BondSocialPsychologyacrossCultures
对微笑的看法英语作文高中
Smiling is a universal language that transcends cultural and linguistic barriers.It is a simple yet powerful expression that can convey a myriad of emotions and messages.Here are some thoughts on the significance of smiling:munication Tool:A smile is a nonverbal form of communication that can be understood across different cultures.It can break the ice in social situations,making people feel more at ease and open to conversation.2.Emotional Expression:Smiling is a way to express happiness,joy,and contentment.It can be a genuine reflection of ones emotional state or a means to uplift ones mood.3.Social Bonding:Smiling can foster social bonds.When we smile at someone,it often prompts them to smile back,creating a positive feedback loop that strengthens interpersonal relationships.4.Stress Relief:Studies have shown that smiling can have a calming effect on the mind. Even a forced smile can reduce stress and anxiety levels,making it a simple selfcare technique.5.Health Benefits:Smiling has been linked to various health benefits,including reducing the heart rate,lowering blood pressure,and boosting the immune system.It can also release endorphins,the bodys natural mood elevators.6.Professional Advantage:In professional settings,a smile can convey confidence and approachability.It can make a positive impression on colleagues and clients,potentially leading to better work relationships and career advancement.7.Cultural Significance:In many cultures,smiling is a sign of respect and politeness.It can be used to show deference or to acknowledge someones presence.8.Influence on Perception:People who smile are often perceived as more likable, trustworthy,and competent.This can influence how others interact with them and the opportunities they are given.9.Contagious Nature:The act of smiling is contagious.When one person smiles,it can inspire others to do the same,creating a positive atmosphere.10.Personal Growth:Cultivating the habit of smiling can contribute to personal growth. It can help develop a positive outlook on life and encourage a more optimistic approach to challenges.In conclusion,smiling is a multifaceted act with profound implications for our emotional wellbeing,social interactions,and overall health.It is a simple yet effective way to improve our lives and the lives of those around us.。
情感纽带强的英语作文
Emotional bonds are the invisible threads that connect individuals to one another, creating a sense of belonging and attachment.These bonds are formed through shared experiences,mutual understanding,and a deep sense of care and affection.In this essay, we will explore the significance of emotional bonds in various aspects of life and how they contribute to personal growth and societal harmony.The Importance of Emotional Bonds in Family RelationshipsFamilies are the primary source of emotional bonds.From the moment we are born,we develop a strong attachment to our parents and siblings.This bond is nurtured through love,care,and support,which are essential for a childs emotional and psychological development.A strong family bond provides a sense of security and a safe haven during times of stress or adversity.It also lays the foundation for healthy relationships in the future.Emotional Bonds in FriendshipsFriendships are another crucial aspect where emotional bonds play a vital role.Friends provide companionship,support,and a sense of belonging.They share our joys and sorrows,and their presence in our lives can significantly impact our emotional wellbeing. The trust and loyalty that form the basis of a strong friendship can lead to personal growth and a broader perspective on life.Romantic Relationships and Emotional BondsIn romantic relationships,emotional bonds are the glue that holds two individuals together.Love,trust,and intimacy are the cornerstones of these bonds.They foster a deep sense of connection and commitment,which are necessary for a relationship to thrive. Emotional bonds in romantic relationships also promote emotional stability and happiness.The Role of Emotional Bonds in the WorkplaceEven in professional settings,emotional bonds can significantly influence the work environment.Colleagues who share a strong bond are more likely to collaborate effectively,leading to increased productivity and job satisfaction.Emotional bonds can also foster a sense of loyalty and commitment to the organization,which can contribute to its longterm success.Cultural and Social Emotional BondsCultural and social bonds are essential for the cohesion of societies.Shared values, traditions,and a sense of national or community identity create strong emotional ties among people.These bonds contribute to social harmony and unity,enabling societies to face challenges collectively and celebrate achievements together.The Impact of Emotional Bonds on Personal GrowthEmotional bonds play a significant role in personal growth.They provide the support and encouragement needed to overcome obstacles and pursue ones goals.The feedback and understanding from those we are emotionally connected to can help us learn,adapt,and grow as individuals.ConclusionIn conclusion,emotional bonds are an integral part of human life,influencing our relationships,personal growth,and societal harmony.They are the foundation of love, trust,and support,which are essential for a fulfilling life.Cultivating and maintaining emotional bonds should be a priority,as they contribute to our overall wellbeing and happiness.。
跨文化交际学考试名词解释
跨文化交际学题型名词解释整理：Intercultural communication :intercultural communication is a face-to-face communication between people from different cultural back-grounds .Intracultural communication :intracultural communication can be defined as the extent to which there is shared interpersonal communication between members of the same culture –whether this is in the majority .or within minority cultures .Individualism :broadly speaking ,individualism refers to the doctrine theater the interests of the individual are of ought to be paramount ,and that all values ,rights and duties originate in individual s ,it emphasizes individual initiative ,independence ,individual expression ,and even privacy .Collectivism: it is characterized by a rigid social framework that distinguish between in-groups and out-groups .people expect their in-group to look after them ,and in exchange for that they fell they owe absolute loyalty to the group .collectivism means greater emphasis on (1)the views ,needs ,and goals of the in-groups rather than oneself ;(2)social norms and duty defined by the in-group rather than behavior to get pleasure ;(3)beliefs shared with the in-group; rather than beliefs that distinguish self from ingroup ; and (4)great readiness to cooperate with ingroup membership .Power distance:it’s the extent to which a society accepts that power in relationships ,institutions, and organizations is distributed unequally .Context :it’s the information that surrounds an event ,it is in extricably bound up with the meaning of the event .High-context communication:it is a kind of communication in which most of theinformation is already in the person ; while very little is in the coded ,explicitly transmitted part of the message ,e.g.,Chinese ,JapaneseLow-context communication :it’s just the opposite of high-context communication . it’s the mass of information is rested in the explicit code ,e.g. American GermanHigh-context culture :it's a kind of culture in which people are very homogeneous with regard to experiences ,information networks ,and the like ,e.g. Chinese ,JapaneseLow-context culture :it's a kind of culture in which the population is less homogeneous and therefore tends to compartmentalize interpersonal contacts ,e.g. American ,German Activity orientation :it is the way a culture views activity ,which is classified by kluckhohns and strodtbeck as being ,being-in-becoming ,and doing.Nonverbal communication: nonverbal communication involves all those nonverbal stimuli in a communication setting that are generated by both the source and his or her use of the environment and that have potential message value for the source or receiver. Paralanguage :certain vocal cues provided us with information with which to make judgments about characters’personalities’, emotional States ,and rhetorical activity .Paralanguage involves the linguistic elements of speech ,that is ,how something is said and not the actual meaning of the spoken words .most classifications divide paralanguage into three kinds of vocalizations ;vocal characterizers ;vocal qualifiers ; and vocal segregatesM-time (monochromic time schedule ):M-time cultures tend to think of time as something fixed in nature ,something around us and from which we can not escape ; and ever-present part of the environment ,just like the air we breatheP-time (polychromic time schedule ):P-time cultures deal with time holistically and place great stock in the activity occurring at the moment .Polychronic time cultures emphasize people more than schedules .For P-time cultures ,time is less tangible and hence feeing of wasted time are not as prevalent as M-time cultures .15. Denotation：the literal meaning or definition of a word --- the explicit, particular, defined meaning.16. Connotation：the suggestive meaning of a word --- all the values, judgment, and beliefs implied by a word the historical and associative accretion of the unspoken significance behind the literal meaning.19. Chronemics（时间学）：The study of how people perceive and use time.20. Proxemics（空间学）：refers to the perception and use of space.21. kinesics（肢体语言）：The study of body language .22. Paralanguage(副语言)：Involving sounds but not word and lying between verbal and nonverbal communication .23. Monochronic time一元时间观念: means paying attention to and doing only one thing at a time.24. Polychronic time多元时间观念: means being involved with many things at once1. What are the four trends that lead to the development of the global village？