in答案：A126. No matter _____ , the little sisters managed to round the sheep up and drive them back home safely.A.it was snowing hardB.hard it was snowingC.how it was snowing hardD.how hard it was snowing答案：D127.This kind of material expands ____ the temperature increasing.A.toB.forC.withD.at答案：C附录：给群内考生写的一篇复习指南，让您复习有一定的方向。
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P rocedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 46 ( 2012 ) 1664 – 16721877-0428 © 2012 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and/or peer review under responsibility of Prof. Dr. Hüseyin Uzunboylu doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.05.358WCES 2012Methodological proposal for teamwork evaluation in the field ofproject management trainingIgnacio de los Ríos Carmenado *, Benjamín Figueroa Rodríguez,Francisca Gómez GajardoaTechnical University of Madrid, Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Avenida Complutense s/n., Madrid,28040 SpainAbstractTeamwork is one of the abilities that today is highly valued in the professional arena with a great importance for various personal and interpersonal skills associated with it. In this context, the Technical University of Madrid, is developing a coordinated educational innovation project, which main objective is to develop methodological and assessment tools for the acquisition of personal skills necessary to improve the employability of graduates and their skills for project management. Within this context, this paper proposes a methodology composed of various activities and indicators, as well as specific assessment instruments linked to the teamwork competence. Through a series of systematic steps it was allowed the design of an instrument and construction of a scale for measuring the competence of teamwork. The practical application of the methodology has been carried out in Projects lectures from different Schools of Engineering at the Technical University of Madrid, which results are presented in this document as a pilot experience. Results show the various aspects and methods that teachers should consider in evaluating the competence of the work, including analysis of the quality of results, through reliability and construct validity. On the otherhand, show the advantages of applying this methodology in the field of project management teaching. © 2012 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Keywords: Competence, Project Management, Teamwork, Leadership1. IntroductionThe Technical University of Madrid (UPM) have developed the Educational Innovation Project (PIE) with the aim of designing instruments to guide and facilitate the teaching and development and evaluation of generic competencies , at undergraduate and graduate level, adapted from the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) in order for students to obtain and develop a range of skills to seek with a direct link of university education with professional practice looking to broad students employability.Within this context teamwork is highlighted of utmost importance for the achievement of a better employability, as well as highly valued for professional performance, as Guitert argues(2007: 2) tells "we cannot forget the importance given from the EHEA to teamwork from two approaches: firstly, as a methodology that encourages the student to perform work processes in an active and participatory way and, secondly, because teamwork is currently one of the most valued skills in professional backgrounds. "OECD defines competence as "the ability to respond to the demands or carry out tasks successfully" (OECD, 2005:4). This concept of refers to attitudes, abilities skills, and performance abilities. As can be seen, the concept of* Ignacio de los R íos CarmenadoE-mail address : ignacio.delosrios@upm.esAvailable online at © 2012 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and/or peer review under responsibility of Prof. Dr. Hüseyin Uzunboylu1665I gnacio de los Ríos Carmenado et al. / P rocedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 46 ( 2012 )1664 – 1672competence includes knowledge, know-how and knowledge to be, so people acquire and develop skills to fostertheir development as individuals and as professionals.Thus teamwork competence refers to a set of actions, strategies, procedures and methodologies used by a group of people to achieve objectives and / or goals, sharing responsibilities. Teamwork involves groups creation where people meet, collaborate and interact specifically for a particular purpose (work or project), covering three mainlines of action: team building, teamwork and group dynamics.At this point it is important to note that teamwork is not the same as teams, which Carillo (2007) defined as a set of individuals assigned or self-assigned according to specific skills and competences to meet a given target under the management of a coordinator. Thus, teamwork is to know how to interact with others on an individual basis, providing their personal resources to achieve common goals.The interaction among people within teamwork is what motivates the existence of relationships between behavioral competences, especially leadership and negotiation, have been highlighted in numerous investigations in the academic field and business research (Keller, 1992, Kendra and Taplin, 2004, Turner and Muller, 2005, Cano et al, 2008; Yang et al, 2011).2. Teaching EstategyThe strategy is part of the actions taken by the Technical University of Madrid to encourage educational innovationand renewal of university teaching as a strategic line of action for all technical schools from the university (UPM, 2006). The General Quality of Teaching Plan establishes as center line for innovation actions the "Educational Innovation Groups" (GIEs) as an original bet in the current university cene. One of these group, known as GIE-Project, gathers a group of people with a history, experience, training and a future project of sufficient consistencyin the field of engineering projects (UPM, 2006). GIE-Project was founded in 2005, with the objective of designinga new learning dimension based on educational projects suitable for generating an early professional experience and training in skills for project management. After six years of joint work among its members, GIE-Project was established as a basic unit of stable cooperation for promotion and development of Educational Innovation (De losRios et al 2009). Its creation is part of the overall strategy of empowerment of Educational Innovation at the UPMThe teaching strategy developed by GIE-Projectbuild its basis on the Project-Based Learning, gathered over twenty years of experience (De los Rios et al, 