对外经贸企业管理综合MANAGEMENT

《MANAGEMENT》(Seventh Edition)Stephen P. Robbins Marry CoulterCHAPTER 1Introduction to Management and Organizations▲Manager : someone who works with and through other people by coordinating their work activities order to accomplish organizational goals. ▲To classify managers in organizations:1.first-line managers: Managers at the lowest level of the organizationwho manage the work of nonmanagerial employees who are involvedwith the production or creation of the organization‟s products.2.middle managers3.top managers▲Management: The process of coordinating work activities so that they are completed efficiently and effectively with and through other people.▲Efficiency(效益): getting the most output from the least amount of inputs. Referred to as ”doing the things right ”Effectiveness(效果)：completing activities so that organizational goals are attained. Referred to as “doing the right thing”▲what do managers do1.Henri Fayol (亨利·法约尔)Five management functions: planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and controlling.2. Henry Mintzberg (亨利·明兹伯格)Management roles: specific categories of managerial behaviors.●interpersonal roles(交际)Figurehead(挂名首脑)，leader, liaison(联络者)●informational roles(信息)monitor, disseminator, spokesperson●dicisional roles(分配)Entrepreneur, disturbance handler, resource allacator, negotiator3. Robert·L katz (罗伯特卡兹)Management skills: technical skill , human skill and conceptual skill▲System: a set of interrelated and interdependent parts arranged in a manner that produces a unified whole.●Closed system : systems that are not influenced by or do not interactwith their environment.●Open system: systems that dynamically interact with theirenvironment.4. contingency perspective(situational approach) 权变观点（情景方式）：an approach that says that organizations are different ,face different situations and require different ways of managing.▲Organization deliberate arrangement of people to accomplish some specific purpose. Three common characteristics:①distinct purpose ②deliberate structure ③peopleManagement Y esterday and Today▲Adam Smith(亚当斯密)Division of labor: the breakdown of jobs into narrow ad respective tasks.▲Frederick W Taylor(菲雷德里克·泰罗)Scientific management▲General Administrative Theorists(一般行政理论)General theories of what managers do and what constituted good management practice.①Henri Fayol(亨利·法约尔)Principles of management②Max Weber （马克思韦伯）Bureaucracy (官僚行政组织)：a form of organization characterized by decision of labor , a clearly defined hierarchy, detailed rules and regulations and impersonal relationships.▲Quantitative approach to management (管理的数量方法)The use of quantitative techniques to improve decision making( also operations research or management science)▲OB (organizational behavior)Hawthorne studies(霍桑实验)——Elton MayoConcluded that social norms or group standards were the key determinants of individual work behavior.Organizational culture and Environment: The constraints▲Strong culture : cultures in which the key values are deeply held and widely shared .It has a greater influence on employees than do weak cultures.▲External environment⑴specific environment( directly relevant to the achievement of thegoals):customers, suppers, competitors, pressure groups.⑵general environment(broad external conditions):economic conditions,political/legal conditions, social cultural conditions, demographic conditions, technological conditions, global conditions.CHAPTER 6Decision-making : the essence of the manager ’job▲Decision-making process:Identifying a problem →identifying decision criteria →allocating weights to the criteria →developing alternatives →Analyzing alternatives →selecting an alternatives →implementing the alternatives →evaluating decision effectives▲①⑴Assumption of rationality(理性假设)Choices that are consistent and value maximizing within specified constraints.Select the alternative that maximizes the likelihood of achieving the goal.Assumes that decisions are made in the best economic interests of theorganization.⑵Bounded rationality（有限理性）Behave rationally within the parameters of a simplified decision-making process that is limited by an individual‟s ability to process information.Satisfies rather than maximize .That is , accept solutions that are “good enough ”.▲escalation of commitment(承诺升级)an increased commitment to a previous decision despite evidence that it may have been wrong.⑶Role of intuition(直觉)intuitive decision making :subconscious process of making decisions on the basis of experience and accumulated judgement.②types of problems and decisions⑴well-structured problems (straightforward , familiar, and easily defined)and programmed decision(that can be handled by a routine approach).The managers falls back on systematic procedure, rule and policy.⑵poorly structured problems(new and unusual ,with information ambiguous or incomplete) and nonprogrammed decisions(requires a custom-made solution).③decision-making conditions⑴certainty: a situation in which a manager can make accurate decisionsbecause the outcome of every alternative is known.⑵Risk: the decision maker is able to estimate the likehood of certainalternatives or outcomes.⑶uncertainty: a decision maker has neither certainty nor reasonableprobability estimates nor available.