外文资料范例
毕业设计(论文)外文资料及译文(模板)
大连东软信息学院
毕业设计（论文）外文资料及译文
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大连东软信息学院
Dalian Neusoft University of Information
外文资料和译文格式要求
一、装订要求
1、外文资料原文（复印或打印）在前、译文在后、最后为指导教师评定成绩。
2、译文必须采用计算机输入、打印。
3、A4幅面打印，于左侧装订。
二、撰写要求
1、外文文献内容与所选课题相关。
2、本科学生译文汉字字数不少于4000字，高职学生译文汉字字数不少于2000字。
三、格式要求
1、译文字号：中文小四号宋体，英文小四号“Times New Roman”字型，全文统一，首行缩进2个中文字符，1.5倍行距。
2、译文页码：页码用阿拉伯数字连续编页，字体采用“Times New Roman”字体，字号小五，页底居中。
3、译文页眉：眉体使用单线，页眉说明五号宋体，居中“大连东软信息学院本科毕业设计（论文）译文”。
外文参考资料
Reference material：1．First part：about Industrial EngineeringFrom: 《Industrial Engineering Overview》Industrial engineers determine the most effective ways to use the basic factors of production --people, machines, materials, information, and energy --to make a product or to provide a service. They are the bridge between management goals and operational performance. They are more concerned with increasing productivity through the management of people, methods of business organization, and technology than are engineers in other specialties, who generally work more with products or processes. Although most industrial engineers work in manufacturing industries, they may also work in consulting services, healthcare, and communications.To solve organizational, production, and related problems most efficiently, industrial engineers carefully study the product and its requirements, use mathematical methods such as operations research to meet those requirements, and design manufacturing and information systems. The y develop management control systems to aid in financial planning and cost analysis and design production planning and control systems to coordinate activities and ensure product quality. They also design or improve systems for the physical distribution of goods and services. Industrial engineers determine which plant location has the best combination of raw materials availability, transportation facilities, and costs. Industrial engineers use computers for simulations and to control various activities and devices, such as assembly lines and robots. They also develop wage and salary administration systems and job evaluation programs. Many industrial engineers move into management positions because the work is closely related.The work of health and safety engineers is similar to that of industrial engineers in that it deals with the entire production process. Health and safety engineers promote worksite or product safety and health by applying knowledge of industrial processes, as well as mechanical, chemical, and psychological principles. They must be able to anticipate, recognize, and evaluate hazardous conditions as well as develop hazard control methods. They also must be familiar with the application of health and safety regulations.《Research on the Core of Industrial Engineering》III. TWO SOURCES OF THINKING ON ELIMINATING INEFFECTIVE WORK The original EIW thinking can be traced back to the reason why Britishpre-industrial revolution can increase British national wealth that had been analyzed by Adam Smith in his classical work of “AN INQUIRE INTO THE NATURE AND CAUSES OF THE WEALTH OF NATIONS”. The second source is E.Whitney’s Interchangeability of Parts.Adam Smith considered that the reason upon British national wealth tremendous increasing in British preindustrial revolution was the labor productivitybeing improved. However, how to enhance labor productivity? Adam Smith deemed that depended on division of labor because “depending on division of labor, the same amount laborers c an achieve much more workload”. And that originated from three reasons: “First, laborer’s skills are continuously improved because of specialization; Second, as the division of labor, the time being lose in transferring from one work to another can be saved; Third, one worker can make a few person’s work using mechanism invented for simplifying and shorting work”.To sum up, the reasons improving labor productivity stated by Adam Smith are the methods of simplifying labor and saving labor; and it is the chief source of EIW thinking.Adam Smith as a economist observed and studied primarily how to simplify labor and save labor by methods of labor division and technology in British workshop; then E.Whitney as a inventor proceeded the engineering practice on simplifying labor and saving labor that was called E.Whitney’s Interchangeability of Parts, which was an inherit and development of Adam Smith’s technology methods to save labor and simplify labor.E.Whitney(American, 1765 ～1825) realized the Interchangeability of parts applied for manufacturing Mausers from inventing a gin.At that time, European had little knowledge on Interchangeability of Parts. The manufacturing methods in European workshop were individual manufacturing only by a rasp, repeating filing and trial assemblies. And E.Whitney had saved and simplified the labor in a process of manufacturing Mausers by the Interchangeability of parts, which initiated a batch production using Interchangeability of Parts.It has found, in the process of tracing to IE source, that IE core, whether the classical IE or the modern IE, are EIW, which were revealed by Adam Smith and has been generalized by the authors. IE core has been penetrating the whole stages of its birth, development and would conduct IE in the future.IV. “SAVING LABOR”, “SIMPLIFYING LABOR” AND CLASSICAL IEV. MODERN IE: FROM “ELIMINATING WASTE” TO“ELIMINATING INEFFECTIVE WORK”A. TOYOTA Production and Lean Production: Eliminating wastes1) The composition and definition on workThere are three parts on work divided by TOYOTAProduction. The first part of work push the progress ofworking process and create value; The second part of work are wastesⅠ(MudaⅠ) being reserved because of limited condition of science, technology and production need. The third parts of work are the wastesⅡ(MudaⅡ) that must be eliminated immediately. TOYOTA Production deems there are 7 types of wastes as follows:a) Wastes by over production;b) Wastes by waiting for unbalanced production;c) Wastes by repeatedly carrying;d) Wastes produced by blueprint and technologies;e) Wastes by unnecessary stock;f) Wastes from unnecessary operations by operators;g) Wastes caused by low quality products.2) The innovation technologies of recognizing wastesIn order to completely eliminate wastes, it is important to persist in disclosing wastes by using technological innovation. Therefore TOYOTA has replaced classical 5W1H (What, Why, Where, When, Who, How) with new 5W1H (5Why,1How)[14]. Any types of wastes can be exposed by continuously inquiring from5why. But to disclose continuously wastes must be through developing continuous reasonable suggestion movement.3) The innovations both of ideas & technologies of controlling wastes and of pulling on production.Card management[15] is an order controlling Just In Time Production (JIT) and wastes. Card management, which nature is similar with interlocking mechanism and blocking mechanism in railway transportation controlling system, can control and eliminate wastes such as non-JIT Production, unnecessary stock and so on. Pulling production system is that can make the value stream of a certain production & service system flow and create value, namely pulling the manufacturer’s system of marketing, production and research & development, so that consumer can achieve pleasant products and services when necessary time. Card management is the controlling technology of pulling on production system. 4) Value stream chartValue stream chart includes:a) Defining value;b) Recognizing value stream;c) Flowing;d) Pulling on;e) To reach an acme of perfection.B. The Balancing among Product quality, Reliability and LCCThe availability is generalized product quality scale andis beneficial to protect the customers’ benefits:The theories of LCC were developed because the customer seriously focused the reliability and failure loss.VI. CONCLUSIONS1) Based on the core of IE, the both formulas resolving and synthesizing of works ,and on work efficiency can be expressed:2) The nature of EIW of IE is to liberate productive force. The basic IE core is toliberate physical labor and in the advanced stage it is to liberate intellect work.The intellect productive forces being liberated by IE core impel people toeliminate ineffective work by inventions and innovations so IE core is morefar-reaching.3) IE as an interdisciplinary and applying subject eliminates the ineffective workexisted in a worksite, R&D and a programming of projects by using maturetechnology, economy and management measures for inventing and innovating.So the measures influence upon improving effectiveness-cost is tremendous. Example of one method in industrial engineering：《Program design for Industrial Engineering education in China based on QFD》TABLE II. EDUCATION PROGRAM FOR IE STUDEN TS IN NANCHANG UNIVERSITY2．