P8~9 Four trends that lead to the development of the global village: Convenient transportation systems/ Innovative communication systems/ Economic globalization/Widespread migrations2. What are the three aspects where cultural differences exist?Verbal difference: language, thought patterns…Non-verbal communication: body-language, time concept, spacious language, paralanguage, environment…Perception: values, worldviews, beliefs, attitudes3. What are three ingredients of culture? 文化的三个成分（three Ingredients）P5~6An shared artifact（the material and spiritual products people produce）shared Behavior（what they do）shared Concepts（beliefs, values, world views……what they think）4. How to understand cultural Iceberg?P6~7Like an iceberg what we can see about culture is just the tip of the iceberg; the majority of it is intangible, beyond sight. and the part of culture that is visible is only a small part of a much bigger whole. It is said nine-tenth of culture is below the surface.(Just as an iceberg which has a visible section above the waterline and a larger invisible section below the waterline, culture has some aspects that are observable and others that can only be suspected and imagined. Also like an iceberg, the part of culture that is visible is only a small part of a much bigger whole. It is said nine-tenth of culture is below the surface. (P7))5. What are the tour characteristics of culture? Dynamic/ shared/ learned/ ethnocentric Culture is shared. All communications take place by means of symbols.Culture is learned. Culture is learned, not inherited. It derives from one’s social environment, not from one’s genes. Enculturation(文化习得): All the activities of learning one’s culture are called enculturation .Culture is dynamic. (P6)Culture is subject to change. It’s dynamic rather than static, constantly changing and evolving under the impact of events and through contact with other cultures. Acculturation(文化适应): the process which adopts the changes brought about by another culture and develops an increased similarity between the two cultures. Culture is ethnographic(文化中心主义). Ethnographic is the belief that your own cultural background is superior. Ethnocentrism: the belief that your own culture background is superior.6. What are the six characteristics of communication?Dynamic/ irreversible/ symbolic/ systematic/ transactional/ contextualCommunication is dynamic.Communication is ongoing, ever-changing activity. A word or action does not stay frozen when you communicate; it is immediately replaced with yet another word or action. Communication is irreversible.Once we have said something and someone else has received and decoded the message, the original sender cannot take it back.Communication is symbolic.Symbols are central to the communication process because they represent the shared meanings that are communicated. Symbols are vehicle by which the thoughts and ideas of one person can be communicated to another person.Communication is systematicCommunication does not occur in isolation or in a vacuum, but rather is part of a large system. It takes place in a physical and a social context; both establish the rules that govern the interaction.Communication is transactional. (P8)A transactional view holds that communicators are simultaneously sending and receiving messages at every instant that they are involved in conversation. Communication is contextual. (P8)All communication takes place within a setting or situation called a context. By context, we mean the place where people meet, the social purpose for being together, and the nature of the relationship. Thus the context includes the physical, social, and interpersonal settings.7. How is Chinese addressing different from American addressing?(三方面)P22~24In Chinese the surname comes first and is followed by the given name/ but in English this order is reversed.Addressing by names: In China seniority is paid respect to. Juniors are supposed to address seniors in a proper way. The use of given names is limited to husband and wife, very close friends, juniors by elders or superiors/ Nowadays, more and more English-speaking people address others by using the first name, even when people meet for the first time. (intimacy and equality)Addressing by relationship: Chinese often extend kinship terms to people not related by blood or marriage. These terms are used after the surname to show politeness and respect/ The English equivalents of the above kinship terms are not so used. Even with relatives, Americans tend to use just the first name and leave out the term of relationship. Addressing by title, office, profession: A nother common Chinese form of address is theuse of a person’s title, office, profession to indicate the person’s influential status. In English, only a few occupations or titles could be used. (P24) Americans tend to regard titles as trivial unless they have a clear idea of what kind of work a person does and what his responsibilities are.8. How is the Chinese writing style different the American writing style?The Chinese employ a circular approach in writing. In this kind of indirect writing, the development of the paragraph may be said to be ‘turning and turning in a widening gyre’. The circles or gyres turn around the subject and show it from a variety of tangential views, but the subject is never looked at directly. A paragraph is set off by an indentation of its first sentences or by some other conventional devise, such as extra space between paragraphs.In contrast, the Americans are direct and linear in writing. An English expository paragraph usually begins with a topic statement, and then, by a series of subdivisions of that topic statement, each supported by example and illustrations, proceeds, to develop that central idea and relate that idea to all other ideas in the whole essay, and to employ that idea in proper relationship with the other ideas, to prove something, or perhaps to argue something.9. What are the different feature of m-time and p-time? P97M-time is noted for its emphasis on schedules, segmentation, punctuality and promptness. It features one event at a time and time is perceived as a linear structure.P-time is less rigid and clock-bound. It features several activities at the same time andtime is perceived as more flexible and more human-centered.10. What different worldview can be drive from Buddhism and Christianity?Buddhists do not believe in a god or gods who created the world. However, they do believe that there is a supreme and wonderful truth that words cannot teach, and ritual cannot attain.Buddhists are not favorably disposed to the notion of free enterprise and the pursuit of material well-being. Seen from a western worldview, having no desires adversely affects motives for personal enrichment and growth generally. Thus, little support is accorded to free enterprise.Christianity recognizes the importance of work and free ownership of property. Protestant, in particular, sees the salvation of the individual through hard work and piety.11. What is the American cultural value like in terms of value orientation?As far as the human nature is concerned, the American culture holds that it is evil but perfectible through hard work.As to the relation of man to nature, they think mankind can conquer the nature.They also have a linear time concept and therefore they are future-oriented.They focus on doing and think that only actions can solve the problem.They are quite individualistic and therefore they focus less on the benefits of the group. 12. What is the Chinese cultural value like in terms of value orientation?PWhat is the character of innate human nature?What is the relation of man to nature?What is the temporal focus of human life?What is the mode of human activity?What is the mode of human relationships?11. It is evil but perfectible/ Man can conquer the nature / present / being-oriented a non-developmental model of society/ Competitive12. Good but corruptible/ harmony with nature / Past/ being-and-becoming is a kind of spiritual good of inner harmony and peace/ cooperation13. How is gender different from sex? P119~120Sex: biological, permanent, with a individual propertyGender: socially constructed, varied over time and across cultures, with a social and relational quality14. What are the two primary influences processes of Gender Socialization? P121 Family communicationRecreational interaction15. Identify the features of each of four Hofsted’s cultural dimensions and the contrast between high-context and low-context culture.（语境案例分析）P192~193 Individualism VS collectivism /Masculinity VS femininity /Power distance/Uncertainty avoidanceHigh-context VS. low-contextHigh-context cultures assign meaning to many of the stimuli surrounding an explicit message. In high-context cultures, verbal messages have little meaning without the surrounding context, which includes the overall relationship between all the people engaged in communication.Low-context cultures exclude many of those stimuli and focus more intensely on the objective communication event, whether it be a word, a sentence, or a physical gesture. Inlow-context cultures, the message itself means everything.精选谢谢观看! 欢迎您的下载，资料仅供参考,如有雷同纯属意外欢迎下载。