④Decision-making stylesCHAPTER 7Foundations of planning▲Planning : concerned with both ends and means.▲Purposes of planning:①Establishes coordinated effort②Reduce uncertainty③Reduce overlapping and wasteful activities④Establish goals or standards that are used in controlling▲Goal = objectiveTypes of goals:①Stated goals (official statement)②Real goals (actually pursues)▲types of planbreadth :strategic (overall goals) and operational(details of how the overall goals are to be achieved)time frame: long-term(beyond three years )specificity: specific (clear defined and leave no room for interpret ion ) and directional (general guidelines)frequency of use : single-use (meet the needs of unique ) and standing (for activities performed repeatedly )▲MBO(management by objectives)(目标管理)：A management system in which specific performance goals are jointly determined by employees and their managers, process is periodically reviewed ,and rewards are allocated on the basisof the process.Four elements: ①goal specificity ②participative decision-making③explicit time period ④performance feedback▲①characteristics of well-designed goals⑴written in terms of outcomes rather than actions⑵measures and quantifiable⑶clear as to a time frame⑷challenging yet attainable⑸written down⑹communicated to all necessary organizational members②steps in goal setting1.Review the organizations mission (the purpose)2.Evaluate available resources3.Determine the goals individually or with input from others4.Write down the goals and communicate them to all who need to known5.Review results to see whether goals are being met③Developing plansContingency factors in planning : ⑴level in the organization ⑵degree of environment ⑶length of future commitmentCommitment concept: plans should extend far enough to meet those commitments made when the plans were developed.CHAPTER 8Strategic Management▲Strategic Management: that set of managerial decisions and actions that determines the long-run performance of an organization.Identify the →Analyze the →Identify theOrganization‟s environment opportunitiesCurrent mission, →and threats →FormulateObjectives, and strategiesStrategies →Analyze the →Identify theOrganization‟s strengths and ImplementResources weaknesses strategiesEvaluateResults▲Organizational strategies:①corporate level ②Business level ③functional level①Corporate levelStrengthsStability GrowthRetrenchment StrategiesWeakness Environment statusThreats OpportunitiesSWOT Analysis and Grand strategiesHighAnticipated Stars Question marksGrowth cash cows DogsRateLow market shareHigh LowBCG Matrix (Boston consulting Group )Corporate portfolio AnalysisImplications: Managers should “milk”cash cows for as mush as they can, limit any new investment in them; and use the large amounts of cash generated to invest in stars and question marks. The dogs should be sold off liquidated.②Business levelCompetitive advantage: what sets an organization apart; its distinct edge.Competitive strategies (Michael Porters)▲Five competitive forces dictate the rules of competition:1.Threat of new entrants2.Threat of substitutes3.Bargaining power of buyers4.Bargaining power of supplier5.Current competitor▲three strategies: ⒈cost leadership strategy: lowest-cost ⒉differentiation strategy: unique products 3.focus strategy: in a narrow marketCHAPTER 10Organizational Structure and Design▲Organizational Structure: formal framework by which job tasks are divided , grouped and coordinated.▲Six elements:①Work specialization: the degree to which tasks in anorganization are divided into separate jobs; also known as division of labor.The essence of work specialization is that an entire job is not done by an individual but instead is broken down into steps, and each step is completed by a different person.Individual employees specialize in doing part of an activity rather than the entire activity.②Departmentalization: the basis by which jobs are grouped togetherCommon forms of departmentalization:⑴Functional departmentalization (groups job by functions performed)⑵Product departmentalization (groups job by territory or geography)⑶process departmentalization (groups job on the basis of commoncustomer who have common needs or problems)This is increasingly being used as an approach to better monitorcustomer‟s needs and to be better able to respond to changes in thoseneeds.③Chain of commandThe continuous line of authority that extends form upper organizational levels to the lowest levels and clarifies who reports to whom.Authority refers to the rights inherent in a managerial position to tell people what to do and to expect them to do it.Responsibility: The obligation to perform any designed duties.Unity of command: The management principle that each person should report to only one manager.④Span of controlThe number of employees a manager can efficiently and effectively manage.The wider the span, the more efficient the organization.⑤Centralization and decentralizationCentralization: the degree to which decision-making is centralized at asingle point in the organization.Decentralization: the degree to which lower-level employees provide input or actually made decisions.Advantages of Decentralization:1.Make organization more flexible and responsive2.Lower-level managers are closer to the action and typically have moredetailed knowledge about problems and how best to solve them than dotop managers.