Second part：about motion studyFrom:《MOTION STUDY APPLIED TOENGINEERING》Motion study is that section of industrial psychology which aims at reducing the movements used in doing the work, and at eliminating all unnecessary fatigue. Principles of Motion Economy：From such detailed studies the following general principles of motion economy have been formed and these can be applied, without the accurate measurement, where through investigation is not warranted :(1) Every new system of movements should aim at establishing a rhythm, as thisnot only lessens the fatigue, but reduces the time of the operation and increases the operator's satisfaction.(2) All movements should involve as few members of the body as possible, withoutinterrupting the natural rhythm.(3) An operator should work with symmetrical movements as much as possible, sothat he can maintain a balanced posture and eliminate all uneven movements.(4) In developing the new system of movements every available part involved. Inhand movements the work should not be restricted to the thumb and first and second fingers, the palm of the hand and third and fourth fingers should also be used whenever possible.(5) All material and tools should be placed within areas of easiest reach. Whenconsidering hand movements there are two working areas, a normal and amaximum. The normal is for all movements of hand, wrist, and lower arm, in this case the easiest area for the right hand is within the semi-circle described on the bench using the elbow as centre, similarly for the left. The easiest area for both hands is the centre segment where the two semi-circles intersect. When the upper arm has to be used it is necessary to consider the maximum area, when the shoulder is the centre of the circle. Thus work should be laid out so that the bins into which the right hand goes are in the right segment, and those for the left hand in the left, and jigs and fixtures used by both hands in the centresegment. This means in practice that the work bins are in a semi-circularformation as in Fig. Hand tools should also be within areas of easiest reach. (6) Advantage should be taken of the human tendency to form habits. All materialand tools should be placed in exactly the same position each time so that there is no unnecessary fumbling, and also the eyes do not need to move from the work on the jig where they are focused. The work bins should be so designed that the parts all slip down to the front, so that the last part is picked up from exactly the same position as the first. Also all tools should be so placed that they are always in the position in which they have to be used. The spring returnyankee drivers have box keys in them and the operator uses one with each hand, as she finishes tightening the nut, she releases them and they jump back immediately on the arms to a set position. If they were only on a spring they would jump away, but would oscillate and not be in a set position when she wanted to use them again.Example of motion study from 《TIME AND MOTION STUDY AS AN AID TO PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT》：3．Third part：about human factors engineeringFrom：《Human Factors Engineering in the Metallurgical Industry EAF Protection System of Individual Applications and Development》《PLANNING FOR COST EFFECTIVE HUMAN FACTORS ENGINEERING AND SYSTEM SAFETY》Human Factors Engineering (HFE) covers the comprehensive integration of human characteristics into products and system design, including all aspects of workstation and workspace design. In order to achieve best practice in human factors, a Human Centred Design process should be adopted.Policy, guidance and standards, and methods, techniques and tools should be set out early in the programme. During design, Human Factors specialists are needed to work as part of the design team to develop detailed designs of process, systems or equipment, and apply basic tools and techniques, and ergonomic standards. For example, ergonomic standards are available to inform workspace design considerations, such as heat, light, noise, interface, physical access. Workstations, display systems, panel layouts, workspace access for normal working and maintenance operations and the physical environment also need to be ergonomically designed.Task analysis is a key technique to the success of the HFE approach, supporting analyses such as function allocation, workload and HRA assessments. It will also support workspace assessment which should consider all the activities required to be undertaken in a particular space within the facility.For more complex elements of the design, mock ups and prototypes should be developed, this not only allows the designer the opportunity to test the design, but assist in the facilitation of the user input to the design and usability assessments.The following two examples illustrate aspects of the facility design which were raised during the case study, and where earlier HFE applied to the design would have proved more effective.《human factors—a means of improving HSE performance》《DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE DESIGN CRITERIA STANDARD ---HUMAN ENGINEERING AMSC》4.4 Human engineering design.Design shall reflect human engineering, life support, andbiomedical factors that affect human performance, including, when applicable:a. satisfactory atmospheric conditions including composition, pressure, temperature and humidity, including safeguards against uncontrolled variability beyond acceptable limits;b. range of acoustic noise, vibration, acceleration, shock, blast, and impact forces and safeguards against uncontrolled variability beyond safe limits;c. protection from thermal, toxicological, radiological, mechanical, electrical, electromagnetic, pyrotechnic, visual, and other hazards;d. adequate space for personnel, their equipment, and free volume for the movements and activities they are required to perform during operation and maintenance tasks under both normal and emergency conditions;e. adequate physical, visual, auditory, and other communication links between personnel, and between personnel and their equipment, under both normal and emergency conditions;f. efficient arrangement of operation and maintenance workplaces, equipment, controls, and displays;g. provisions for ensuring safe, efficient task performance under reduced and elevated gravitational forces with safeguards against injury, equipment damage and disorientation;h. adequate natural or artificial illumination for the performance of operation, control, training, and maintenance;i. safe and adequate passageways, hatches, ladders, stairways, platforms, inclines, and other provisions for ingress, egress, and passage under normal, adverse, and emergency conditions;j. provision of acceptable personnel accommodations including body support and restraint, seating, rest, and sustenance, i.e., oxygen, food, water, and waste management;k. provision of non-restrictive personal life support and protective equipment;l. provisions for minimizing psychophysiological stress effects of mission duration and fatigue;m. design features to assure rapidity, safety, ease and economy of operation and maintenance in normal, adverse and emergency maintenance environments;n. satisfactory remote handling provisions and tools;o. adequate emergency systems for contingency management, escape, survival and rescue;p. compatibility of the design, location and layout of controls, displays, workspaces, maintenance accesses, stowage provisions, passenger compartments, allocated tasks, and control movements with the clothing and personal equipment to be worn by personnel operating, riding in, or maintaining military systems or equipment;q. design of work stations should be considered in all human-machine interfaces for operation on the move, where applicable.11。
通信工程外文文献