幽默的好处英语怎么写作文
Humor is a universal language that transcends cultural and linguistic barriers.It has the power to bring people together and create a sense of camaraderie.Writing an essay on the benefits of humor in English can be both enjoyable and enlightening.Here are some key points to consider when crafting your essay:1.Introduction:Begin your essay by introducing the topic of humor and its significance in daily life.You might start with a quote or a short anecdote that illustrates the power of humor.2.Relief from Stress:Discuss how humor can act as a stress reliever.It lightens the mood and helps people cope with difficult situations by providing a temporary escape from reality.3.Social Bonding:Explain how humor can foster social connections.Sharing a laugh can break the ice,ease tension,and create a sense of belonging among individuals.4.Cognitive Benefits:Delve into the cognitive advantages of humor.It can stimulate the brain,improve memory,and even enhance problemsolving skills by encouraging creative thinking.5.Health Benefits:Highlight the positive impact of humor on physical ughter has been linked to reduced blood pressure,increased immune response,and the release of endorphins,which are natural painkillers and mood elevators.munication Tool:Describe humor as a powerful communication tool.It can convey messages in a nonthreatening way,making it easier for people to accept criticism or differing opinions.7.Cultural Understanding:Explore how humor can provide insight into different cultures. Jokes and humorous stories often reflect societal norms,values,and taboos,offering a unique perspective on a cultures identity.8.Conflict Resolution:Discuss the role of humor in resolving conflicts.It can diffuse tension and open up channels of communication,paving the way for more productive discussions.9.Personal Growth:Reflect on how humor can contribute to personal growth.The ability to laugh at oneself can be a sign of selfawareness and emotional intelligence.10.Conclusion:Summarize the benefits of humor youve discussed and emphasize itsimportance in both personal and professional settings.You might end with a call to action, encouraging readers to incorporate more humor into their lives.Remember to use clear and concise language,provide examples to support your points, and maintain a logical flow throughout your essay.Additionally,proofread your work to ensure it is free of grammatical errors and typos.By following these guidelines,you can create a compelling essay that highlights the multifaceted benefits of humor.。
跨文化交际期末考试
跨文化交际期末考试名词解释Unit 1:Economic globalization: the integration of national economic into the international economy through trade, foreign direct investment capital flows, migration, and the spread of technology.*Barter system: farming communities traded their surplus produce in exchange for products and services without the medium of money.Global village: all the different parts of the world form one community linked together by electronic communications, especially the internet.Melting pot: a socio-cultural assimilation of people of different backgrounds and nationalities. Culture: a learned set of shared interpretations about beliefs, values, and norms, which affect the behavior of a relatively large group of people.Cultural diversity: the mix of people from various backgrounds in the labor force with a full mix of cultures and sub-cultures to which members belong.Communication: meaning to share with or to make common, as in giving to another a part to share of your thoughts, hopes, and knowledge.Intercultural communication:communication between people whose cultural perception and symbol systems are distinct enough alter the communication eventComponents of Communication：①Source: The source is the person with an idea he or she desires to communicate.②Encoding: Encoding is the process of putting an idea intoa symbol.③Message: The term message identifies the encoded thought. Encoding is the process ,the verb; the message is the resulting object.④Channel:The term channel is used technical to refer to the means by which the encoded message is transmitted. The channel or medium, then, may be print, electronic, or the light and sound waves of the face-to-face communication.⑤Noise: T he term noise technically refers to anything that the message the source encodes.⑥Receiver: The receiver is the person who attends to the message.⑦Decoding:The receiver is actively involved in the communication process by assigning meaning to the symbols received.⑧Receiver response: It refers to anything the receiver does after having attended to and decoded the message.⑨Feedback:Feedback refers to that portion of the receiver response of which the source has knowledge and to which the source attends and assigns meaning.10．Context: The final component of communication is context. Generally, context can be defined as the environment in which the communication takes places and which helps define the communication.Pragmatics: the study of effect that language has on human perceptions and behavior. Semantics: the study of the meaning of words.Denotation:the literal meaning or definition of a word --- the explicit, particular, defined meaning.Connotation: the suggestive meaning of a word --- all thevalues, judgments, and beliefs implied by a word. the historical and associative accretion of the unspoken significance behind the literal meaning.Taboo:some objects, words or actions that are avoided by a particular group of people, or in certain culture for religious or social reasons.Euphemism: the act of substituting a mild, indirect, or vague term for one considered harsh, blunt, or offensive.Unit 5:Chronemics: the study of how people perceive and use time.Monochromic time: paying attention to and doing only one thing at a time.Polychromic time: being involved with many things at once.Proxemics: the perception and use of space.Kinetics: the study of body language.Paralanguage:involving sounds but not words and lying between verbal and nonverbal communication.Unit 9:A planetary culture: a culture that integrates eastern mysticism with western science and rationalism.Intercultural person: represents someone whose cognitive, affective, and behavioral characteristics are not limited but open to growth beyond the psychological parameters of his or her own culture.caseUnit11.What are the four trends that lead to the development of the global village?1）Convenient transportation systems 2）Innovation communication systems3）Economic globalization 4）Widespread migrations2.What are the three aspects where the cultural differences exist?The three aspects where the cultural differences exist are:1)the material and spiritual products people produce2)What they do3)What they think3.What are the three ingredients of culture?1. Artifacts (the material and spiritual products people produce)2. behavior (what they do)3. concepts (beliefs, values, world views…) (what they think)4.How to understand cultural iceberg?What we can see about culture is just the tip of the iceberg, which refers to something changing more rapidly such as clothing, language, gestures etc.The majority of the iceberg is intangible and beyond sight, which refers to something deeply rooted and hard to change such as belief, interpersonal relationship, values, etc.5.What are the characteristic of culture?Culture is shared, learned, dynamic and ethnocentric.Enculturation6.What are the characteristic of communication?Communication is dynamic, irreversible, symbolic, systematic, transactional and contextual.Unit 2-47.How is Chinese addressing different from American addressing?The Americans tend to address only with given names while the Chinese may use the full name. Even when the full names areused in some formal accessions by the Americans, the given names would be placed before the surname while the Chinese would do the opposite.Chinese often extend kinship terms to people not related by blood or marriage while the Americans seldom do so.The Chinese tend to address the people with titles but in English only a few occupation or titles could be used.8.How is the Chinese writing style different from the American style?The Chinese employ a circular approach in writing. In this kind indirect writing, the development of the paragraph may be said to be ‘turning and turning in a widening gyre.’ The circles or gyres turn around the subject and show it from a variety of tangential views, but the subject is never looked at directly.In contrast, the Americans are direct and linear in writing with the factual-inductive pattern. An English expository paragraph usually begins with a topic statement supported by example and illustrations, proceeds, to develop that central idea and relate that idea to all other ideas in the whole essay.9.What are the social functions of compliments?Compliments have a series of social functions: creating or reinforcing solidarity, greeting people, expressing thanks or congratulations, encouraging people, softening criticism, starting a conversation, or even overcoming embarrassment.Unit 510. What are the different features of M-time and P-time?M-time is noted for its emphasis on schedules, segmentation, punctuality and promptness. It features one event at a time and time is perceived as a linear structure. P-time is less rigid and clock-bound. It features several activities at the same time andtime is perceived as more flexible and more human-centered.Unit 611. How is gender different from sex?Sex: biological、permanent、with an individual property.Gender: socially-constructed、varied over time and across cultures、with a social and relational quality.12.What has influenced the gender socialization?According to researchers,there are two primary influences on gender socialization: family communication, particularly between mothers and children, and recreational interaction among children.13. What are the six principles for effective cross-gender communication?1) Suspend judgement; 2) Recognize the validity of different communication styles;3) Provide translation cues. 4) Seek translation cues.5) Enlarge your own communication style. 