2010) inthe Projects lecture at the late formation of undergraduates. The Project-Based Learning (PBL) foundations have been described in numerous researches (Chinnowsky et al., 2006; Gijselaers, 1996; Johnson, 1999; Padmanadhan and Katti, 2002, De los Rios et al, 2010, 2011), showing thatis the best means to achieve effective skills-based education (Parsons et al., 2005, Mulcahy, 2000; Kelly, 2007) integrating knowledge, skills and values.The methodology proposed for this experience is supported on collective learning processes so that students are not passive recipients of knowledge (Chinnowsky et al., 2006). The methodology is based on building new knowledgefrom existing knowledge base (Gijselaers, 1996), through active participation and interaction with others.The basis of the teaching methodology is that students get together in small teams plan, design and evaluate a project that meets a real need raised by an external client, coordinated by the teacher of the Project lecture. This learning process, described on other articles (De los Rios et al, 2010), requires the use of various information sources and disciplines by students needed to solve specific problems.3. MethodologyThe methodology for teamwork evaluation includes the following activities within the course: i) a continuous students assessment on activities development and behaviors towards teamwork development, ii) behavior assessment between teammates through a 360-degree assessment, iii) a self-assessment of their knowledge and experience on the competence base of Project Management IPMA-AEIPRO iv) a questionnaire about their participation in the course project and skills development related to teamwork.The methodology was applied in 2010-11, to a total of 73 students enrolled in the Projects Lecture of Engineering attwo schools at the UPM (Agronomists and Industry). The self-assessment tools were made through Moodle (Virtual Platform of the UPM) and participants who left unanswered questions in the second instrument were eliminated.3.1 InstrumentsFor this methodology were used two instruments: a self-assessment survey and a questionnaire on skills for teamwork. Both instruments used a Likert scale (Likert, 1932), commonly used in social sciences to assess perceptions and qualitative aspects and whose main purpose is to stagger individuals (Barber, 1993). Thus the main1666I gnacio de los Ríos Carmenado et al. / P rocedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 46 ( 2012 )1664 – 1672objective of staggering is to determine the value of a variable as accurately as possible, seeking thereby its usefulness and therefore its quality (Oviedo and Fields-Arias, 2005).Questionnaire 1: self-assessment skills.It was implemented a self-assessment survey at the beginning and end of the academic period. The instrument was designed based on the tool used by IPMA for the evaluation and certification of competencies in Project Management (IPMA, 2009), which includes 92 items-46 on knowledge of competition and 46 on experience-, covering three areas of competence: technical elements -20, 11contextual and 15 of professional behavior according to the baseline from the Project Management Competence from IPMA (NCB-IPMA AEIPRO version 3.1). A Likert scale of four points was used. For the knowledge scale is: (4) well, (3) normal, (2) something (1) nothing; and for experience is: (4) always, (3) often, (2) once and (1) I have not applied. For the results descriptive analysis, the level of competence development was assessed scaled in four levels, according to the following table:Value scLevel Average CharacteristicsHigh Between 4.0 y 5.0 Has much knowledgeMedium high Between 3.0 y 3.9 Has quite knowledgeLow average Between 2.0 y 2.9 Has some knowledgeLow Between 1.0 y 1.9 Has few knowledgeQuestionnaire 2: skills for teamwork.- This tool was originally designed with 61 questions related to student participation (working together) in the course project and the skills development associated with teamwork. This questionnaire was developed by the UPM team based on different variables used in previous studies (Ainley, 2001; Ginns and Ellis, 2007; Kember and Leung, 2009, Muller and Turner, 2007; Bassand Avolio, 1990, Arribas and Likert scale of four levels: strongly agree (5), Agree(4), Any (3), Disagree (2) and Strongly Disagree (1). This questionnaire was applied at the end of the course and level of competence development was scaled as follow:Value scale for level of competence development fLevel Average CharacteristicsHigh Between 4.0 y 5.0 Strong competence developmentMedium high Between 3.0 y 3.9 Enough competence developmentLow average Between 2.0 y 2.9 Some competence developmentLow Between 1.0 y 1.9 Scarce competence development3.1.1 Instruments Psychometric propertiesIn order to validate the psychometric properties of the instruments two processes were carried out: a) analysis of the reliability using internal consistency coefficient Cronbach's Alpha, and b) analysis of construct validity, estimated through factor analysis. The reliability and validity are interdependent concepts, but not equivalent. An instrument can be consistent, but not valid, hence the two properties should be assessed simultaneously whenever possible (Morgan et al. Al., 2001, Nelson-Gray, 1991). Yela (1996) state that is also necessary to have scales that is to have normative values of the population with which to compare the score or outcome of an individual.a) Reliability AnalysisReliability is not a feature of the instrument, but from the results obtained in a given sample (Morales, 2008). Nunnally (1978) proposes a minimum of 0.700 and some authors claim that reliabilities of less than 0.600 are not suitable for making decisions about individuals and is questionable for the description of a group or research in general (Guilford, 1954, Pfeiffer et. al., 1976).Questionnaire 1: self-assessment skills .-Because this self-assessment questionnaire designed by IPMA is being used as a reference tool in the evaluation and certification of skills in project management, there was no need to validate it. Nontheless a reliability analysis of the students responses through the Cronbach alpha coefficient was conducted, which results were very acceptable, as shown in the table below.1667I gnacio de los Ríos Carmenado et al. / P rocedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 46 ( 2012 )1664 – 1672Internal Consistency Results Questionnaire 1Self Assesment Items Cronbach AlphaInitial Knowledge 46 0.963Initial Experience 46 0.966Final Knowledge 46 0.958Final Experience 46 0.945Questionnaire 2: skills for teamwork. Firstly, was conducted to analyze the reliability of the instrument with 61 items through the Cronbach alpha coefficient, with the following results:Internal Consistency Results Questionnaire 2Competence Items Cronbach Alpha Cronbach Alpha i fanitem is deletedCommunication 5 0.316 0. 