外文资料和中文翻译外文资料：Review of UMTS1.1 UMTS Network ArchitectureThe European/Japanese 3G standard is referred to as UMTS. UMTS is one of a number of standards ratified by the ITU-T under the umbrella of IMT-2000. It is currently the dominant standard, with the US CDMA2000 standard gaining ground, particularly with operators that have deployed cdmaOne as their 2G technology. At time of writing,Japan is the most advanced in terms of 3G network deployment. The three incumbent operators there have implemented three different technologies: J-Phone is using UMTS,KDDI has a CDMA2000 network, and the largest operator NTT DoCoMo is using a system branded as FOMA (Freedom of Multimedia Access). FOMA is based on the original UMTS proposal, prior to its harmonization and standardization.The UMTS standard is specified as a migration from the second generation GSM standard to UMTS via the General Packet Radio System (GPRS) and Enhanced Data for Global Evolution (EDGE), as shown in Figure. This is a sound rationale since as of April 2003, there were over 847 Million GSM subscribers worldwide1, accounting for68% of the global cellular subscriber figures. The emphasis is on keeping as much ofthe GSM network as possible to operate with the new system.We are now well on the road towards Third Generation (3G), where the network will support all traffic types: voice, video and data, and we should see an eventual explosion in the services available on the mobile device. The driving technology for this is the IP protocol. Many cellular operators are now at a position referred to as 2.5G, with the deployment of GPRS, which introduces an IP backbone into the mobile core network.The diagram below, Figure 2, shows an overview of the key components in a GPRS network, and how it fits into the existing GSM infrastructure.The interface between the SGSN and GGSN is known as the Gn interface and uses the GPRS tunneling protocol (GTP, discussed later). The primary reason for the introduction of this infrastructure is to offer connections to external packet networks, such as the Internet or a corporate Intranet.This brings the IP protocol into the network as a transport between the SGSN and GGSN. This allows data services such as email or web browsing on the mobile device,with users being charged based on volume of data rather than time connected.The dominant standard for delivery of 3G networks and services is the Universal Mobile Telecommunications System, or UMTS. The first deployment of UMTS is the Release ’99 architecture, shown below in Figure 3.In this network, the major change is in the radio access network (RAN) with the introduction of CDMA technology for the air interface, and ATM as a transport in the transmission part. These changes have been introduced principally to support the transport of voice, video and data services on the same network. The core network remains relatively unchanged, with primarily software upgrades. However, the IP protocol pushes further into the network with the RNC now communicating with the 3G SGSN using IP.The next evolution step is the Release 4 architecture, Figure 4. Here, the GSM core is replaced with an IP network infrastructure based around Voice over IP technology.The MSC evolves into two separate components: a Media Gateway (MGW) and an MSC Server (MSS). This essentially breaks apart the roles of connection and connection control. An MSS can handle multiple MGWs, making the network more scaleable.Since there are now a number of IP clouds in the 3G network, it makes sense to merge these together into one IP or IP/ATM backbone (it is likely both options will be available to operators.) This extends IP right across the whole network, all the way to the BTS.This is referred to as the All-IP network, or the Release 5 architecture, as shown in Figure 5. The HLR/VLR/EIR are generalised and referred to as the HLR Subsystem(HSS).Now the last remnants of traditional telecommunications switching are removed, leaving a network operating completely on the IP protocol, and generalised for the transport of many service types. Real-time services are supported through the introduction of a new network domain, the IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS).Currently the 3GPP are working on Release 6, which purports to cover all aspects not addressed in frozen releases. Some call UMTS Release 6 4G and it includes such issues as interworking of hot spot radio access technologies such as wireless LAN.1.2 UMTS FDD and TDDLike any CDMA system, UMTS needs a wide frequency band in which to operate to effectively spread signals. The defining characteristic of the system is the chip rate, where a chip is the width of one symbol of the CDMA code. UMTS uses a chip rate of 3.84Mchips/s and this converts to a required spectrum carrier of 5MHz wide. Since this is wider than the 1.25MHz needed for the existing cdmaOne system, the UMTS air interface is termed ‘wideband’ CDMA.There are actually two radio technologies under the UMTS umbrella: UMTS FDD and TDD. FDD stands for Frequency Division Duplex, and like GSM, separates traffic in the uplink and downlink by placing them at different frequency channels. Therefore an operator must have a pair of frequencies allocated to allow them to run a network, hence the term ‘paired spectrum’. TDD or Time Division Duplex requires only one frequency channel, and uplink and downlink traffic are separated by sending them at different times. The ITU-T spectrum usage, as shown in Figure 6, for FDD is 1920- 980MHz for uplink traffic, and 2110-2170MHz for downlink. The minimum allocation an operator needs is two paired 5MHz channels, one for uplink and one for downlink, at a separation of 190MHz. However, to provide comprehensive coverage and services, it is recommended that an operator be given three channels. Considering the spectrum allocation, there are 12 paired channels available, and many countries have now completed the licencing process for this spectrum, allocating between two and four channels per licence. This has tended to work out a costly process for operators, since the regulatory authorities in some countries, notably in Europe, have auctioned these licences to the highest bidder. This has resulted in spectrum fees as high as tens of billions of dollars in some countries.The Time Division Duplex (TDD) system, which needs only one 5MHz band in which to operate, often referred to as unpaired spectrum. The differences between UMTS FDD and TDD are only evident at the lower layers, particularly on the radio interface. At higher layers, the bulk of the operation of the two systems is the same. As the name suggests, the TDD system separates uplink and downlink traffic by placing them in different time slots. As will be seen later, UMTS uses a 10ms frame structure which is divided into 15 equal timeslots. TDD can allocate these to be either uplink or downlink,with one or more breakpoints between the two in a frame defined. In this way, it is well suited to packet traffic, since this allows great flexibility in dynamically dimensioning for asymmetry in traffic flow.The TDD system should not really be considered as an independent network, but rather as a supplementfor an FDD system to provide hotspot coverage at higher data rates. It is rather unsuitable for large scale deployment due to interference between sites, since a BTS may be trying to detect a weak signal from a UE, which is blocked out by a relatively strong signal at the same frequency from a nearby BTS. TDD is ideal for indoor coverage over small areas.Since FDD is the main access technology being developed currently, the explanations presented here will focus purely on this system.1.3 UMTS Bearer ModelThe procedures of a mobile device connecting to a UMTS network can be split into two areas: the access stratum (AS) and the non-access stratum (NAS). The access stratum involves all the layers and subsystems that offer general services to the non-access stratum. In UMTS, the access stratum consists of all of the elements in the radio access network, including the underlying ATM transport network, and the various mechanisms such as those to provide reliable information exchange. All of the non-access stratum functions are those between the mobile device and the core network, for example, mobility management. Figure 7 shows the architecture model. The AS interacts with the NAS through the use of service access points (SAPs).UMTS radio access network (UTRAN) provides this separation of NAS and AS