6) Suspend judgementUnit 914.What are the American/Chinese cultural values like in terms of Cultural Orientation put forward by Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck? （ppt中的补充内容）As far as the human nature is concerned, American culture holds that it is evil but perfectible through hard work. As to the relation of man to nature, they think mankind can conquer nature. They also have a linear time concept and therefore they are future-oriented. They focus on doing and think that only actions can solve the problem. They are quite individualistic and therefore they focus less on the benefits of the group.As far as the human nature is concerned, Chinese cultureholds that it is good but corruptible without proper education. As to the relation of man to nature, they think mankind can live in harmony with nature. They also have a cyclical time concept and therefore they are past-oriented. They have a being-and-becoming attitude towards activity and think that man should keep an inner peace as nothing is eternal. They are quite collective and therefore they focus more on the benefits of the group.)。
Intercultural Communication中国大学mooc课后章节答案期末考试题库
Intercultural Communication 跨文化传播_暨南大学中国大学mooc课后章节答案期末考试题库2023年1.People in collectivist cultures are more likely to adopt a win-or-loseperspective in conflict management.在集体主义文化中的人在竞争中更有可能持有非赢即输的观点。
参考答案:错误2.The terms “masculinity” and “femininity” used by Hofstede is referred to byother scholars as霍夫斯泰德提出的“男性气质”和“女性气质”被其他学者称为参考答案:Career success and quality of life事业成功和生活质量3.Identity is an abstract, complex, dynamic, and socially-constructed concept.身份是一个抽象的、复杂的、动态的、社会建构的概念。
参考答案:正确4.Where does notthe most influential Chinese perspectives on the issue ofgender come from?中国对性别问题最具影响力的观点来自哪里?参考答案:Hinduism印度教5.You should converse slowly and softly when engaging with people who speakloudly and fast.与说话大声而快速的人沟通时，你应把语速放轻放缓。
参考答案:错误6.The cultural specific approach is superior to the cultural general approachbecause there is no universal traits and influences that can be transferred from culture to culture.坚持文化特殊性的方法优于文化一般性的方法，因为没有可以从一种文化转移到另一种文化的普遍特征和影响。
大学英语跨文化交际总结
Chapter 1 cultureThe nature of culture:1.culture is like an iceberg2.culture is our software3.culture is like the water a fish swims in4.culture is the grammar of our behaviorCharacteristics of culture:1.culture is learned (through proverbs, folklore, art, mass media)2.culture is dynamic 动态的3.culture is pervasive 普遍的4.culture is integrated 综合的5.culture is adaptiveCultural identity 文化认同1.cultural identity defined2.formation of cultural identity (unexamined, search, achievement)3.characteristics of cultural identityCultures within culture1.subculture 亚文化群2.Co-culture 共文化3.Sub-group 亚群体SummaryMany of us take our culture for granted. The only time when we may ever think about it is when we leave our own country to travel abroad or when we encounter someone with a culture so different from ours that we have to examine our own beliefs. Much of what we think is the "right" or "correct" way to act or do something is actually part of the knowledge that we have learned from our culture. Culture is a large and inclusive concept. The first definition of culture, by the English anthropologist Edward B. Tylor, involves knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. Although this definition has tried to cover more aspects that may direct human behavior, more inclusive definitions continue to come into being. However, in this book, culture is defined from the intercultural communication perspective: culture is the deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, actions, attitudes, hierarchies, religions, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and artifacts acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving.Compared with the different ideas on what culture is, scholars agree on the characteristics of culture. Generally speaking, culture is learned, dynamic, pervasive, integrated and adaptive.Cultural identity refers to one's sense of belonging to a particular culture or ethnic group. People identify with being a member of a group. Being a member of a group helps to define who we are. We are all members of groups of differentsizes. One of the largest groups that a person can belong to is a culture. Everyone belongs to a culture.Other groups that people may be a member of are subcultures (also called co-culture) and subgroups. Subcultures exist within dominant culture, and are often based on economic or social class, ethnicity, race, or geographic region.Co-culture refers to groups or social communities exh如ting communication characteristics, perceptions, values, beliefs, and practices that are significantly different enough to distinguish them from the other groups, communities, and the dominant culture.Subgroups usually do not involve the same large number of people and are not necessarily thought of as accumulating values and patterns of behavior over generations in the same way as cultures do. Subgroups can be as small as a few people or as large as a major religion. Subgroups provide their members with norms that tell people how to behave and think. Subgroups can be considered "deviant" forms of behavior. Subgroups can also be defined as "non-exclusive" and "temporary" forms of behavior.Chapter 2 intercultural communication Communicationmunication definedponents (组成) of communication（sender/message/encoding/channel/receiver/decoding编码/feedback/noise/context）Characteristics of communicationmunication is dynamicmunication is systematicmunication is symbolic 象征的munication is irreversible 不可逆的munication is transactional 相互作用的munication is self-reflective 自我反思的munication is contextual 前后关系的Culture and communicationCulture and communication, although two different concepts, are directly linked. They are so inextricably bound that some anthropologists believe the terms are virtually synonymous. Whenever people interact, they communicate. Culture is learned, acted out, transmitted, and preserved through communication. Although the concepts of communication and culture work together, we separate them here for purposes of our discussion, we begin by examining "communication" because to understand intercultural interaction, you must first recognize the role of communication in that process.Cultures inherently contain communication systems. Communication and culture are inseparable. One implication of this insight is that cultures generate symbols, rituals, customs, and formats. To use a simple example, every culture has rules for achievement and attainment. In Western culture, the symbols includedegrees, promotions, certificates, material objects, technology, and other symbols of material wealth. However, nationals in rural Botswana take pride in the primary group and not just individual attainment. Cultural misunderstanding occurs when we fail to match the appropriate symbols and general communication system to the culture. Just witness the awkwardness of an expatriate who attends a gathering in a host culture, but fails to wear the appropriate clothes. One cannot escape this inseparability of culture and communication.Each culture encourages a particular communication style expected within it. This implies not only using correct symbols, but also applying the appropriate communication style for the occasion. Communication styles include mannerisms, phrases, rituals, and communication customs appropriate for various situations in a culture. For instance, in Saudi Arabia the correct interpersonal communication style upon meeting one's host is often language loaded with compliments and thanks. Public criticism of fellow workers in this culture is rare, for such a message would appear disrespectful. Some West Africans exhibit a friendly and warm interpersonal communication style. Some Asians are described as conscious of propriety, ceremony, and rules of respect and honor. Some U.S. culture members appear informal and uninhibited Some Britons display a reserved manner, preferring understatement and control in interpersonal interaction. These examples remind us of the importance of understanding intercultural communication style.Areas like loudness, pitch, rate, and certain stances and gestures characterize communication behaviors. A specific culture expects an "ideal" communication style. The contrasts are striking, such as when an American speaks in a "normal" conversational voice, a "quiet" Thai national may think the voice is too loud and interpret the American to be angry.Intercultural communication1.intercultural communication defined2.forms of intercultural communication (internationalcommunication/interracial communication跨人种/interethniccommunication跨种族/intracultural communication同一文化内)SummaryCommunication is an element of culture. It is believed