511 (item 3)Conflict and Crisis 3 0.592Creativity and Innovation 8 0.705 0.765 (item 11)Leadership 15 0.848Negotiation 9 0.709 0.712 (item 32)Planning 2 0.468Teamwork 19 0.863 0.864 (item 53)Total 61 0.938As can be seen, reliabilities were found below 0,700, due to the small number of items composing the factor (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). So that as a first step we remove the items under the competences of communication, conflict and crisis, planning for low reliability, and item 11 which thus allows us to improve the reliability of creativity, item 32 and 53 are left out for not contributing much improvement in the reliability of their competence as shown in the table above , in order to stay with a questionnaire of 50 items and a Cronbach alpha reliability of 0,933.b) Construct validityAs previously mentioned questionnaire No. 1 -designed by IPMA-is a validated instrument used by IPMA in the process of Project Management competence assessment and certification (IPMA, 2009), hence did not require validation.Regarding questionnaire No. 2, consisting of 50 items, was processed in order to validate construct as a unifying concept that integrates considerations of content and criterion validity in a common framework to test hypotheses about relationships theoretically relevant (Messick, 1980: 1015). The validity of a construct occurs when allApplying this technique of factor analysis (FA) is possible to reduce variables and group them according to their dimensions in common factors. The FA has two types: Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and the most important difference lies in that CFA is driven by substantive theories and expectations, while the EFA, as its name implies, is a technique based on data, trying to uncover the underlying structure that they have (Bollen, 1989). To process the EFA EFA FACTOR software was used (Lorenzo-Seva & Ferrando, 2006), which analyzes the matrix by means of a polychoric correlation, determining the number of factors by MAP procedure, Minimum Average Partial Test (Velicer, 1976), factorization method MINRAD and PAF (minimum waste). Finally, to identify factors varimax rotation was used (Bentler, 1977). Two factors are assumed.Results of Factor Analysis by MAP procedure,with subsequent VARIMAX rotation.Item F1 Item F210 0.498 9 0.50620 0.518 13 0.40532 0.629 14 0.61143 0.411 15 0.46444 0.618 16 0.65545 0.398 18 0.51246 0.590 19 0.51347 0.463 21 0.6721668I gnacio de los Ríos Carmenado et al. / P rocedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 46 ( 2012 )1664 – 167248 0.616 22 0.47149 0.484 23 0.48750 0.312 24 0.62951 0.586 25 0.50552 0.611 27 0.67054 0.398 28 0.45255 0.716 29 0.44456 0.557 30 0.46558 0.473 31 0.46859 0.484 34 0.54961 0.430 35 0.42236 0.52737 0.51338 0.52440 0.42253 0.43057 0.41660 0.315In the first factor, F1 "Teamwork" - are clustered items related to "teamwork" competence within the course project. The second factor, F2, was called "teamwork support skills ", bringing together other items related to the development of other abilities such as leadership, creativity and negotiation, which are necessary to develop good team work within a project (Keller, 1992; Kendra and Taplin, 2004; Turner and Muller, 2005; Yanga et al, 2011). After performing the analysis it was decided to discard items 12, 33 and 39 - due to its low rating factor (of 0,300) after VARIMAX rotation (Lorenzo-Seva, 2003). Other items, 17 and 26 - were dismissed by not measuring the same construct within factor 1. Thus, the final instrument, after treatment, was left with 45 items, giving a reliability of 0.930. Can also be observed the reliability for factor 1 items was 0,910, and factor 2 "skills to support teamwork," with 26 items has a reliability of 0.883, which are very acceptable. The final questionnaire can be seen in Annex 01.4. Results4.1 Project Management Competence Development (Self Assessment)Results show that students, through teamwork and through the project-based learning methodology, improve knowledge in three project management skills areas technical, contextual and behavioral. Similarly, in terms of experience in skills application, results evidenced that student group improved implementation of competence throughout the project, from a medium-low to medium-high level. The table below show the overall results obtained in the three areas of skills, both as knowledge and experience.Competence area KNOWLEDGE EXPERIENCESCALE INITIAL(%) FINAL(%)SCALE INITIAL(%)FINAL(%)Technical High 11.70 38.60 (4) Always 11.60 32.30 Medium High 49.60 50.20 (3) Frequently 38.20 52.80Medium Low 30.80 10.60 (2) Sometime 35.70 14.20Low 7.90 0.60 (1) Never applied 14.50 0.80 Behaviour High 26.50 46.80 (4) Always 25.90 41.80 Medium High 51.80 48.00 (3) Frequently 45.50 50.40Medium Low 19.20 5.00 (2) Sometime 26.60 7.40Low 2.50 0.20 (1) Never applied 4.00 0.40 Contextual High 8.80 20.80 (4) Always 7.20 14.20 Medium High 36.10 54.40 (3) Frequently 26.70 52.40Medium Low 39.50 24.40 (2) Sometime 42.10 29.90Low 15.60 2.40 (1) Never applied 24.00 3.501669I gnacio de los Ríos Carmenado et al. / P rocedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 46 ( 2012 )1664 – 16724.2. Teamwork skills developmentIn relation to the teamwork competence, it appears that at the group level (93% of students) had a high competencedevelopment with a rating of 4.4. This development means that most of the population, after participation in theactivities developed other skills and behaviors. These skills, related to teamwork, obtained high values: Creativity(4.3), Leadership (4.1) and Negotiation (4.0). It is evidenced the strong relation of teamwork success, with thedevelopment of other skills. After application of the questionnaire shows that at the group level, 46% of students said that to agree and 41%strongly agree to have developed a set of skills associated with teamwork (creativity, leadership, negotiation)within project activities.One of the most valued -by 82% of the participants- was the development of creativity as team activities have beenconsidered an important element in improving their abilities to think and act in an original and imaginative way toface the challenges of the project .Teamwork has been a trigger to exploit the collective creativity of all teammembers. These results agree in considering creativity as a core competence for the project success (IPMA, 2009),helping to overcome problems and motivate the team to work together