functions, and allows for AS functions to be fully controlled and implemented within the UTRAN. The two major UTRAN interfaces are the Uu, which is the interface between the mobile device, or User Equipment (UE) and the UTRAN, and the Iu, which is the interface between the UTRAN and the core network. Both of these interfaces can be divided into control and user planes each with appropriate protocol functions.A Bearer Service is a link between two points, which is defined by a certain set of characteristics. In the case of UMTS, the bearer service is delivered using radio access bearers.A Radio access bearer (RAB) is defined as the service that the access stratum (i.e.UTRAN) provides to the non-access stratum for transfer of user data between the User Equipment and Core Network. A RAB can consist of a number of subflows, which are data streams to the core network within the RAB that have different QoS characteristics,such as different reliabilities. A common example of this is different classes of bits with different bit error rates can be realised as different RAB subflows. RAB subflows are established and released at the time the RAB is established and released, and are delivered together over the same transport bearer.A Radio Link is defined as a logical association between a single User Equipment (UE) and a single UTRAN access point, such as an RNC. It is physically comprised of one or more radio bearers and should not be confused with radio access bearer.Looking within the UTRAN, the general architecture model is as shown in Figure 8 below. Now shown are the Node B or Base Station (BTS) and Radio Network Controller (RNC) components, and their respective internal interfaces. The UTRAN is subdivided into blocks referred to as Radio Network Subsystems (RNS), where each RNS consists of one controlling RNC (CRNC) and all the BTSs under its control. Unique to UMTS is the interface between RNSs, the Iur interface, which plays a key role in handover procedures. The interface between the BTS and RNC is the Iub interface.All the ‘I’ interfaces: Iu, Iur and Iub, currently3 use ATM as a transport layer. In the context of ATM, the BTS is seen as a host accessing an ATM network, within which the RNC is an ATM switch. Therefore, the Iub is a UNI interface, whereas the Iu and Iur interfaces are considered to be NNI, as illustrated in Figure 9.This distinction is because the BTS to RNC link is a point-to-point connection in that a BTS or RNC will only communicate with the RNC or BTS directly connected to it, and will not require communication beyond that element to another network element.For each user connection to the core network, there is only one RNC, which maintains the link between the UE and core network domain, as highlighted in Figure 10. This RNC is referred to as the serving RNC or SRNC. That SRNC plus the BTSs under its control is then referred to as the SRNS. This is a logical definition with reference to that UE only. In an RNS, the RNC that controls a BTS is known as the controlling RNC or CRNC. This is with reference to the BTS, cells under its control and all the common and shared channels within.As the UE moves, it may perform a soft or hard handover to another cell. In the case of a soft handover, the SRNC will activate the new connection to the new BTS. Should the new BTS be under the control of another RNC, the SRNC will also alert this new RNC to activate a connection along the Iur interface. The UE now has two links, one directly to the SRNC, and the second, through the new RNC along the Iur interface. In this case, this new RNC is logically referred to as a drift RNC or DRNC, see Figure 10. It is not involved in any processing of the call and merely relays it to the SRNC for connection to the core. In summary, SRNC and DRNC are usually associated with the UE and the CRNC is associated with the BTS. Since these are logical functions it is normal practice that a single RNC is capable of dealing with all these functions.A situation may arise where a UE is connected to a BTS for which the SRNC is not the CRNC for that BTS. In that situation, the network may invoke the Serving RNC Relocation procedure to move the core network connection. This process is described inSection 3.中文翻译：通用移动通信系统的回顾1.1 UMTS网络架构欧洲/日本的3G标准，被称为UMTS。
外文文献及翻译格式模版
毕业设计外文文献及译文文献、资料题目：INTELLIGENT BUILDING ALARM 文献、资料来源：网络文献、资料发表(出版）日期：2012，2院（部)：信息与电气工程学院专业：电气工程与自动化班级：电气084姓名：邓红坤学号: 2008121017指导教师：王克河翻译日期：2012、2、29外文文献：INTELLIGENT BUILDING ALARMBACKGROUND OF THE INVENTIONThis invention relates to an intelligent alarm system for 5 detecting hazardous situations ina building informing building occupants of optimal escape routes or survival strategies and assisting emergency personnel in rescuing people inside the building。
Building hazards, including fire，earthquakes，intruders，etc., have the potential for large numbers of casualties. Effective building alarm systems must have the capability to process a plurality of input types to determine the nature of the situation involving danger to persons in thebuilding. The building alarm system must also have more than simple audio/visual outputs for helping people in the building find safe escape routes.Use of the term building in this invention refers to any structure including，but not limited to, office buildings, commercial buildings，factory/warehouses, residential homes, etc. Aspectsof building alarm systems are described 20 in, U.S。
绿色经济外文文献资料
绿色经济外文文献资料以下是关于绿色经济的一些外文文献资料：1. Green Economy - Concept, Principles and Issues Green Economy - Concept, Principles and Issues这篇文章系统地讲解了绿色经济的定义、原则和问题。
绿色经济是指通过减少生态足迹、提高能源和物质资源的效率、支持可持续生产和消费、促进公正和包容性等方式，推动经济发展和社会进步的一种经济模式。
然而，绿色经济面临的挑战包括可持续性标准的缺乏、技术和金融支持的不足、生态失衡问题的存在等。
2. The Green Economy and its Implementation in China The Green Economy and its Implementation in China中国是世界上最大的碳排放国之一，也是追求绿色经济的国家之一。
这篇文章介绍了中国在推动绿色经济方面所做的努力，包括建设低碳城市、发展可再生能源、加强环保法律等。
文章认为，中国面临的绿色经济挑战包括城市化进程的压力、能源结构的不平衡等。
这篇报告介绍了“生态系统与生物多样性经济学”（TEEB）的理念和目标。
TEEB旨在通过评估生态系统和生物多样性的价值，揭示生态系统的贡献和相关的经济收益，为制定政策提供科学依据。
报告认为，绿色经济的成功实施需要政策、科技、市场等方面的支持，同时还需要将大自然的贡献纳入经济计算，并且将全社会变成绿色经济行动者。
4. Sustainable Development and the Green Economy Sustainable Development and the Green Economy本文综述了绿色经济的概念和原则，以及可持续发展的历史和实践。
绿色经济被认为是可持续发展模式的一个重要方面，其关注点包括生态和社会价值、公民参与、技术创新和政策合作等。
毕业论文外文资料翻译【范本模板】
毕业论文外文资料翻译题目(宋体三号，居中）学院（全称，宋体三号，居中)专业(全称，宋体三号，居中）班级（宋体三号,居中）学生（宋体三号，居中）学号（宋体三号,居中)指导教师(宋体三号，居中)二〇一〇年月日(宋体三号，居中，时间与开题时间一致）（英文原文装订在前)Journal of American Chemical Society, 2006, 128(7）: 2421-2425. (文献翻译必须在中文译文第一页标明文献出处:即文章是何期刊上发表的,X年X卷X 期,格式如上例所示,四号，右对齐，杂志名加粗。
)［点击输入译文题目—标题1,黑体小二][点击输入作者，宋体小四］[点击输入作者单位，宋体五号］摘要［点击输入，宋体五号]关键词［点击输入,宋体五号]1［点击输入一级标题-标题2，黑体四号］［点击输入正文，宋体小四号，1。
25倍行距］1。
1［点击输入二级标题-标题3，黑体小四］［点击输入正文,宋体小四，1。
25倍行距]1.1。
1[点击输入三级标题-标题4，黑体小四］［点击输入正文,宋体小四，1。
25倍行距］说明：1.外文文章必须是正规期刊发表的。
2.翻译后的中文文章必须达到2000字以上，并且是一篇完整文章。
3.必须要有外文翻译的封面,使用学校统一的封面；封面上的翻译题目要写翻译过来的中文题目；封面上时间与开题时间一致。
4.外文原文在前，中文翻译在后；5.中文翻译中要包含题目、摘要、关键词、前言、全文以及参考文献,翻译要条理清晰，中文翻译要与英文一一对应.6.翻译中的中文文章字体为小四，所有字母、数字均为英文格式下的，中文为宋体,标准字符间距。
7.原文中的图片和表格可以直接剪切、粘贴，但是表头与图示必须翻译成中文。
8.图表必须居中，文章段落应两端对齐、首行缩进2个汉字字符、1.25倍行距。
例如:图1. 蛋白质样品的PCA图谱与8-卟啉识别排列分析(a)或16—卟啉识别排列分析（b).为了得到 b的数据矩阵，样品用16—卟啉识别排列分析来检测，而a 是通过捕获首八卟啉接收器数据矩阵从b 中萃取的.。
外文资料原文及译文