that every cultural pattern and every single act of social behavior involves communication. When a baby is just born, he usually cries. His crying communicates something. When you graduate, your friends usually say "Congratulations!" to you. When a driver sees the red light, he/she will stop. All these are cases of communication. Communication is derived from the Latin word communicate, meaning to share with or to make common, as in giving to another part or share of your thoughts, hopes, and knowledge.However, like culture, the term "communication" has been defined from different perspectives. In fact, the way that people view communication - what itis, how to do it, and reasons for doing it - is part of their culture. Western culture emphasizes the instrumental function of communication and the prior consideration is to achieve the sender's personal goal, while in Eastern culture, in addition to sending and receiving messages simultaneously, communicators take their relationship into account.The process of communication has nine components: sender/source, message, encoding, channel, receiver, decoding, feedback, noise and context. The sender encodes a message (information that the sender wants to share with other people) by putting it into symbols (usually words or nonverbal gestures) and then sending it through a channel. A channel can be printed media such as magazines and newspapers; electronic media such as television, radio, and the Internet; or sounds traveling through the air when two people speak face to face. Sometimes, it is difficult for the message to reach the receiver. The difficulty is due to "noise". When receivers get the message, they must "decode" or try to understand it. For example, if the sender encodes a message using English, the receiver must use their knowledge of English language to understand it. Often, the sender pays attention to the feedback of the receiver. The communication takes place within a setting or situation called context.Any communication process demonstrates several characteristics, that is, dynamic, systematic, symbolic, irreversible, transactional, self-reflective and contextual.When communicating with people from different cultures, it is important toremember that culture and communication are strongly connected. Culture is a code we learn and share, and learning and sharing require communication. Intercultural communication refers to communication between people whose cultural perception and symbol system are distinct enough to alter the communication event. Intercultural communication as a term was first used in 1959 by Edward T. Hall—an American anthropologist. Intercultural communication includes international communication, interracial communication, interethnic commurucat10n and intracultural communication.Chapter 4 barriersEmotional problems as barriers1.anxiety and uncertainty (definition/strategies to overcome)2.assuming similarity instead of difference 假想相同点多于不同点Attitudinal problems as barriers1.ethnocentrism 种族或民族中心主义（defined/various forms）2.stereotyping（definition/categories）3.prejudice4.racism5.reasons for the persistence of ethnocentrism, stereotyping, prejudice andracism（socialization社交化/social benefits/economic benefits/psychological benefits）Translation problems as language barriersck of vocabulary equivalenceck of idiomatic equivalenceck of grammatical-syntactical equivalenceck of experiential equivalence 经验ck of conceptual equivalence 概念SummaryThere are several barriers to intercultural communication—anxiety and uncertainty, assuming similarity instead of difference, ethnocentrism, stereotyping, prejudice, racism and translation problems.Anxiety and uncertainty, as well as assuming similarity instead of difference belong to the emotional problems.Anxiety occurs because of not knowing what one is expected to do, and focusing on that feeling and not being totally present in the communication transaction. Anxiety may also affect your ability to communicate your ideas to others, for you pay too much attention to your uncomfortable feelings. Uncertainty refers to our cognitive inability to explain our own or other's feelings and behaviors in interactions because of an ambiguous situation that evokes anxiety.Assuming similarity instead of difference is a natural thing to do if you do not have any information about a culture. It refers to the idea that people comingfrom another culture are more similar to you than they actually are or that another person's situation is more similar to yours than it in fact is. Assuming that a culture is similar to your own can cause you to ignore important differences This assumption always leads to disrupted communication and even conflict. Ethnocentrism, stereotyping, prejudice and racism belong to the attitudinal problems Ethnocentrism is negatively judging another culture by your own culture's standards. To make ethnocentric judgments is to believe that the ways of your own culture are better than those of others.Stereotyping is used to refer to negative or positive judgments made about individuals based on any observable or believed group membership. It assumes that a person has certain qualities (good or bad) just because the person is a member of a specific group.Prejudice refers to the irrational dislike, suspicion or hatred of a particular group, race, religion, or sexual orientation. Prejudiced attitudes can take many forms.A specific kind of prejudice, racism refers to any policy, practice, belief, or attitude that attributes characteristics or status to individuals based on their race. Racism involves not only prejudice, but also the exercise of power over individuals based on their race.Ethnocentrism, stereotyping, prejudice, racism continue to exist because of socialization and the apparent social, economic, and psychological benefits that come from it.Due to language differences and cultural differences, translation can become abarrier to intercultural communication.Five elements that typically cause problems in translation are the lack of equivalences in vocabulary, idioms, grammar and syntax, experiences, and concepts.Chapter 5 verbal communication Significance of verbal communication"Verbal" means "consisting of words". Language, spoken or written, is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, verbal intercultural communication happens when people from different cultural backgrounds communicate with each other by using language.Language and culturenguage as a reflection of the environmentnguage as a reflection of values3.the meaning of wordsVerbal communication styles1.direct and indirect styles2.self-enhancement and self-effacement styles 宣扬和谦逊3.elaborate, exacting and succinct styles 详尽的，确切的，简洁的4.personal and contextual styles 不同的称呼方式根据场合和地位5.instrumental and affective styles 理性与感性Language diversity1.dialects and sociolects 方言和社会方言2.pidgin and lingua franca 洋泾浜语（汉语中夹杂外语），混合语（母语不互通）3.taboo and euphemism 禁用语委婉语4.jargon 行话Cultural influence on written communication1.direct plan2.indirect planSummaryVerbal intercultural communication happens when people from different cultural backgrounds communicate with each other by using language.It is agreed that language helps in communicating with people from different backgrounds. However, people may be less aware that cultural literacy is necessary in order to understand the language being used. Words in themselves do not carry the meaning. The meaning comes out of the context. Although people use the dictionary to explain one language with another language, words of different languages don't mean the same thing because of the cultural influence on word meaning.There are mainly five verbal communication styles introduced in this chapter: direct / indirect; self-enhancement / self-effacement; elaborate / exacting / succinct; personal / contextual; and instrumental / affective.Language is a cultural phenomenon which is used to express different uses and to communicate different meanings. Language varies according to the communicative uses but also according to the users. In fact, users of the same language in a sense all speak differently and the kind of language each of them chooses to use is in part determined by their cultural background.In short, some language variations result from the language user, that is, his or her geographical origin (dialect), or his or her social condition (sociolect). However, some language variations result from the circumstances of communication, such as pidgin, Lingua Franca, jargon, taboo and euphemism. Dialect refers to geographical variation, while sociolect refers to variation in terms of social class or style. Pidgin refers to a mixed language that is used for trading purposes, while Lingua Franca refers to a specific language that is used as an international means of communication. Taboo refers to expressions that are considered impolite, while euphemism refers to polite expressions used to soften the offensive and disturbing language. Jargon refers to a special or technical vocabulary that is developed for professional purposes within professional groups like medicine or law.Furthermore, verbal communication involves both oral and written forms. Written communication is especially important in intercultural business communication. As the modem technological renovation (e-mail and e-commerce) calls for the written communication in business, businessmen should be more conscious about the written communication because mistakes made inwritten form are more serious and permanent.Cultural patterns