to develop creative ideas and turn them intooperational solutions. In this sense, teams developed different methods such as sessions brainstorming.Secondly, 79% of students show the development of negotiation. Teamwork has been a means by which membershave been able to resolve disagreements between them, to find solutions satisfactory to all. This capability hasallowed negotiation from reasoning, listening to the point of view of others and to exchange views resolving actualconflicts generated in project teams. Finally, in 61% of the pupils evidenced the development of another competence for project management:leadership. This competence has not only been developed by the teams coordinators (project managers), but alsoother members have also succeed to provide direction and motivation to other colleagues in their work to help meetThis competition has been worked throughout all phases of the project, being of particularimportance when the teams have met with problems and uncertainties. Some team members have begun to be seenthemselves as a true leader when presenting the project to other teams and teachers. The overall results are shown inthe table below.Competence Items Scale Frequency (%)Teamwork 19 (5) Totally agree 48.2(4) Agree 44.1(3) Indifferent 6.0(2) Disagree 1.2(1) Totally disagree 0.5Creativity 5 (5) Totally agree 41.9(4) Agree 47.1(3) Indifferent 9.6(2) Disagree 1.4(1) Totally disagree 0Leadership 15 (5) Totally agree 35.5(4) Agree 46.4(3) Indifferent 15.0(2) Disagree 2.6(1) Totally disagree 0.50Negotiation 6 (5) Totally agree 29.2(4) Agree 50.2(3) Indifferent 16.1(2) Disagree 2.7(1) Totally disagree 1.8Overall (4) 45 (5) Totally agree 40.7(4) Agree 46.0(3) Indifferent 10.7(2) Disagree 1.9(1) Totally disagree 0.7Finally, results obtained from the two questionnaires were developed on individual reports for 73 students,informing them of their skills development.1670I gnacio de los Ríos Carmenado et al. / P rocedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 46 ( 2012 )1664 – 16725. ConclusionsExperience described and the instruments used are integrated as part of a methodology for Project Based Learning (PBL), shown as an educational methodology very suitable for the skills development, linking teaching with the professional environment. The teamwork evaluation methodology is based on cooperation, active participation and interaction, offering multiple possibilities for the development of technical, contextual and behavioral competences. Experience shows, as a first conclusion, that the success of a learning process focused on teamwork, requires that both teachers and students take an active role, a shared commitment and, in the case of students greater responsibility for their own learning. Best results are related to students participating actively, sharing information, knowledge and experience, performing assigned tasks and meeting the required deadlines, as well as maintaining collaborative relationships with their peers, showing willingness to help and involved in contributing ideas, making decisions together-, foster team spirit and cohesion, allowing the integration of ideas alien to yours - and improve the functioning of the equipment itself, with the resolution problems, agreements negotiation and proposing ideas to improve the team and the project.Secondly, the development of teamwork competence, from the scientific basis of PBL, generates processes of learning where students are immersed in an experience of cooperation to help develop other personal skills, strengthening leadership, creativity, negotiation, and bringing students closer to the real world of project management. Leadership involves providing direction and motivation to others in their role or task to fulfill the objectives of a project, the creativity and the capacity to think and act in an original and imaginative, exploiting individual and collective ideas to find common benefits in the project; negotiation as the means by which people can resolve their disagreements, maintaining good relations within the project team (IPMA, 2009). These personal skills have proven critical in teamwork (Keller, 1992, Kendra and Taplin, 2004, Turner and Muller, 2005, Yang et al, 2011). This encourages the innovative spirit and creative ability to generate new knowledge, thinking productively, and increase their motivation and enthusiasm to learn and solve problems together. The assessment tools developed highlight the potential of teamwork, with cooperative models Project Based Learning, in order to improve the university teaching strategies and open new areas for cooperation and educational innovation.Finally we can argue that the competence approach should be used by establishing connections with the professional world. Competences - technical, personal and contextual- for project management allows linking training from the university and professional certification systems giving stronger projection to future graduates.ReferencesAinley, J., 2001. The 1999 Postgraduate Research Experience Questionnaire. Australian Council for Educational Research.Bass, B.M., Avolio, B.J., 1990. Transformational Leadership Development: Manual for the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire. Consulting Psychologists Press, California.-Facultad de Madrid, EspBentler, P.M. (1977). Factor simplicity index and transformations. Psychometrika. 59: 567-579.Bollen, K.A. (1989). 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Abstract How to decide what to do
How to decide what to do?Mehdi Dastania,*,Joris Hulstijn a ,Leendert van der TorrebaFaculty of Mathematics and Computer Science,Institute of Information and Computing Sciences,Utrecht University,P.O.BOX 80.089,Utrecht 3508TB,The NetherlandsbCWI Amsterdam,The NetherlandsReceived 14January 2002;accepted 15June 2003Available online 18December 2003AbstractThere are many conceptualizations and formalizations of decision making.In this paper we compare classical decision theory with qualitative decision theory,knowledge-based systems and belief–desire–intention models developed in artificial intelligence and agent theory.They all contain representations of information and motivation.Examples of informational attitudes are probability distributions,qualitative abstractions of probabilities,knowledge,and beliefs.Examples of motivational attitudes are utility functions,qualitative abstractions of utilities,goals,and desires.Each of them encodes a set of alternatives to be chosen from.This ranges from a small predetermined set,a set of decision variables,through logical formulas,to branches of a tree representing events through time.Moreover,they have a way of formulating how a decision is made.Classical and qualitative decision theory focus on the optimal decisions rep-resented by a decision rule.Knowledge-based systems and belief–desire–intention models focus on an alternative conceptualization to formalize decision making,inspired by cognitive notions like belief,desire,goal and intention.Relations among these concepts express an agent type,which constrains the deliberation process.We also consider the relation between decision processes and intentions,and the relation between game theory and norms and commitments.