外文资料原文及译文南通大学法政与管理学院2009年06月HOW DO THE CHINESE PERCEIVE HARMONIOUSCORPORATE CULTURE:An Empirical Study on Dimensions of Harmonious Corporate CultureLianke SONG，Hao YANG，Lan YANGABSTRACT The Sixth Plenary Session of the 16th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China points out creating harmonious culture is an important task for building socialist harmonious society. Building harmonious culture needs all companies to create harmonious culture, because a company is a basic social unit. Henceforth, many Chinese companies advocate building harmonious corporate culture. Scholars must study basic theories for harmonious corporate culture. This study tried to answer two questions: What is harmonious corporate culture in Chinese mind and how do different Chinese perceive harmonious corporate culture? Firstly, this paper analyzed background of harmonious corporate culture from Chinese traditional culture and era needs. Secondly, authors designed an open-ended questionnaire and sent them to employees in Jiangsu and Shanghai. 329 questionnaires were collected and 291 questionnaires were valid, representing a response rate of 88.45%. Thirdly, this study explored dimensions of harmonious corporate culture and identified different viewpoints from different group. Finally, this paper discussed the results and pointed out limitations of this study and future research. The results of this paper were on basis of defining, measuring, analyzing, and creating harmonious corporate culture.1. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND QUESTIONSThe Fourth Plenary Session of the 16th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China puts forward building socialist harmonious societies and the sixth plenary session of the 16th central committee of the communist party of China points out creating harmonious culture is an important task for building socialist harmonious society. Building harmonious culture needs all companies to create harmonious culture, because a company is a basic social unit[1].Why do Chinese corporations advocate harmonious corporate culture? Maybe Chinese traditional culture and era needs are responsible.Chinese philosophy has a history of several thousand years. Its origins are often traced back to the Book of Changs (yi jing), which introduced some of the most fundamental terms of Chinese philosophy. Its first flowering is generally considered to have been in about the 6th century BC, but it draws on an oral tradition that goes back to Neolithic times.The Tao Te Ching (dao de jing) of Lao Tzu (lao zi) and the Analects (lun yu)of Confucius (kong zi) both appeared around the 6th century BC, around the time of early Buddhist philosophy.Confucianism focuses on the fields of ethics and politics, emphasizing personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice, traditionalism, and sincerity. Confucianism and legalism are responsible for creating the world’s first meritocracy. Confucianism was and continues to be a major influence on Chinese culture. Harmonious culture is meant to respect the tradition of established virtue under Confucius upon "harmony with differences" while exploring extensively our cultural resources and cultural ideas or beliefs.The Chinese schools of philosophy, except during the Qin Dynasty, can be both critical and tolerant of one another. Despite the debates and competition, they generally have cooperated and shared ideas, which they would usually incorporate with their own.Harmony was a central concept in Chinese ancient philosophy. Confucian, Taoist, Buddhist and Legalist that are the major Chinese traditions all prize “harmony” as an ultimate value, but they disagree on how to achieve it. Confucians in particular emphasize the single-character term for “harmony” (he), which appears in all of Confucianism’s “Four Books and Five Classics” (si shu wu jing). The most forceful articulation of identification of personal and communal harmony comes from the Doctrine of the Mean (zhong yong), which defines harmony as a state of equilibriumw here pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy are moderated and restrained, claiming “all things in the universe to attain the way”.During the Industrial and Modern Ages, Chinese philosophy began to integrate the concepts of Western philosophy. Chinese philosophy attempted to incorporate democracy, republicanism and industrialism. Mao Zedong added Marxism, Stalinism and other communist thoughts. The government of the People’s Republic of China initiates Socialism with Chinese Characteristics.The theoretical bases of harmonious socialist society are Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thoughts, Deng Xiaoping Theory, and the important thought of "Three Represents" (That is, the CPC must always represent the development trend of China's advanced productive forces, the orientation of China's advanced culture, and the fundamental interests of the overwhelming majority of the people in China.).Six main characteristics of a harmonious society are democracy and the rule of law, fairness and justice, integrity and fraternity, vitality, stability and order, and harmony between man and nature. The principles observed in building a harmonious socialist society are as the following: people oriented; development in a scientific way; in-depth reform and opening up; democracy and the rule of law; properly handling the relationships between reform, development and stability; and the participation of the whole society under the leadership of the Party.The authors tried to define harmonious corporate culture: harmonious corporate culture is the corporate culture that adheres to people-oriented principle and considers harmony as a core concept, by managing in good faith and scientific administration to achieve harmony among enterprises, society and nature, and eventually make enterprises develop harmoniously and healthily.Chinese traditional culture is the basis of harmonious corporate culture. Era need is the direction of harmonious corporate culture. “Harmonious Corporate Culture” is a new identification and is different from any existent conceptions. What is harmonious corporate culture? This study wants to answer this question by analyzing Chinese viewpoints from open-ended questionnaires.Question 1: What is harmonious corporate culture in Chinese mind?Harmonious corporate culture is a new and special conception for Chinese. General views of Chinese can be found by searching dimensions of harmonious corporate culture. In fact, different people have different ideas. Maybe there are differences among different groups, which can be classified by sex, age, education and position. This study will find and explain those differences.Question 2: How do different Chinese perceive harmonious corporate culture?Today, many Chinese companies advocate building harmonious corporate culture. Understanding conception and characters of harmonious corporate culture are very important. This paper will answer two questions which are the basis of this field.2. METHODS2.1 Sample and ProcedureThe empirical analysis was carried out in Jiangsu and Shanghai. J iangsu’s economic and social development has always been taking the lead in China. Shanghai is China’s chief industrial and commercial centre and one of its leading centres of higher education and scientific research. They both lie in center of China’s eas t coast. We can know what modern Chinese are thinking and hoping by studying employees in Jiangsu and Shanghai.Questionnaires couldn’t be counted because we used both paper version and computer version. From January 2007 to January 2008, authors sent questionnaires to employees who worked in Jiangsu and Shanghai. 329 questionnaires were returned and 291 questionnaires were valid, representing a response rate of 88.45%.Table 1 summarizes the key statistics for the sample used in the study.Table 1 Characteristics of the sample2.2 MeasuresThe authors designed an open-ended questionnaire based on the purpose of the study. This scale only used one question to collect information for answering question 1 of this study. This question is “Please use ten words or ten sentences to describe harmonious corporate culture”.3. RESULTSThis research found out that there were some similar viewpoints about harmonious corporate culture from collected questionnaires. The authors classify these viewpoints into 15 dimensions after holding 10 study group meetings. Some dimensions were identified based on China’s traditional culture and present policies. Table 2 lists 15 dimensions in English and Chinese because of some dimensions with Chinese characteristics.Table 2 Dimension and frequency of harmonious corporate cultureThis s tudy calculated dimensions’ frequencies from different groups to know different people’s ideal harmonious corporate culture. Table 3 shows statistics for male’s and female’s viewpoints on harmonious corporate culture.Table3 Frequency and order of harmonious corporate culture from female and male4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION4.1 ResultsSome companies advocate building harmonious corporate culture and some companies boast that they possess harmonious corporate culture after the central government calls on all society to create harmonious culture. But what is harmonious corporate culture? Some scholars wanted toexplain it, but nobody has answered this question by empirical study. The authors answered question 1 of this study by analyzing collected data. A lot of standpoints were found, but some standpoints could be integrated as one because they possess same meaning but are