influence not only oral communication but also written communication. Cultural impact on discourse patterns is to be classified into two categories: direct plan and indirect plan. In direct plans, clarity and conciseness are essential to a successful business writing style. The indirect plan has other priorities than the quick delivery of ideas, such as nurturing a relationship or developing some other context for the message. Direct plan is favored by results-oriented cultures Indirect plan is favored by relationship-oriented culture.Chapter 6 nonverbalSignificance of nonverbal communication1.nonverbal behavior accounts for much of the meaning we get fromconversations.2.nonverbal behavior is significant because it spontaneou sly<D reflects thesubconsciousness.3.Nonverbal communication is significant is that we cannot avoidcommunicating.Definition and functions of nonverbal communication1.definition of nonverbal communication2.functions of nonverbal communication（repeating重复/complementing补充/substituting代替/regulating/contradicting反对）Paralanguage and silence1.paralanguage 副语言（语音语调）2.silenceTime and space1.chronemics 时间行为学的2.proxemics 人际距离学（fixed features of space/semifixed features ofspace/personal space包括四种情况下的不同距离）Other categories of nonverbal communication1.oculesics 目光语2.olfactics 嗅觉3.haptics 触觉4.kinesics 人体动作学（gestures/posture/facial expressions/chromatics色彩/attire打扮）SummaryWhen we learn to communicate, we learn not only language but also various ways of communicating. Communicators use both verbal and nonverbal codes to communicate, listeners expect to receive both kinds of messages during a conversation. If a speaker uses nonverbal codes poorly or inappropriately, a listener may consider the person a poor speaker. However, misunderstandings may occur when the speakers and listeners are from different cultures and do not share the same nonverbal codes.In brief, the messages sent without using words are called nonverbal communication. Nonverbal communication involves those nonverbal stimuli in a communication setting that are generated by the sender and his or her use of the environment—these have potential message value for both the sender and receiver.Nonverbal communication codes or symbols or stimuli in a communicating setting can be divided into different categories: paralanguage, silence, proxemics, chronemics, oculesics, olfactics, haptics, kinesics, chromatics and attire. Paralanguage is the set of audible sounds that accompany oral language to augment its meaning When the German poet Klopstock wrote "The tones of human voices are mightier than strings or brass to move the soul", he meant that sounds we generate often communicate more than the words that they produce. We have the experience of watching foreign movies: if we don't know the language they speak and there are no subtitles, we can still infer when performers are expressing anger, sorrow, joy, or any other emotions.Silence cues affect interpersonal communication by providing an interval in an ongoing interaction during which the participants have time to think, check or suppress an emotion, encode a lengthy response, or inaugurate another line of thought.Chronemics is the study of how people perceive and use time. People have different attitudes toward punctuality because they have different time orientations. People from monochronic cultures emphasize schedules, whilepeople from polychronic cultures stress involvement of people and the completion of tasks as opposed to a strict adherence to schedules.Proxemics refers to the study of spatial relations. Cultures vary in such things as how living space is arranged and the distance between people in interaction. Oculesics refers to the study of communications sent by the eyes. Eyes play a central role in impression management. When people say that eyes talk, they mean that eyes convey messages. Although eye contact is a very important way of communication, direct eye-to-eye contact is not a custom throughout the world.Olfactics refers to the study of communication via smell. Americans feel uncomfortable with natural smells, so they spend millions of dollars to make themselves smell "good". However, many cultures regard natural smells as normal. Most心abs perceive a person's smell as an extension of the person.Haptics or touch refers to communication through the use of bodily contact. There are different behavioral patterns regarding touch. We learn the rules, as we move from infancy into childhood. The wrong behavior of touching in strange cultures can create uncertainty and even ill feeling.Kinesics refers to gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, body position, body movement, and forms of greeting and their relations to communication. Although any part of the body can be used for communicating nonverbally, face, hands, and arms are the primary灼nesic channels through which nonverbal messages are sent.Chromatics refers to the study of color in reference to people's perceptions, behaviors, and impressions of others. The same color may be interpreted differently in different cultures. The wrong color of your clothes may make people dislike you, or even hate you. It is quite important to watch what color is appropriate in certain settings, when you are in a foreign countryAttire refers to clothing and physical appearance. It also serves as nonverbal symbols. We often identify a person's culture by his or her physical appearance and dress. Communication with others is often perceived by visual observations of his or her physical appearance.Chapter 7 cultural patternsDefining cultural patterns1.ways of thinking2.ways of actingComponents of cultural patterns 组成1.beliefs 信仰2.values 价值观3.norms 行为准则4.social practices 社会行为Culture theory1.high-context culture 高语境文化（很多信息在环境中是可见的，没有必要用语言过多描述）2.low-context culture（语言作为主要传递信息的方式）3.problems posed （高语境的会嫌弃低语境的人说的太多，给予了太多不需要的信息）Value orientation1.human nature orientation2.person-nature orientation（mastery-over-nature view/harmony-with-natureview/subjugation-to-nature view）3.time orientation（value-past/value-present/value-future）4.activity orientation（value-doing/value-being/value-being-in-becoming）5.relational orientationCultural variability1.individualism and collectivism 独立的集中的2.uncertainty avoidance3.power distance4.masculinity and femininity 男权主义女权主义SummaryAlthough individuals, even in the same culture, tend to have different value patterns, there are overall values shaped by one's culture which are shared by the members of the group. Understanding a culture's value pattern is of great significance in terms of understanding their behaviorsShared beliefs, values, norms, and social practices that are stable over time andthat lead to roughly similar behaviors across similar situations are known as cultural patterns.A belief is an idea that people assume to be true about the world.Values involve what a culture regards as good or bad, right or wrong, fair or unfair, just or unjust, beautiful or ugly, clean or dirty, valuable or worthless, appropriate or inappropriate, and kind or cruel.Norms are the socially shared expectations of appropriate behaviors.Social practices are the predictable behavior patterns that members of a culture typically follow.Context is defined as the information that surrounds an event; it is inextricably bound up with the meaning of the event. Edward T. Hall introduced the high context communication and low context communication. A high context (HC) communication or message is one in which most of the information is already in the person, while very little is in the coded, explicitly transmitted part of the message. A low context (LC) communication is just the opposite; i.e., the mass of the information is vested in the explicit code. It is verbalized.Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck's Value Orientations are based on: human nature, person-nature interface, time, activity and human relationships. These five aspects define group cultures according to different categories:A s for human-nature orientation, cultures could be divided into six groups:(1) Humans are evil but changeable; (2) Humans are evil and unchangeable; (3) Humans are neutral with respect to good and evil; (4) Humans are a mixture ofgood and evil; (5) Humans are good but changeable;(6) Humans are good and unchangeable.The person-nature orientation consists of three categories: (1) Mastery over nature; (2) Harmony with nature; (3) Subjugation to nature.As far as time orientation is concerned, cultures may belong to (1) The past orientation; (2) The present orientation; (3) The future orientation.The activity orientation involves three groups: (1) The d· omg onentat10n; (2) The being orientation; (3) The being-in-becoming orientation.Geert Hofstede has identified four value dimensions that have a significant impact on behavior in all cultures. These dimensions are individualism and collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, power distance, and masculinity and femininity.Individualistic cultures give more importance to individuals' needs when they do things such as setting goals.Collectivism is characterized by a rigid social framework that distinguishes between in-groups and out-groups.Uncertainty avoidance deals with the degree to which members of a culture try to avoid uncertainty.Power distance is "the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organizations accept that power is distributed unequally". That is to say, how equal or unequal .the people in a particular culture think people should