Ó2003Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.Keywords:Artificial intelligence;Classical decision theory;Qualitative decision theory;Knowledge-based systems;Belief–desire–intention models1.IntroductionThere are several conceptualizations and for-malizations of decision making.Classical decision theory [30,45]is developed within economics andforms the main theory of decision making used within operations research.It conceptualizes a decision as a choice from a set of alternative ac-tions.The relative preference for an alternative is expressed by a utility value.A decision is rational when it maximizes expected utility.Qualitative variants of decision theory [5,39]are developed in artificial intelligence.They use the same conceptualization as classical decision theory,but preferences are typically uncertain,*Corresponding author.Tel.:+31-30-2533599;fax:+31-30-2513791.E-mail addresses:mehdi@cs.uu.nl (M.Dastani),jo-rish@cs.uu.nl (J.Hulstijn),torre@cwi.nl (L.van der Torre).0377-2217/$-see front matter Ó2003Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.ejor.2003.06.038European Journal of Operational Research 160(2005)762–784/locate/dswformulated in general terms,dependent on uncer-tain assumptions and subject to change.A pref-erence is often expressed in terms of a trade-off.Knowledge-based systems[37]are developed in artificial intelligence too.They consist of a high-level conceptual model in terms of knowledge and goals of an application domain,such as the med-ical or legal domain,together with a reusable inference scheme for a task,like classification or configuration.Methodologies for modeling, developing and testing knowledge-based systems in complex organizations have matured,see[46].Belief–desire–intention models––typically re-ferred to as BDI models––are developed in phi-losophy and agent theory[7,13,15,31,42].They are motivated by applications like robotic planning, which they conceptualize using cognitive concepts like belief,desire and intention.An intention can be interpreted as a previous decision that con-strains the set of alternatives from which an agent can choose,and it is therefore a factor to stabilize the decision making behavior through time.1.1.Distinctions and similaritiesIn this paper we are interested in relations among the theories,systems and models that ex-plain the decision-making behavior of rational agents.The renewed interest in the foundations of decision making is due to the automation of decision making in the context of tasks like plan-ning,learning,and communication in autonomous systems[5,7,14,17].The following example of Doyle and Thomason [24]on automation offinancial advice dialogues illustrates decision making in the context of more general tasks.A user who seeks advice about financial planning wants to retire early,secure a good pension and maximize the inheritance of her children.She can choose between a limited number of actions:retire at a certain age,invest her savings and give certain sums of money to her children.Her decision can therefore be modeled in terms of the usual decision theoretic parameters.However,she does not know all factors that might influence her decision.She does not know if she will get a pay raise next year,the outcome of herfinancial actions is uncertain,and her own preferences may not be clear since,for example,securing her own pension conflicts with her childrenÕs inheritance.An expe-rienced decision theoretic analyst therefore inter-actively guides the user through the decision process,indicating possible choices and desirable consequences.As a result the user may drop initial preferences by,for example,preferring to continue working for anotherfive years before retiring.The most visible distinction among the theories, systems and models is that knowledge-based sys-tems and beliefs–desire–intention models describe decision making in terms of cognitive attitudes such as knowledge,beliefs,desires,goals,and intentions.In the dialogue example,instead of trying to detail the preferences of the user in terms of probability distributions and utility functions, they try to describe her cognitive state.Moreover,knowledge-based systems and be-liefs–desire–intention models focus less on the definition of the optimal decision represented by the decision rule,but instead also discuss the way decisions are reached.They are therefore some-times identified with theories of deliberation in-stead of decision theories[16,17].However,as illustrated by the dialogue example,in classical decision theory the way to reach optimal decisions has also been studied in decision theoretic practice called decision analysis.Other apparent distinctions can be found by studying the historic development of the various conceptualizations and formalizations of decision making.After the introduction of classical deci-sion theory,it was soon criticized by SimonÕs no-tion of limited or bounded rationality,and his introduction of utility aspiration levels[49].This has led to the notion of a goal in knowledge-based systems.The research area of qualitative decision theory developed much more recently out of re-search on reasoning under uncertainty.It focusses on theoretical models of decision making with potential applications in planning.The research area of belief–desire–intention models developed out of philosophical arguments that––besides the knowledge and goals used in knowledge-based systems––also intentions should befirst class citi-zens of a cognitive theory of deliberation.The example of automatingfinancial advice dialogues also illustrates some criticism onM.Dastani et al./European Journal of Operational Research160(2005)762–784763classical decision theory.According to Doyle and Thomason,the interactive process of preference elicitation cannot be automated in decision theory itself,although they acknowledge the approaches and methodologies available in decision theoretic practice.For example,they suggest that it is diffi-cult to describe the alternative actions to decide on,and that classical decision theory is not suit-able to model generic preferences.A historical analysis may reveal and explain apparent distinctions