⑥FormalizationThe degree to which jobs within the organization are standardized and the extended to which employee behavior id guided by rules and procedures.▲Two organizational formsMechanistic OrganicHigh specialization cross-functional teamsRigid departmentalization cross-hierarchical teamsClear chain of command free flow of informationNarrow span of control wide span of controlCentralization decentralizationHigh formalization low formalization▲Contingency factors①Strategy structure should follow strategyAlfred chandler (艾尔非雷德·钱德勒) concluded that changes in corporate strategy led to changes in an organization‟s structureStrategy framework focus on three dimensions :⑴innovation⑵cost minimization ⑶imitation②Size large organization -----those with 2000 or more employees----tendto have more specialization ,departmentalization, centralization and rules and regulations than do small ones.③Technology Joan Woodward(琼·伍德沃德)Findings on technology, structure and effectiveUnit Mass ProcessProduction Production Production MostEffective Organic Mechanistic OrgznicStructure④Environmental uncertaintyThe greater the uncertainty, the greater the need for the flexibilityOffered by an organic design.▲Common organizational designs①Traditional organizational design (more mechanistic)⑴simple structureLow departmentalization, wide spans of control authority centralized in a single person and little formalization.⑵Functional structureapply functional approach to departmentalization to the entire organization.⑶Divisional structuremade up of separate units or divisions②Contemporary organizational design⑴team-based structuremade up of work groups or teams .employee empowerment is crucial.employee teams are free to design work in the way they think is best .⑵Matrix and project structureMatrix structure: assigns specialists from different functional departments to work for one or more projects led by project managers.Project structure : employees continuously work on projects⑶Autonomous Internal UnitsSeparate decentralized business units, each with its own products clients, competitors and profit goals.The key different with divisional structure is that these business units are autonomous .There is no centralized control or resource allocation as you‟d find in the divisional organization.⑷The Boundary less OrganizationEliminate vertical and horizontal boundaries within organization and break down external barriers between the company and its customers and suppliers.⑸learning organizationIt has developed the capacity to continuously adapt and change because all members take an active role in identifying and resolving work related issues.Chapter 11Managerial communication And Information technology▲Interpersonal communicationmessage medium ReceiverEncoding Decoding senderFeedbackThe interpersonal communication process▲Organizational communicationFormal organizational communication: follows the official chain of command or is part of the communication required to do one‟s job.Chapter 12Human Resource ManagementThe human resource management processHuman job analysis (define jobs and behavior)Resource job description(what to be done ,how and why)planning job specification (minimum qualification)decruitment (locate, identify and attract capable applicants )recruitment (reduce the workplace)selection( screen applications to hire the best)validity(效度)：there must be a proven relationship between the selection device and some relevant criterion.Reliability(信度)：indicates whether the device measures the same thing consistently.Work unit orientationOrientationorganizationEmployee training: technical, interpersonal, problem solving.Employee Performance managementCompensation and benefitsChapter 13Managing change and innovationOrganization change: any alterations in people ,structure or technology.Factor that create the need for change:⒈External factor: market; governmental laws and regulations; technology;labor market; economic changes.2. Internal factors: organizational strategy; work force; the introduction ofnew equipment.Change agents: people who assume the responsibility for managing the change process.▲Two views of the change process1.the calm waters metaphor (Kurt·Lewin)Unfreezing changing refreezing2. White-water rapids metaphor▲Creativity: The ability to combine ideas in a unique way or to make unusual associations between ideasInnovation: The process of taking a creative idea and turning it into a useful product, service or work method.Three sets of variables to stimulate innovations :structure, culture, human resource.CHAPTER 14Foundations of BehaviorFocus: individual behavior and groupGoals: explain , predict and influence behavior▲Attitudes: Evaluative statements either favorable or unfavorable.Cognition (beliefs opinions knowledge)Three Affect (emotional part)component Behaviorjob related attitudes1.job satisfaction (general attitude)2.job involvement (the degree person participate in job)anization commitment (loyalty)anizational citizenship behavior (OCB) : Discretionary behavior that isnot part of an employee‟s formal job requirements but that nevertheless promotes the effective function.