be.The major differentiation between masculine and feminine cultures is how gender roles are distributed in cultures.Those dimensions offer certain measurements for researchers to study a specific culture or do comparative research work from an intercultural perspective.Chapter 8 cultural influence on contextsThe business context1.culture influence on business context2.management 不同国家方式不同3.business etiquette norms 商务礼仪（appointment seeking/the date forbusiness/greeting behavior/gift giving）The educational context1.culture influence on the educational context2.role behaviors of students and teachers3.classroom participation4.turn taking 说话的方式时间和行为The health care context1.culture influence on the health care context2.family and gender roles in the health care context3.conversational structures and languageSummaryMeaning in communication is basically decided by context. Communication is not devoid of external influence: all human interaction is influenced to some degree by the social, physical, and cultural settings in which it occurs. This is known as the communication context. Context may consist of the social, political, and historical structuresin which the communication occurs. Communication in three areas is most influenced by context: business, education and health care.In the business field, management has become a crucial issue and the managing styles vary from culture to culture. These differences are apt to cause troubles for intercultural communication. In add山on to management, many concrete business practices such as appointment seeking, greeting, gift giving and negotiation are also posing problems for the business interaction. People need to understand and practice the rules in intercultural business context to be competent communicators.The educational context is another significant area where intercultural communication frequently occurs. All participants in the educational context—teachers, students, parents, school administrators, and other staff—bring their cultures' beliefs, values, norms, and social practices with them. All of these can influence behaviors on how students and teachers relate to each other in the classroom.Similarly, health care professionals have been trying to increase intercultural communication skills within the订professional training and development。
湖北工业大学英语专业跨文化交际复习资料
跨文化交际复习资料名词解释Globalization is worldwide interconnectedness, evidenced in global movements movements of of of natural natural natural resources, resources, resources, trade trade trade goods, goods, goods, human human human labor, labor, labor, finance finance finance capital, capital, information, and infectious diseases. Intercultural communication is communication between people whose cultural cultural perceptions perceptions perceptions and and and symbol symbol symbol systems systems systems are are are distinct distinct distinct enough enough enough to to to alter alter alter the the communication event. The dominant culture is a type of culture that one group possesses the power to speak for the entire culture while setting the tone and agenda that others will usually follow. Co-cultures are cultures discussing groups or social communities exhibiting communication characteristics, perceptions, values, beliefs, and practices that are sufficiently different to distinguish them from other groups and communities and from the dominant culture.Communication is a dynamic process in which people attempt to share their internal states with other people through the use of symbols. Culture is a set of human-made objective and subjective elements that in the past have increased the probability of survival and resulted in satisfaction for the participants in an ecological niche, and thus became shared among those who could communicate with each other because they had a common language and they lived in the same time and place. Values are culturally defined standards of desirability, goodness, and beauty that serve as broad guidelines for social living.P25Values are shared ideas about what is true, right, and beautiful which underline cultural patterns and guide society in response to the physical and social environment.P189Stereotypes are a collection of false assumptions that people in all cultures make about the characteristics of members of various groups.P42A stereotype is is a a a cognitive cognitive cognitive structure structure structure containing containing containing the the the perceiv perceiv perceiver’s er’s er’s knowledge,knowledge, beliefs, and experiences about some human social groups.P170Objectivity is the state of being objective, just, unbiased and not influenced by emotions or personal prejudices.P43Social organizations or social institutions a re the groups that members of a are the groups that members of a culture turn to for lessons about the meaning of life and methods for living that life.P49Family is is a a a group group group of of of intimates, intimates, intimates, who who who generate generate generate a a a sense sense sense of of of home home home and and and group group identity, complete with strong ties of loyalty and emotion, and an experience of a history and a future.P54Individualism is a kind of thought that involves self-motivation, autonomy, and independent independent thinking, thinking, thinking, which which which takes takes takes in in in the the the following following following forms. forms. forms. People’s People’s People’s personal personal goals take priority over their allegiance to groups like like the the the family family or or the the employer. The loyalty of individualists to a given group is very weak; they feel they belong to many groups and are apt to change their membership as it suits to them, switching churches, for example, or leaving one employer for another. Such Such thought thought thought stresses stresses stresses personal personal personal rights rights rights and and and responsibilities, responsibilities, responsibilities, privacy, privacy, voicing one’s own opinion, freedom, innovation, and self-expression. freedom, innovation, and self-expression.P198. P199.P67Collectivism is is a a a kind kind kind of of of thought thought thought that that that people people people primarily primarily primarily view view view themselves themselves themselves as as members of groups and collectives rather than as autonomous individuals. In such such cultures cultures cultures people people people emphasize emphasize emphasize community, community, collaboration, collaboration, shared shared shared interest, interest, harmony, tradition, the public good, and maintaining face. Collectivism means greater emphasis on the views. needs, and goals of the in-group rather than oneself; social norms and duty defined by the in-group rather than behavior to get pleasure; beliefs shared with the in-group rather than beliefs that distinguish distinguish the the the self self self from from from in-group; in-group; in-group; and and and great great great readiness readiness readiness to to to cooperate cooperate cooperate with with in-group members .History is the witness that testifies to the passing of time; it illumines reality, vitalizes vitalizes memory, memory, provides provides guidance guidance guidance in in in daily daily daily life, life, life, and and and brings brings brings us us us tidings tidings tidings of of antiquity. The worldview of a people is is the the the way way way they they they interpret interpret interpret reality reality reality and and and events, events, including including images images images of of of themselves themselves themselves and and and how how how they they they relate relate relate to to to the the the world world world around around them .P97Worldview functions as a guide to help people determine what the world looks like and how they should function within that world.P98Identity is the reflective self-conception or self-image that we each derive from our family, gender, cultural, ethnic, and individual socialization process. Cultural identity: the identification of communications of a shared system of symbolic verbal and nonverbal behavior that are meaningful to group members who have a sense of belonging and who share traditions, heritage, language, and similar norms of appropriate behavior. Cultural identity is a social construction.P154Prejudices are are deeply deeply deeply held held held negative negative negative feelings feelings feelings associated associated associated with with with a a a particular particular group. Prejudice amounts to a rigid and irrational generalization about a category of people. Prejudice is irrational to the extent that people hold inflexible attitudes supported supported by by by little little little or or or no no no direct direct direct evidence. evidence. evidence. Prejudice Prejudice Prejudice may may may target target target people people people of of of a a particular social class, sex, sexual orientation, age, political affiliation, race, or ethnicity.P173Racism is the belief in the inherent superiority of a particular race.It denies the basic equality of humankind and correlates ability with physical composition. Thus it assumes that success or failure in any societal endeavor will depend upon genetic endowment rather than environment and access to opportunity.P177Ethnocentrism is the notion that one’s own culture is superior to any other. It is the idea that other cultures should be measured by the degree to which they live live up up up to to to our our our