described with different words. The study group held 10 meetings to discuss harmonious corporate culture dimensions based on questionnaires. Finally, 15 dimensions were identified. They are People oriented, steady development, scientific administration, vitality, stability and order, fraternity and concord, unity and cooperation, fairness and impartiality, democratic participation, managing in good faith, pursuing excellence, social responsibility, energy conservation and environmental protection, incorporating things of diverse nature, and common development and win-win situation. The result answered question 1: What is harmonious corporate culture in Chinese mind?Dimensions were arranged on frequency. People oriented ranked first. People oriented in China has three sources: Max’s study of humanity; “People first” descending from Chinese history and new anthropocentric[2]. The Chinese like speaking “people oriented” relating to Chinese traditional culture. The genesis of people oriented is traceable to the Western Zhou Dynasty and people oriented became the core thought of Confucianism which influenced the Chinese deeply. Many archaism were concerned with people oriented, such as “The pe ople are the most important element in a state; next are the gods of land and grain; least is the ruler himself[3].”(min wei gui, she ji ci zhi, jun wei qing) Many scholars also considered people oriented is the core and basis of harmonious corporate culture[4][5].This paper compared different groups’ viewpoints to answer question 2 -- how do different Chinese perceive harmonious corporate culture?People oriented, unity and cooperation, vitality, and fraternity and concord were ranked from 1 to 4 by female and male. The same results made the authors surprised. But they are different in fifth dimension. The fifth of female is democratic participation and the fifth of male is stability and order. Female status was lower than male in ancient China. Female had to comply with the three obedience and the four virtues (san cong si de) in past. The three obediences (obey her father before marriage, her husband when married, and her sons in widowhood) and the four virtues (morality, proper speech, modest manner and diligent work) of women in ancient China, which were spiritual fetters of wifely submission and virtue imposed on women in feudal society. Female status is improving after female deputy attended the first National Congress of the Communist Party ofChina. Today, Chinese female think much of the rights of women, so democratic participation is the fifth dimension. The ancient belief “Men’s work centers around outside, women’s work centers around the home[6]”(nü zheng wei hu nei, nan zheng wei hu wai) which c ame from The Book of Changes (yi jing). Man had to work hard in society to earn money and get honour for his family. Today, both man and woman work in government, company, school, hospital and so on, but man always plays a major role and assumes primary responsibility in society and at home for traditional culture. The change is fast and the competition is fierce in modern society, so man is facing great pressure. This is the reason why man hopes to live and work in a more stable environment, so stability and order is the fifth dimension.People oriented, unity and cooperation, and vitality were ranked from 1 to 3 by Managerial employee and Nonmanagerial employee. Scientific administration and democratic participation were ordered as the fourth dimension by managerial employee. Managerial employee looks deeper and thinks further than nonmanagerial employee because managerial employee is at higher level and holds more responsibility in organization. Managerial employee cares about management questions. Fraternity and concord was ordered as the fourth dimension by nonmanagerial employee. Nonmanagerial employee concerns less about enterprises’ overall operation and management state than managerial employee does. They understand harmonious corporate culture from their own specific the work and life. Nonmanagerial employee does specific task and needs direct corporation. They believe that the staffs’ civilized language and behaviours, mutual understanding, the warm atmosphere of interpersonal relationships in the enterprise are very important aspects of harmonious corporate culture. Nonmanagerial employee cares about good relationship. Generally speaking, the differences of the harmonious corporate culture dimensions understanding between managerial employee and nonmanagerial employee are closely related to their location in the organizational structure and their working content in the enterprise.People oriented was ordered as first dimension and unity and cooperation was ordered as the second dimension by all persons whatever their education background is Vitality was ordered as the third dimension by all responders except persons who got a master or doctor degree. The responders whose highest education qualification over master degree ordered scientific administration as the second dimension too. The person holding advanced academic degree has more opportunity to be promoted to managerial position, so they think scientific administration is very important in aharmonious environment. Compared with other groups，the relatively higher education group who get undergraduate degree, are more interested in stability and order, fairness and impartiality dimensions. People in this group are the middle and high-level managers in the enterprise, that is, not only they are familiar with the overall state of the enterprise, but also they understand deeply internal staffs’ living conditions characteristics. Therefore, they put more attention on stability and order, fairness and impartiality dimensions.All groups ordered people oriented, unity and cooperation, and vitality as most important three dimensions. The same results showed what core contents for harmonious corporate culture are.4.2 Limitations and Future ResearchThis study was just an exploratory study. The authors searc hed harmonious corporate culture’s dimensions by open-ended questionnaire. But the validity of these results need to be proved by more studies. The authors will design close-ended questionnaire based on this study and collect new data. Dimensions of harmonious corporate culture will be confirmed by exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis.This paper only discussed what harmonious corporate culture is. In the future, how to create harmonious corporate culture should be studied.The authors compared viewpoints from different sex, position and education. Age, birthplace, nationality and work experience influence individual thought too. Different opinions from different groups should be identified in future study.China should act as not only the defender of Chinese culture but an explorer and promoter of the new harmonious culture. Harmony is the social theme for present China. Studying basic theory of harmonious corporate culture will contribute to our society.REFERENCES[1] Lianke SONG, Dongtao, YANG, Hao YANG. Why do companies create harmonious cultures? Comparing the influence of different corporate cultures on employees. Enterprise Management and Change in a Transitional Economy. 2008. p595-603.[2] LU Wanglin. On theoretic s ource of “human oriented” -- analyzing the scientific factor of “scientific development view” from one point of view. Hebei Academic Journal, 26 (5), 2006,p228-230.[3] Mencius. The Mencius. Warring States time.[4] Liangbo CHENG, Lincheng JING. An search on creating harmonious corporate culture. Group Economy, (17), 2007, p294-295.[5] Xiangkui GENG. Extracting kernel of Confucianism to create harmonious corporate culture. Theoretical Research, (3), 2007, p47-48.[6] The Book of Changes.中国人如何认识和谐企业文化？——关于和谐企业文化维度的实证研究宋联可杨浩杨兰摘要党的十六届六中全会指明建设和谐文化是构建社会主义和谐社会的重要任务。
英文文献参考
英文文献参考
在撰写英文论文时，参考文献的格式非常重要，通常采用APA格式。
以下是一个英文参考文献的范例：
作者名. (出版年份). 书名. 出版社所在城市：出版社.
例如：
Sheril, R. D. (1956). The terrifying future: Contemplating color television. San Diego: Halstead.
如果是两位作者以上合著的书籍，格式如下：
作者1姓，作者1名字首字母., & 作者2姓，作者2名字首字母.(年). 书名. 出版社所在城市：出版社.
例如：
Smith, J., & Peter, Q. (1992). Hairball: An intensive peek behind the surface of an , ON: McMaster University Press.
如果是文集中的文章，格式如下：
作者名.(年). 文章题目. 期刊名(斜体). 第几期，页码.
例如：
Smith, J. (2007). The role of technology in education. Journal of Educational Technology, 45(3), 56-67.