▲Theory①Attitudes and consistencyPeople seek consistency among their attitudes and between their attitudesand behavior.②Cognitive dissonance theoryindividual seek stability with a minimum of dissonanceFactors that influence the desire to reduce dissonance1.factors creating the dissonance2.the degree of influence the individual believes he or she has over thosefactors3.the rewards that may be involved in dissonance▲Personality: Psychological traits①Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)a hundred questions put you at one of four dimensions:⑴social interaction :Extrovertor or Introvert⑵Preference for gathering data: sensing or intuitive⑶preference for decision making: feeling (like harmony and sympathetic)orthinking (unemotional and uninterested in people‟s feelings)⑷style of making decision :perceptive or judgment②The big-five model of personality⑴extraversion⑵agreeableness: good-natured, trusting⑶conscientiousness: responsible dependable⑷Emotional stability: clam , enthusiastic ,positive⑸openness to experience: imaginative ,artistically sensitive▲Emotional Intelligence (EI)Five dimensions:⑴self awareness : be aware of what you‟re feeling⑵self management : manage own emotions, impulses⑶self motivation: persist in the face of failures⑷empathy: sense how others are feeling⑸social skill: handle the emotions of others▲Predicting Behavior form personality traitsFive personality traits have proved to be the most powerful in explaining individual behavior in organization.①Locus of control : internal-------external②Machiavellianism (MACH)Believe that ends justify meansIn jobs that require bargaining skills or that have substantial rewards for winning.High mach is productive.③self-esteem: the degree to which they like or dislike themselves④self-monitoring: the ability to adjust behavior to external situational factors⑤risk taking▲perception: a process by which individual give meaning to teir environment by organizing and interpreting their sensory impressions.Factors that influence perception①the perceiver②the target③the situation▲Attribution theoryexplain how we judge people differently depending on the meaning we attribute to a given behavior.We attempt to determine whether the behavior was internally or externally caused.The determination depends on three factors:①distinctiveness: whether an individual displays a behavior in many situationsor whether it‟s particular to one situation.②consensus : everyone is faced with a similar situation③consistency :Does the person engage in the behaviors regularlyObservation Interpretation AttributionDistinctiveness High ExternalIndividual Low InternalBehavior High ExternalLow InternalHigh InternalLow ExternalTwo tendency①fundamental attribution errorunderestimate the influence of external factors and to over estimate the influence of internal or personal factor②self-serving biasindividuals attribute their own success to internal factors such as ability or effort while putting the blame for personal failure on external factors such as luck.▲Shortcuts frequently used in judging others①selectivity②assumed similarity: “like me ” effect③stereotyping : judge someone of a group impression about a person on thebasis of a group he is part of.④Halo effect: form a general impression about a person on the basis of asingle characteristic.▲Implications for managers: need to recognize that their employees react to perceptions not to reality.▲Learning: Any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience①Operant conditioningdesired voluntary behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment.②social learninga theory of learning that says people can learn through observation and directexperience .the amount of the others, influence is determined by:⑴Attentional process⑵Retention process⑶Motor reproducing⑷Reinforcement processshaping behavior: the process of systematically reinforcing each successive that moves an individual closer to the desired behavor.Four ways:⑴positive reinforcement⑵negative reinforcement⑶punishment or (4)extinction(忽视)CHAPTER 15Understanding Groups and Teams▲Group stages:Forming storming norming performing adjouring▲Basic concepts①Role: a set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone who occupies agiven position in a social unit.When individual is confronted by different role expectations , he experience role conflict.②Norms: acceptable standards or expectations that are shared by the group‟smembers.Individuals want to be accepted by groups to which they belong, they are susceptible to conformity.③status system: a prestige grading, position or rank within a group.④Group sizethe small groups are faster at completing tasks, large ones are good at solving problem. Large groups -----those with a dozen or more members-----are goodfor diverse input and finding facts. Small ones are better to do something productive with these facts.Groups of about 7members tend to be more effective for taking action.Free rider tendency(搭便车): as groups get increasingly larger, the contribution of individual members often tends to decrease.