cultural cultural cultural standards. standards. standards. We We We are are are ethnocentric ethnocentric ethnocentric when when when we we we view view view other other cultures through the narrow lens of our own culture or social position. Perception is the process whereby people convert external events and experiences into meaningful internal understanding.P185 Beliefs serve as the storage system for the content of our past experiences, including thoughts, memories, and interpretations of events.P187 Cultural patterns are a useful umbrella term that allows us to talk about values, beliefs, and other orientations collectively.P190 Uncertainty avoidance defines the extent to which people within a culture are made nervous by situations which they perceive as unstructured, unclear, or unpredictable, situations which they therefore try to avoid by maintaining strict codes of behavior and a belief in absolute truths.P201 Power distance is a characteristic of a culture defining the extent to which the less powerful person in society accepts inequality in power and considers it as normal.P203Masculinity and feminity refer to the degree to which masculine or feminine traits are valued and revealed.P205 A being orientation refers to spontaneous expression of the human personality.P213The being-in-dong orientation stresses the idea of development and growth. It It emphasizes emphasizes emphasizes the the the kind kind kind of of of activity activity activity that that that contributes contributes contributes to to to the the the development development development of of of all all aspects of the self as an integral whole.P214 The doing orientation describes activity in which accomplishments are measurable by standards external to the individual.P214 Context is the information that surrounds an event; it is inextricably bound up with the meaning of the event.P215 Nonverbal communication involves all those nonverbal stimuli in a communication setting that are generated by both the source and his or her use of the environment and that have potential message value for the source or receiver.P246All human interaction is influenced to some degree by the cultural, social, and physical settings in which it occurs. These settings are called the communication context .Intercultural communication competence is the overall internal capability of an individual to manage the key challenging features of intercultural communication: namely, cultural differences and unfamiliarity, inter-group posture, and the accompanying experience of stress.P384 Culture shock is is a a a mental mental mental state state state that that that comes comes comes from from from the the the transition transition transition that that that occurs occurs when when you you you go go go from from from a a a familiar familiar familiar environment environment environment to to to an an an unfamiliar unfamiliar unfamiliar one one one and and and find find find that that your old, established patterns of behavior are ineffective. Ethics refers to judgments that focus on degrees of rightness and wrongness, virtue and vice, and obligation in human behavior.P404 翻译1.Human beings draw close to one another by their common nature, but habits and customs keep them apart. ---Confucius.性相近，习相远。
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Understanding Social Psychology across Cultures:Living and Working with Others in a Changing World (Sage Publishers) Peter B. Smith, Michael Harris Bond and Ciğdem KağitçibasiSECTION 1: ESTABLISHING THE FRAMEWORKChapter 1: Some Pressing Questions for Cross-Cultural Psychology SUMMARYFURTHER READINGSTUDY QUESTIONSChapter 2: Improving the Validity of Cross-Cultural PsychologyA PERSPECTIVE BASED ON FIELDWORKTHE PSYCHOMETRIC PERSPECTIVETHE EXPERIMENTAL PERSPECTIVEStage 1: ReplicationsStage 2: Decentering Research MethodsStage 3: Benchmarks for Contemporary Cross-Cultural StudiesSUMMARYFURTHER READINGSTUDY QUESTIONSChapter 3: Defining the Way ForwardCULTURE, NATIONS AND SOCIETIESVALUES, BELIEFS AND BEHAVIOURSTHE HOFSTEDE PROJECTProgress CheckSTUDYING INDIVIDUALS AND STUDYING CULTURESThe Schwartz Value SurveysFurther Value SurveysCULTURES AS SYSTEMS OF SHARED BELIEFSPUTTING THE PICTURE TOGETHERBringing our Terminology into Better FocusRelating Individuals and CulturesEvaluating ProgressSUMMARYFURTHER READINGSTUDY QUESTIONSChapter 4: Nations as Cultures and their Consequences for Social Psychology NATIONS AS CULTURESPSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERIZATIONS OF NATIONAL CULTUREThe Accuracy ProblemThe Stability ProblemConceptual Groupings of National CharacteristicsProfiles of National Groups Using True Psychological ConstructsTHE ECO-POLITICO-SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONTEXT OF NATIONSThe Eco-Cultural FrameworkLINKING A NATION’S ECO-POLITICO-SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS TO ITS CITIZEN OUTCOMESA Case Study of Nationality and HomicideVariability of Life Satisfaction within Nations across NationsAN INTEGRATIVE MODELTheoretical ExampleEmpirical example: Nationality and self-esteem as a determinant of life satisfaction SUMMARYFURTHER READINGSTUDY QUESTIONSSECTION 2: CORE ISSUESChapter 5: The Making and Remaking of CulturesWHY DO WE NEED A DEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVE?LIFE STAGES AND CULTURETHE VALUE OF CHILDREN AND FAMILY CHANGETHE AUTONOMOUS-RELATED SELF-CONSTRUALFAMILY CONTROLTHE IMMIGRATION CONTEXTDEVELOPMENTAL PATHWAYSSUMMARYFURTHER READINGSTUDY QUESTIONSChapter 6: Making Sense of One’s WorldINDIVIDUAL-LEVEL SELF-REPRESENTATIONSSelf-ConstrualsSLOWING DOWN THE RUNAWAY HORSEUses and Abuses of Individual-Level MeasuresAre We Measuring the Right Aspects of Self-Construal?Where Should We Study Self-Construal?INTERDEPENDENCE AND COGNITIONCorrespondence BiasINTERDEPENDENCE AND EMOTIONThe Universality of EmotionsPutting Emotions Back Into Their ContextINTERDEPENDENCE AND MOTIVATIONSelf-Enhancement and ModestySocially-Oriented AchievementConsistencyCULTURE AS A SET OF PERSISTENT PRIMESSUMMARYFURTHER READINGSTUDY QUESTIONSChapter 7: Personality in Cross-Cultural PerspectiveMAPPING THE PERSONALITY OF INDIVIDUALS AND THEIR CULTURAL GROUPSComparing Personality across CulturesPAN-CULTURAL SIMILARITY IN THE ORGANIZATION OF PERSONALITY? The Lexically Derived Big FiveThe Big Five in Personality InventoriesRatings of Others’ PersonalitiesIs the Five-Factor Model of Personality Complete?Cross-cultural versus Intra-cultural Variation in PersonalityFuture DirectionsPersonality as a Relational OrientationUsing Implicit Measures of PersonalityDeveloping if-then Models for Social BehaviorSUMMARYFURTHER READINGSTUDY QUESTIONSChapter 8: Communicating and Relating with OthersSTYLES OF COMMUNICATIONNon-verbal communicationProximitySpatial PositioningTouchGesturesFacial ExpressionSilenceSuccess and Failure in CommunicationPolitenessFaceEmbarrassmentRELATING TO OTHERSStrangersApproaches to ClosenessIntimate relationsGender RelationsStyles of AttachmentSUMMARYSTUDY QUESTIONSFURTHER READINGChapter 9: Working Together WORK MOTIVATIONJob SatisfactionThe Psychological ContractOrganizational CommitmentOrganizational CitizenshipTHEORIES OF JUSTICEReward allocationDistributive justiceProcedural JusticeInteractive JusticeCulture and EthicsNEGOTIATION AND CONFLICTTests of the Dual Concern ModelTests of the Leung ModelCross-Cultural NegotiationWORKING IN TEAMSFeedbackMulticultural teamsLEADERS AND LEADERSHIPInfluence ProcessesContextualizing LeadershipThe GLOBE ProjectORGANIZATIONS AS CULTURESSUMMARYFURTHER READINGSTUDY QUESTIONSSECTION 3: THE WORLD IN FLUXChapter 10: Coping with Difference LANGUAGE ISSUESThe single language optionThe language choice optionNo common languageUNDERSTANDING CROSS-CULTURAL INTERACTIONS Stereotypes or frameworks?Cross-cultural skillsCross-cultural trainingPsychological and sociocultural adaptationTYPES OF CONTACTTouristsStudent SojournersOrganizational SojournersSUMMARYFURTHER READINGSTUDY QUESTIONSChapter 11:Cultural Aspects of Intergroup RelationsSOCIAL IDENTITY PROCESSESNATIONAL STEREOTYPESHeterostereotypesAutostereotypesETHNIC STEREOTYPINGSocial Dominance TheoryINDIVIDUALISTIC GROUPS AND COLLECTIVISTIC GROUPSHonor CulturesReligion and Intergroup RelationsMIGRATIONACCULTURATIONConceptual issuesMeasurement issuesSampling issuesTHE CONTACT HYPOTHESISPossible effects of multiculturalist and assimilationist policiesSUMMARYFURTHER READINGSTUDY QUESTIONSChapter 12:Global ChangeCONVERGENCE AND MODERNITYTHE INGLEHART PROJECTValue Change over TimeALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF DATA ON CULTURAL CHANGEPolitical Change and Cultural ChangeFamilies and Cultural ChangeMigration and Cultural ChangeSUMMARYFURTHER READINGSTUDY QUESTIONSChapter 13: The Unfinished AgendaTOPICS FOR DEBATENow that we have valid individual-level measures of beliefs and values, there is nousefulness for culture-level measuresA person can be both individualist and collectivistResearchers have focused too narrowly on individualism-collectivismCross-cultural psychologists have not paid enough attention to indigenous, emicapproachesCross-cultural psychologists should do more to demonstrate the practical applications of their findingsProviding information that enhances understanding of the nature of cultural differences andtheir importanceTraining persons in the skills of cross-cultural interaction Working multiculturallyAdvising key negotiators and decision makersCultural differences are disappearing: our field has no futureGlossaryReferences。