如果是月刊杂志中的文章，格式如下：
作者名.(年). 文章题目. 月刊杂志名(斜体). 第几期，页码.
例如：
Jones, L. (2008). The impact of social media on society. American Journal of Social Media, 5(6), .。
毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译【范本模板】
南京理工大学紫金学院毕业设计（论文）外文资料翻译系：机械系专业：车辆工程专业姓名:宋磊春学号:070102234外文出处：EDU_E_CAT_VBA_FF_V5R9(用外文写)附件：1。
外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文.附件1：外文资料翻译译文CATIA V5 的自动化CATIA V5的自动化和脚本：在NT 和Unix上：脚本允许你用宏指令以非常简单的方式计划CATIA。
CATIA 使用在MS –VBScript中(V5.x中在NT和UNIX3。
0 )的共用部分来使得在两个平台上运行相同的宏。
在NT 平台上：自动化允许CATIA像Word/Excel或者Visual Basic程序那样与其他外用分享目标。
ATIA 能使用Word/Excel对象就像Word/Excel能使用CATIA 对象。
在Unix 平台上:CATIA将来的版本将允许从Java分享它的对象。
这将提供在Unix 和NT 之间的一个完美兼容。
CATIA V5 自动化：介绍（仅限NT）自动化允许在几个进程之间的联系:CATIA V5 在NT 上：接口COM：Visual Basic 脚本(对宏来说)，Visual Basic 为应用（适合前:Word/Excel )，Visual Basic。
COM（零部件目标模型)是“微软“标准于几个应用程序之间的共享对象。
Automation 是一种“微软“技术,它使用一种解释环境中的COM对象。
ActiveX 组成部分是“微软“标准于几个应用程序之间的共享对象,即使在解释环境里。
OLE（对象的链接与嵌入）意思是资料可以在一个其他应用OLE的资料里连结并且可以被编辑的方法(在适当的位置编辑）.在VBScript,VBA和Visual Basic之间的差别：Visual Basic(VB）是全部的版本。
它能产生独立的计划,它也能建立ActiveX 和服务器。
它可以被编辑。
VB中提供了一个补充文件名为“在线丛书“(VB的5。
外文文献
英文文献资料外文文献一：Food safety: the shocking truth about the food industrySource: Author: Marion Nestle、Refrigeration technology, pasteurization, pesticides, disease control, these technologies so that safe food into the 20th century, public health's greatest achievements. This book view is that food safety problems also depend on politics. September 2001 events to dispel this view of the doubts about aviation aircraft used by terrorists as a destruction of weapons to civilians and public figures have anthrax spores sent folder of letters, the consequences of these events shows, food, water can easily become a a tool for terrorists, it has also become the federal government for food safety control problem.This chapter will sum up this book referred to in the various food safety problems. Some of them threatened to keep animals healthy, very few will lead to a number of human diseases. Even so, these issues impact on human well-being is deep; large-scale destruction of breeding animals, affecting the livelihood of many people, limiting personal freedom. The 20th century, 90's and early 21st century, an outbreak of mad cow disease and foot and mouth disease Although this is only because of errors caused by the production process, but still brings a lot of destructive. In contrast, bio-terrorism is the deliberate use of biological and chemical substances to achieve their political objectives. For food safety issues,Bio-terrorism extends food safety issues and political outreach; deliberate destruction, excluding any consequences of innocent injury.In this chapter, we will discuss how the rise of bio-terrorism, food safety issues and extend the extension of food safety issues. In the United States, food safety, usually refers to the family food supply reliability. E-mail from the anthrax incident, the food safety issues, also includes safety from biological terrorism. Our discussion will be the beginning of some zoonotic diseases: such as mad cow disease, foot and mouth disease, anthrax. In recent years, these zoonotic diseases harmful to humans is relatively small. Today, for these zoonotic diseases, we are concerned that they may give rise to disease, destruction of food supply system,To become a tool for bio-terrorism aspect. This chapter summarizes the discussion of this book, fromsociety and from a personal point of view what action should be taken to face these issues, as well as food safety issues present and future.The political animal diseasesOne of the consequences of globalization is that of food cross-border long-distance rapid transit, affecting food supply all kinds of disease can easily spread from one country to another country. Animal diseases have a commercial impact, if a country has come to infectious diseases of animals, other countries will refuse to import the kinds of animal meat. The impact of business at the same time there are political consequences.Britain's mad cow disease and foot and mouth disease occurred as a result of beef in the production process caused by mismanagement, compared to the U.S. anthrax letters is a result of vandalism. However, this three kinds of threatening to cause great panic, they are difficult to detect control, can cause severe disease. Moreover, these three kinds of threats against people for the food supply, as well as confidence in the Government.Mad cow is the mid-20th century, 90 of the most popular of a food security crisis, the epidemic is mainly limited to the United Kingdom. With regard to BSE-related issues and our discussion, mainly because of political issues and scientific issues intertwined Among them, public confidence had a great impact. For example, the British Government in the BSE crisis in the practice is also considered to result in distrust of genetically modified food one of the reasons. The beginning of the 20th century, 80 years, no one had heard of the disease, but in 1999, this disease affects at least 175,000 British cattle. The consequences are very serious: 400 million head of livestock were slaughtered, the loss of 70 billion U.S. dollars,Spread to 18 countries worldwide national boycott of British beef. By 2001 only, although "only" 120 people died of the human variant of mad cow disease, it is estimated the death toll will reach 10 million people. Because mad cow disease revealed the modern politics of food safety issues, it is worth detailing.英文文献中文翻译06013618 胡冬敏外文翻译一：作者：玛丽恩·内斯特尔出版时间：2004年11月食品安全：令人震惊的食品行业真相（美）玛丽恩·内斯特尔冷藏技术，巴氏消毒，杀虫剂，疾病控制，这些技术使安全食品成为20世纪公众健康最伟大的成就之一。
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毕业设计（论文）外文参考资料及译文译文题目：企业中的财务风险管理学生姓名：学号：专业：所在学院：指导教师：职称：2012 年 03 月 09 日Managing Financial Risk in EnterprisesThomas Y. Huang, Ph.D.Director of Market Risk ManagementSoceite Generale, New YorkRisk is the essential component to determining financial behavior. Risk itself is not a bad thing because without risk there would be no return. On the other hand, it would be very dangerous to do business without good understanding and proper management of the risk embedded in the enterprise. As demonstrated by history, first-rate risk management can transform a good enterprise into a great one, while poor or non-existent risk management can lead the firm into bankruptcy.In general, financial risk management can be categorized into the following areas: market risk management, credit risk management, and operational risk management. In addition, legal risk, liquidity risk, and the new Basel accord on capital requirements for banks are recent hot topics in risk management. Identifying, measuring, and managing risk are the key procedures in enterprise risk management.Market risk is the risk that the value of a firm’s financial positions will suffer losses due to financial market movements such as changes in rates, prices, and volatilities. Value-at-Risk (VaR) is the most commonly used tool to measure and report market risk. Given the limitation on what VaR can cover, Stress Tests are also widely used to measure risk exposures. Implementing VaR and Stress Tests have become basic practice in international financial institutions. Based on the risk metrics, management can setup limits for the firm’s financial exposures and execute hedges to reduce potential market risk. Failure example: Hedge fund Long Term Capital Management (LTCM) crisis in 1998.Credit risk is the risk that the value of a firm’s financial positions will suffer losses due to changes in counterparty credit quality. A default or downgrade of counterparty credit rating could severely damage the value of firm assets. The assets could be loans, receivables, bonds or derivatives. Adequate credit assessment, review, monitoring, and approval processes are the key elements in credit risk management. In best practice, firms always have systems that can dynamically calculate issuer/counterparty exposures. Solid credit risk management should always have well defined credit policy and enforced limit structures on individual counterparties, industrial sectors and geographic regions. Modern techniques used to reduce credit risk include:BSA agreements among institutions, asset securitization and usage of credit derivatives. Failure examples: JP Morgan and Lucent Technologies.Operational risk is the risk that is generated from inadequate systems and procedures, human errors, fraud and poor management controls. Most of time, proper operational risk management is the foundation for credit and market risk management. For