among the theories,systems and models,but its also hides the similarities among them.We therefore adopt another meth-odology for our comparison.We choose several representative theories for each tradition,and look for similarities and differences between these particular theories.1.2.Representative theoriesFor the relation between classical and qualitative decision theory we discuss the work of Doyle and Thomason[24]and Pearl[39].For the relation be-tween qualitative decision theory and knowledge-based systems and belief–desire–intention models we focus on the different interpretations of goals in the work of Boutilier[5]and Rao and Georgeff[42]. For the direct relation between classical decision theory and belief–desire–intention models we dis-cuss Rao and GeorgeffÕs translation of decision trees to belief–desire–intention models[41].Clearly the results of this comparison between representative theories and systems cannot be generalized directly to a comparison between re-search areas.Moreover,the discussion in this paper cannot do justice to the subtleties defined in each approach.We therefore urge the reader to read the original papers.However,this comparison gives some interesting insights into the relation among the areas,and these insights are a good starting point for further and more complete comparisons.A summary of the comparison is given in Table1.In our comparison,some concepts can be mapped easily onto concepts of other theories and systems.For example,all theories and systems use some kind of informational attitude(probabilities, qualitative abstractions of probabilities,knowl-edge or beliefs)and some kind of motivational attitude(utilities,qualitative abstractions of utili-ties,goals or desires).Other concepts are more ambiguous,such as intentions.In goal-based planning for example,goals have both a desiring and an intending aspect[22].Some qualitative decision theories like[5]have been developed as a criticism to the inflexibility of the notion of goal in goal-based planning.The table also illustrates that we discuss two extensions of classical decision theory in this pa-per.In particular,we consider the relation between decision processes and intentions,and the relation between game theory and the role of norms and commitments in belief–desire–intention models. Our discussion of time and decision processes fo-cusses on the role of intentions in Rao and Geor-geffÕs work[42]and our discussion on multiple agents and game theory focusses on the role of norms in a logic of commitments[9].The relations between the areas may suggest a common underlying abstract theory of the deci-sion making process,but our comparison does not suggest that one approach can be exchanged for another one.Due to the distinct motivations of the areas,and probably due also to the varying con-Table1Theories,systems and models discussed in this paperClassical decision theory (CDT)Qualitative decision theory(QDT)Knowledge-based systems(KBS/BDI)Underlying concepts Probability function Likelihood ordering Knowledge/belief Utility function Preference ordering Goal/desireDecision rule Decision criterion Agent type/deliberationTime(Markov)decision processes Decision theoretic planning Belief–desire–intention models&systems Multiagent Classical game theory Qualitative game theory Normative systems(BOID)764M.Dastani et al./European Journal of Operational Research160(2005)762–784ceptualizations and formalizations,the areas have studied distinct elements of the decision making process.Our comparison therefore not only con-siders the similarities,but we also discuss some distinctions which suggests ways for further re-search to incorporate results of one area into an-other one.We discuss qualitative decision theory in more detail than knowledge-based systems and belief–desire–intention models,because it is closer to classical decision theory and has been positioned as an intermediary between classical decision the-ory and the others[24].Throughout the paper we restrict ourselves to formal theories and logics,and do not go into system architectures or into the philosophical motivations of the underlying cog-nitive or social concepts.The layout of this paper is as follows.In Section2we discuss classical and qualitative decision theory.In Section3we discuss goals in qualitative decision theory,knowledge-based sys-tems and belief–desire–intention models.In Sec-tion4we compare classical decision theory and Rao and GeorgeffÕs belief–desire–intention model. Finally,in Section5we discuss intentions and norms in extensions of classical decision theory that deal with time by means of processes,and that deal with multiple agents by means of game theory.2.Classical versus qualitative decision theoryIn this section we compare classical and quali-tative decision theory,based on Doyle and Tho-masonÕs introduction to qualitative decision theory [24]and PearlÕs qualitative decision theory[39].2.1.Classical decision theoryIn classical decision theory,a decision is the selection of an action from a set of alternative actions.Decision theory does not have much to say about actions––neither about their nature nor about how a set of alternative actions becomes available to the decision maker.A decision is good if the decision maker believes that the selected action will prove at least as good as the other alternative actions.A good decision is formally characterized as the action that maximizes ex-pected utility,a notion which involves both belief and desirability.See[30,45]for further explana-tions on the foundations of decision theory.Definition1.Let A stand for a set of alternative actions.With each action,a set of outcomes is associated.Let W stand for the set of all possible worlds or outcomes.1Let U be a measure of outcome value that assigns a utility UðwÞto each outcome w2W,and let P be a measure of the probability of outcomes conditional on actions, with Pðw j aÞdenoting the probability that out-come w comes about after taking action a2A in the situation under consideration.The expected utility EUðaÞof an action a is the average utility of the outcomes associated with the action,weighing the utility of each outcome by the probability that the outcome results from the action,that is,EUðaÞ¼Pw2WUðwÞPðw j aÞ.A rational decision maker always maximizes ex-pected utility,i.e.,it selects action a from the set of alternative actions A such that for all actions b in A we have EUðaÞP EUðbÞ.This decision rule is called maximization of expected utility and typi-cally referred to as MEU.Many variants and extensions of classical deci-sion theory have been developed.For example,in some presentations of classical decision theory,not only uncertainty about