⑤Group cohesiveness: the degree to which members are attracted to a group and share the group‟s goals.About the relationship between cohesiveness and effectiveness, a key moderating variable is the degree to which the group‟s attitude aligns with its goals or with the goals.⑥conflict managementdifferent views:⑴traditional view of conflict (all conflict is bad and must be avoided)⑵human relations view of conflict(conflict is nature and inevitable)⑶integrationists view of conflict(some conflict is necessary)types of conflict⑴task conflict(content the goals of work)⑵relationship conflict(interpersonal relationship)⑶process conflict(how the work get done)▲Group decisionsAdvantages:⑴provide more complete information⑵Generate more alternatives⑶Increase acceptance of a solution⑷Increase legitimacyDisadvantages:⑴Time consuming⑵minority domination⑶pressures to conform⑷Ambiguous responsibility▲work teamsmost common types of teams①Functional teams: composed of a manager and his or her employees from aparticular functional area②Self-managed team :a formal group of employees who operate without amanager③virtual team: use computer technology to link physically dispersed members④cross-functional team: a hybrid grouping of individuals who are experts invarious specialties and work on various tasks.CHAPTER 16Motivating employeesMotivation: the willingness to exert high levels of effort to reach organization goals conditioned by the effort‟s ability to satisfy some individual need.Effort: the measure of intensity or driveNeed: some internal state that makes certain outcomes appear attractive▲Early theories of motivation①MASLOW‟S Hierarchy of needs theoryAbraham MaslowSelf-actualization needsEsteem need (internal and external esteem)Social needsSafety needsPhysiological needs: physical requirement②McGregor ‟s theory X and YTheory X presents an essentially negative view of people Theory Y presents an essentially positive view of people③Hertzberg‟ motivation-hygiene TheoryMotivators Hygiene FactorsAchievement supervisionRecognition company policyWork itself relationship with supervisor Responsibility working conditionsAdvancement salaryGrowth securitySatisfied neutral extremely dissatisfied▲Contemporary theories of motivation①Three-needs theory (David·McClelland)(1)need for achievement(2)need for power(3)need for affiliation(interpersonal relationship)②goal-setting theoryspecific goals increase performance and the different goals result in higher performance than do easy goals③Reinforcement theorybehavior is function of its are rein forcers④Designing motivating jobs⑴job enlargement : the horizontal expansion of a job by increasing jobscope (the number of different tasks required in a job and the frequency with which those tasks are repeated)⑵job enrichment: the vertical expansion of a job by adding planning andevaluating responsibilities.⑶job characteristics model (JCM)any job can be described in terms of five core dimensions:skill variety experiencedtask identity meaningfulnesstask significance of the workautonomy experienced responsibilityfor outcomesfeedback knowledge of the actual results⑤Equity Theory (J·Stacey Adams)an employee compares his or her job‟s input-outcomes ratio with that of relevant others and then correct any inequity⑥Expectancy Theory (Victor Vroom)an individual rends to act in a certain way based on the exception thatthe act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.Individual A Individual B Organizational C IndividualEffort performance rewards goalsA: effort-performance linkageB: performance-reward linkageC: AttractivenessThe key is to understand an individual‟s goals and the linkage effort and performance▲current issues in motivation①motivating a diverse workforce⑴flexible working schedulespressed workweek : a workweek in which employees work longer perday but fewer days per week.2.flexible work hours (flextime)employee are required to work a specifical number of hours a week but are free to wary those hours.3. job sharing: the practice of having two or more people spilt a full-time job.4.telecommuting: employee work at home and are linked to the workplace bycomputer and modein.②pay-for-performance programs: compensation plans that pay employees on the basis of some performance measures.③open-book managementA motivational approach in which an organization‟s financial statements areshared with all employees.The goal is to get employees to think like an owner by seeing the impact their decisions and actions have on financial results.④motivating “new workforce”⑴motivate professionsmoney and promotions typically are low.job challenge tends to be ranked high support .give them ongoing ,challenging projects and autonomy toeducational opportunities⑵motivate contingent workersthe opportunity to become a permanent employeethe opportunity for training⑶motivating low-skilled minimum-wage employee1.employee recognition programshighlight employees whose word performance is excellent3.empower frontline employees with more authority to address customer‟sproblemsCHAPTER 17LeadershipLeader: someone who can influence others and who has managerial authority .▲Difference between manager and leader:Managers are appointed to their position. Their ability to influence is based on。