example, without correct information on a firm’s financial positions, it would be impossible to even begin analyzing credit or market risk. Fraud and poor management control can devastate a good firm overnight. Examples of this are Barings in 1995 and the WorldCom accounting scandal in 2002. To control operational risk, solid corporate governance and a robust system environment are essential.financial leverage, sometimes can be brought to the enterprise 's financial leverage effect, and improve enterprise's own profit rate on funds, sometimes also can give an enterprise to bring extra loss, forming the financial risk. This paper first introduces the financial lever and financial risk meaning and the relationship between the two, and then from two angles of use financial leverage degree, conclude on this foundation the enterprise should make rational use of financial leverage, to avoid financial risks.In the modern market economy, debt management has become an enterprise universal phenomenon, and even can be used as an important character of modern enterprise. Under certain conditions, reasonable debt, enterprises can not only solve the operating fund demand, and will bring considerable benefit on financial leverage. However, financial leverage, as a double-edged sword, sometimes also can give an enterprise to bring extra loss, forming the financial risk. Therefore, how to use the financial leverage, to avoid financial risks has become the core of enterprise financial management problemsFinancial leverage is the result of the interest on the debt and preferred stock dividends and other fixed capital cost exists to share profit rate of change is greater than the profit before interest and tax rates of change of the leverage effect. When corporate pre-tax profit rate on funds than borrowing money rate of interest, will make the enterprise has its own profit rate on funds raising, enterprises have a positive financial leverage effect. Conversely, if corporate pre-tax profit rate on funds to borrow funds the interest rate is lower than when using borrowed money, get profit before interest and tax are not sufficient to pay the interest, will make its own capital profit rate is reduced, enterprises have a negative financial leverage effect. Financial leverage is the measure of financial leverage coefficient. Financial leverage coefficient refers to the rate of change in earnings per share in the profit before interest and tax rate multiplier. Financial leverage coefficient is small, earnings per share profit for the influence degree is smaller, the financial risk of the enterprise is small; conversely, the financial risk of the enterpriseis bigger.Fixed cost is higher, the operating lever coefficient is bigger, the greater the risk if the business enterprise to use higher leverage, the compound lever coefficient is bigger, explained that the enterprise 's overall risk level is higher. Therefore, from the angle of avoiding risk, high fixed costs of enterprises should use less leverage. For example, the fixed capital of industrial enterprises accounted for the total capital ratio than the commercial enterprises, the former than the latter use lower financial leverage.Operating leverage and volume changes inversely proportional to explain the enterprise sales growth faster, more stable revenue, operating leverage ratio is smaller, the lower the business risk. Therefore, this kind of operation with low risk of enterprises can be higher extent the use of financial leverage, the result does not cause the enterprise overall risk level expansion.Equity control ratio changes will affect the enterprise the overall level of risk in the issuance of new shares to reduce the minority shareholder holding ratio, debt ratio decreased, which led to the compound lever modulus decreased; in debt financing to ensure minority shareholder's holding power, a company indebted rate rises, financial leverage coefficient caused by the rise of the compound lever modulus increase.Composition of assets of the enterprise for the high investment risk control enterprise overall risk level, should use the lower financial leverage for example, intangible assets in enterprises accounted for a larger proportion of the enterprise intangible assets as a result of the benefits of a high degree of uncertainty, so the high management risk, in order to avoid defeat in operating the situation caused by the expiration of unable to pay, should use the lower financial leverage.Financial leverage is negatively related with the profit before interest and tax changes in the profitability of the assets is stronger, the lower financial leverage coefficient. Therefore, the profitability of assets the company stronger, and more capable of assuming the higher financial leverage.Usually in the two lever assembly, not the high operating leverage and high financial leverage combined together to avoid the enterprise overall risk, and enterprise overall risk control at an appropriate level.From the perspective of business income of financial leverage financial leverage degree of utilization, by the formula: earnings per share knowledge rate of change of financial leverage coefficient equals profit before interest and tax rate of change in our hypothesis : the enterprise debt agency cost and the financial distress costs negligible; the aim is to maximize the use of financial leverage, to achieve earnings per share or return on equity maximization; the enterprise future operating income is expected; the enterprise uses debt or equity financing either way,money supply is not restricted. Under the above assumptions, earnings per share, according to the formula for calculating the rate of change can be found. First, if the enterprise future pre-tax profit growth, if the use of high financial leverage financing program, increase the financial leverage ratio, earnings per share and return on equity will achieve the greatest growth, so whenever possible, enterprises should choose the most indebted financing scheme; second, if the enterprise future profit before interest and tax reduction, if the use of high financial leverage financing program, increase the financial leverage ratio, earnings per share and return on equity will achieve the greatest decline, enterprises should choose the lowest debt financing scheme; third, if the enterprise future EBIT to maintain the current level, the use of debt financing and equity financing effect equivalent. Corporate earnings per share or return on equity will fall, the former because of increasing interest expense reduces the earnings per share and return on equity, the latter because of circulation in the number of outstanding shares of equity capital increase or reduce with the increase of the earnings per share and return on equity. From the above analysis, the enterprise with high or low debt liabilities financing scheme, should be based on the enterprises operating income namely EBIT change as the basis.As required by Bank for International Settlements (BIS), all banks’ capital requirements for financial risks must be calculated using the new Basel Accord by 2005. This new rule allows banks to choose either standardized approach or internal model approach. As a result, more sophisticated firms would have the competitive advantage to do business over others because they can arbitrage between these two approaches. Under WTO, China will open up its financial market for competition in 2006. In order to meet international requirements and effectively compete with foreign institutions, Chinese banks will have no choice but to implement this new rule. As Chinese enterprises participate in more financial transactions, they have to face increasing legal risks. Risk management cannot be ignored in the growth of the Chinese economy.Overall, risk management has become crucial for banks and corporations including firms in China. On the financial risk control process, enterprises should also be reasonable combination of operating leverage and financial leverage, the correct use of compound leverage, to avoid financial risks. Enterprises in the development of management policy and financial policy, must take into full consideration the three lever nature, role and influence each other, as well as various types of risk. This presentation will also provide an overview on how to set up a prudent risk management framework and build infrastructure from a practical point of view.企业中的财务风险管理Thomas Y. Huang, Ph.D.Director of Market Risk ManagementSoceite Generale, New York在确定财务行为时，风险是必不可少的。