the effect of actions is considered,but also uncertainty about the present state.A classic result is that uncertainty about the effects of actions can be expressed in terms of uncertainty about the present state.Moreover, several other decision rules have been investigated, including qualitative ones,such as WaldÕs criterion of maximization of the utility of the worst possible outcome.Finally,classical decision theory has been extended in various ways to deal with mul-tiple objectives,sequential decisions,multiple agents and notions of risk.The extensions with sequential decisions and multiple agents are dis-cussed in Sections5.1and5.2.1Note that outcomes are usually represented by X.Here we use W to facilitate our comparison.M.Dastani et al./European Journal of Operational Research160(2005)762–784765Decision theory has become one of the main foundations of economic theory due to so-called representation theorems,such as the famous one by Savage[45].It shows that each decision maker obeying certain plausible postulates(about weighted choices)acts as if he were applying the MEU decision rule with some probability distri-bution and utility function.Thus,the decision maker does not have to be aware of it and the utility function does not have to represent selfish-ness.In fact,altruistic decision makers also act as if they were maximizing expected utility.They only use another utility function than selfish decision makers do.2.2.Qualitative decision theoryAccording to Doyle and Thomason[24,p.58], quantitative representations of probability and utility and procedures for computing with these representations do provide an adequate frame-work for manual treatment of simple decision problems,but are less successful in more realistic cases.They suggest that classical decision theory does not address decision making in unforeseen circumstances,offers no means for capturing gen-eric preferences,provides little help to decision makers who exhibit discomfort with numeric trade offs,and provides little help in effectively repre-senting decisions involving broad knowledge of the world.Doyle and Thomason therefore argue for a number of new research issues:formalization of generic probabilities and generic preferences, properties of the formulation of a decision prob-lem,mechanisms for providing reasons and explanations,revision of preferences,practical qualitative decision-making procedures and agent modeling.Moreover,they argue that hybrid rea-soning with quantitative and qualitative tech-niques,as well as reasoning within context,deserve special attention.Many of these issues are studied in artificial intelligence.It appears that researchers now realize the need to reconnect the methods of artificial intelligence with the qualitative founda-tions and quantitative methods of economics.First results have been obtained in the area of reasoning under uncertainty,a sub-domain of artificial intelligence which mainly attracts researchers with a background in nonmonotonic reasoning.Often the formalisms of reasoning under uncertainty are re-applied in the area of decision making.Typically uncertainty is not represented by a probability function,but by a plausibility function,a possibilistic function, Spohn-type rankings,etc.Another consequence of this historic development is that the area of qual-itative decision theory is more mathematically oriented than the knowledge-based systems or the belief–desire–intention community.The representative example we use in ourfirst comparison is the work of Pearl[39].A so-called semi-qualitative ranking jðwÞcan be considered as an order-of-magnitude approximation of a prob-ability function PðwÞby writing PðwÞas a poly-nomial of some small quantity and by taking the most significant term of that polynomial.Simi-larly,a ranking lðwÞcan be considered as an approximation of a utility function UðwÞ.There is one more subtlety here.Whereas j rankings are positive,the l rankings can be either positive or negative.This represents the fact that outcomes can be either very desirable or very undesirable. Definition2.A belief ranking function jðwÞis an assignment of non-negative integers to outcomes or possible worlds w2W such that jðwÞ¼0for at least one world.Intuitively,jðwÞrepresents the degree of surprise associated withfinding a world w realized,and worlds assigned jðwÞ¼0are considered serious possibilities.Likewise,lðwÞis an integer-valued utility ranking of worlds. Moreover,both probabilities and utilities are de-fined as a function of the same ,which is treated as an infinitesimal quantity(smaller than any real number).C is a constant and O is the order of magnitude.PðwÞ$C jðwÞ;UðwÞ¼Oð1= lðwÞÞ;if lðwÞP0;ÀOð1= ÀlðwÞÞ;otherwise:ð1ÞThis definition illustrates the use of abstractions of probabilities and utilities.However,we still have to relativize the probability distribution,and therefore the expected utility,to actions.This is766M.Dastani et al./European Journal of Operational Research160(2005)762–784more complex than in classical decision theory, and is discussed in the following section.2.3.RelationWefirst discuss similarities between the set of alternatives and the decision rules to select the optimal action.Then we discuss an apparent dis-tinction between the two approaches.2.3.1.AlternativesIn classical decision problems the alternative actions typically correspond to a few atomic variables,whereas Pearl assumes a set of actions of the formÔDo(u)Õfor every proposition u.That is, where in classical decision theory we defined Pðw j aÞfor alternatives a in A and worlds w in W, in PearlÕs approach we write Pðw j DoðuÞÞor sim-ply Pðw j uÞfor any proposition u.In PearlÕs semantics such an alternative can be identified with the set of worlds that satisfy u,since a valu-ation function assigns a truth value to every proposition at each world of W.We could there-fore also write Pðw j VÞwith V W.Consequently,examples formalized in PearlÕs theory typically consider much more alternatives than examples formalized in classical decision theory.However,the set of alternatives of both theories can easily be mapped to each other. Classical decision theory also works well with a large number of atomic variables,and the set of alternatives in PearlÕs theory can be restricted by adding logical constraints to the alternatives.2.3.2.Decision ruleBoth classical decision theory as presented in Definition1and PearlÕs qualitative decision theory as presented in Definition2can deal with trade-offs between normal situations and exceptional situations.The decision rule from PearlÕs theory differs from decision criteria such asÔmaximize the utility of the worst outcomeÕ.This qualitative decision rule of classical decision theory has been used in the purely qualitative decision theory of Boutilier[5]which is discussed in the following section.The decision criteria from purely qualita-tive decision theories do not seem to be able to make trade-offs between such alternatives.The problem with a purely qualitative approach is that it is unclear how,besides the most likely situations,also less likely situations can be taken into account.We are interested in situations which are unlikely,but which have a high impact,i.e.,an extremely high or low utility.For example,the probability that your house will burn down is very small,but it is also very unpleasant.Some people therefore decide to take an insurance.In a purely qualitative setting there does not seem to be an obvious way to compare a likely but mildly important effect to an unlikely but important ef-fect.Going from quantitative to qualitative we may have gained computational efficiency,but we seem to have lost one of the useful properties of decision theory.The ranking order solution proposed by Pearl is based on two ideas.First,the initial probabilities and utilities are neither represented by quantitative probability distributions and utility functions,nor by pure qualitative orders,but by a semi-qualita-tive order in between.Second,the two semi-qual-itative functions are assumed to be comparable in a suitable sense.This is called the commensurability assumption[26].Consider for example likely and moderately interesting worlds(jðwÞ¼0,lðwÞ¼0)or unlikely but very important worlds(jðwÞ¼1,lðwÞ¼1). These cases have become comparable.Although PearlÕs order of magnitude approach can deal with trade-offs between normal and exceptional cir-cumstances,it is less clear how it can deal with trade-offs between two effects under normal cir-cumstances.2.3.3.A distinction and a similarityPearl explains that in his setting the expected utility of a proposition u depends on how we came to know u.For example,if wefind the ground wet, it matters whether we happened tofind the ground wet(observation)or watered the ground(action). In thefirst case,finding u true may provide information about the natural process that led to the observation u,and we should change the current probability from PðwÞto Pðw j uÞ.In the second case,our actions may perturb the natural flow of events,and PðwÞwill change without shedding light on the typical causes of u.This isM.Dastani et al./European Journal of Operational Research160(2005)762–784767represented differently,by P uðwÞ.According to Pearl,the distinction between Pðw j uÞand P uðwÞcorresponds to distinctions found in a variety of theories,such as the distinction between condi-tioning and imaging[36],between belief revision and belief update,and between indicative and subjunctive conditionals.However,it does not seem to correspond to a distinction in classical decision theory,although it may be related to discussions in the context of the logic of decision [30].One of the tools Pearl uses for the formal-ization of this distinction are causal networks:a kind of Bayesian networks with actions.A similarity between the two theories is that both suppress explicit reference to time.In this respect Pearl is inspired by deontic logic,the logic of obligations and permissions discussed in Section 5.2.Pearl suggests that his approach differs in this respect from other theories of action in planning and knowledge-based systems,since they are nor-mally formulated as theories of temporal change. Such theories are discussed in the comparison in the following section.3.Qualitative decision theory versus BDI logicIn this section,we give a comparison between qualitative decision theory and belief–desire–intention models,based on their interpretation of beliefs and goals.We use representative qualitative theories that are defined on possible worlds, namely BoutilierÕs version of qualitative decision theory[5]and Rao and GeorgeffÕs belief–desire–intention logic[41,43,44].3.1.Qualitative decision theory(continued)BoutilierÕs qualitative decision theory[5]may be called purely qualitative,because its semantics does not contain any numbers,but abstract pref-erence relations.It is developed in the context of planning.Goals serve a dual role in most planning systems,capturing aspects of both desires towards states and commitment to pursuing that state[22]. In goal-based planning,adopting a proposition as a goal commits the agent tofind some way to accomplish the goal,even if this requires adopting subgoals that may not correspond to desirable propositions themselves[19].Context-sensitive goals are formalized with basic concepts from decision theory[5,19,25].In general,goal-based planning must be extended with a mechanism to choose which goals must be adopted.To this end Boutilier proposes a logic for representing and reasoning with qualitative probabilities and utili-ties,and suggests several strategies for qualitative decision making based on this logic.The MEU decision rule is replaced by a quali-tative rule,for example by WaldÕs criterion.Con-ditional preference is captured by a preference ordering(an ordinal value function)defined on possible worlds.The preference ordering repre-sents the relative desirability of worlds.Boutilier says that w6P v when w is at least as preferred as v, but possibly more.Similarly,probabilities are captured by a normality ordering6N on possible worlds,which represents their relative likelihood. Definition3.The semantics of BoutilierÕs logic is based on models of the formM¼h W;6P;6N;V i;ð2Þwhere W is a set of possible worlds(outcomes),6P is a reflexive,transitive and connected preference ordering relation on W,6N is a reflexive,transi-tive and connected normality ordering relation on W,and V is a valuation function.Conditional preferences are represented in the logic by means of modal formulas Iðu j wÞ,to be read asÔideally u if wÕ.A model M satisfies the formula Iðu j wÞif the the most preferred or min-imal w worlds with respect to6P are u worlds. For example,let u be the propositionÔthe agent carries an umbrellaÕand r be the propositionÔit is rainingÕ,then Iðu j rÞexpresses that in the most preferred rain-worlds the agent carries an um-brella.Similar to preferences,probabilities are represented in the logic by a default conditional ).For example,let w be the propositionÔthe agent is wetÕand r be the propositionÔit is rainingÕ, then r)w expresses that the agent is wet at the most normal rain-worlds.The semantics of this operator is used in HanssonÕs deontic logic[27]for a modal operator O to model obligation,and by768M.Dastani et al./European Journal of Operational Research160(2005)762–784。
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