学生The U.S. Court System
法律英语核心词汇.doc
*Unit One Legal systemfederation联邦制federalism联邦制度/政治jurisdiction 管辖权(区)legal system 法律体系legal tradition 法律传统legal method 法律方法civil law system 大陆法系common law system 普通法系royal court 女王法庭legislation 立法petition 申请，诉求Court of Chancery 大法官法庭、衡平法庭discretion自由裁量（权）equity 衡平法Twelve Tables 十二表法Canon law 教会法source of law 法律渊源civil code 民法典private law/public law私法/公法law doctrine 法条legal education 法学教育tribunal 审判员席，法官席；特别法庭breach of contract 违反合同precedent 先例，前例predictability 可预期性legal doctrine 法律原则stare decisis 遵循先例trial court初审法院、审判法院intermediate appellate court 中级上诉法院Supreme Court of the United States Res Judicata 已决事件[已裁决的案例]reversal 撤销；推翻[下级法院的裁决]overrule 推翻判决，驳回judicial precedent 司法先例plaintiff （民事）原告defendant （民事、刑事）被告the accused (刑事) 被告a right of privacy 隐私权the losing party 败诉方bring one’s suit against sb 起诉reverse the decision 推翻裁判binding 有约束力的reasoning 推理dictum 法官的附带意见Unit Two Court Systemcourt of last resort 最高上诉法院Court of Common Pleas普通诉讼法院out-of-state lawyer州外律师inferior trial court初级法院petty trial court小型审判法院trial court of general jurisdiction 具有一般审判权的初审法院Superior Court高级法院、上级法院District Court地区法院Supreme Judicial Court最高法院diversity of citizenship多样公民身份管辖venue审判地judicial circuit巡回审判区Federal Circuit court 联邦巡回法院Court of Customs and Patent Appeals 海关和专利上诉法院en banc法庭全体法官【出庭审理案件】certiorari 调卷令barrister出庭律师solicitor初级律师prosecutor公诉人subpoena传票inquisitional审问的、审问的magistrate地方法官、治安法官Unit Three Constitutional Law vital role 重要的法条democracy 民主政体bond 合约popular sovereignty 人民主权checks and balance 制衡separation of powers 分权procedural safeguards 程序保障framer 制定者（尤指立宪者）suffrage选举权Articles of Confederation 邦联条例amendments 修正案Constitutional 宪法legislature立法机构Senate 参议院legislative power 立法权executive power 行政权judicial power 司法权necessary-and-proper clause of the Constitution 宪法中的必要性和合理性条款United States Supreme Court ruling 美国联邦最高法院的裁决powers and duties 权力和职责impeachment 弹劾Supreme Court （美）最高法院discretion 自由裁量权criminal cases 刑事案件crime of treason 叛国罪original jurisdiction 原审管辖appeal 上诉ratify 批准alteration 修改submit 提交representation 代表approval 通过resolution 决议implementation执行tyranny 专制bail 保释金；保释；保证人enactment 制定（法律）；（制定的）法律constitutional convention 宪法惯例;立宪大会authority权力due process 正当法律程序full faith and credit 完全的信赖和尊重privileges and immunities clause 特权和免责条款process of amendments 宪法修正程序national convention 全国性修宪会议judicial review 司法审查Unit Three ＢJurisdiction n.司法管辖区judicial review n.司法审查government structure 政府结构hierarchy n.等级制度precedence n.先例the Senate 参议院commission n.委任状mandate n./ vt.命令；授权a writ of mandamus上级法院给下级法院的训令appointment n.任命；约定；任命的职位tenure n.任期；vt.授予…终身职位desegregation n.废止种族歧视nullify vt.使无效，作废；取消judiciary n. 司法部门、制度statute n.制定法；法律vest v.授予；归于cede vt.放弃、割让rescind vi.废除；撤回；解除fraudulent adj.诈骗性的thwart vt.妨碍、挫败acquiesce vi.默认、默许sidestep vt.回避syllogism n.推论；诡计supremacy clause 最高条款constitutional right 宪法权利constitutional crisis 宪法危机constitutional interpretation 宪法性解释congressional enactment 议会颁布的法令criminal proceeding 刑事诉讼程序the Judiciary Act 司法法executive privilege行政特权Unit Four Criminal Law restitution 返还原物；恢复原状；tort 侵权civil/crime wrong 民事不法行为/刑事违法press charges/bring charges 起诉prosecutor 公诉人general/special/punitive/exemplary damages 一般/特别/惩罚性/惩戒性损害赔偿金substantive/procedural law 实体法/程序法statute/ordinance 制定法，成文法/条例，法令apprehension 逮捕Miranda warnings 米兰达警告felony/misdemeanor/infraction 重罪/轻罪/一般性违法Incarceration 监禁，下狱motive (犯罪) 动机intent (犯罪/侵权)故意mens rea 犯意actus reus 犯罪行为causation 因果关系acquittal 无罪判决，宣告无罪justifiable 可证明是正当的commission 犯下（罪行）legal concept 法律概念strict liability 严格责任制度self-defense 正当防卫criminal liability 刑事责任a first degree murder 一级谋杀罪capital punishment/death penalty 死刑the U.S Constitution 美国联邦宪法the Bill of Rights 人权宣言Amendment to Constitution宪法修正案inflict on 使、、、遭受underprivileged 享有较少权利的、被剥夺基本权利的disproportionate 不相称、不成比例aggravating circumstance 加重情节a first degree murder 一级谋杀mitigating circumstance 减轻情节judicial review 司法审查sentencing discretion判决自由权irrevocable 不可撤销unconstitutional 违宪的deliberately 故意地a bank robbery 银行抢劫beyond a reasonable doubt 排除合理怀疑imprisonment 监禁detention 拘留fine 罚金court costs 堂费Equal Protection Clause 平等保护条款be vested with wide discretion 被授予广泛的自由裁量权legislative enactment 立法statutory ceiling 法定上限forfeiture 没收；没收物; 罚金economic sanction 经济制裁contraband 违禁品Uniform Controlled Substance Act 统一控制物质法Unit Five Criminal Procedurepresumption of innocence 无罪推定self-incrimination 自证其罪adversary system 对抗制；inquisitorial system 纠问制preventive detention 防范性监禁double jeopardy 双重追诉的危险search and seizure 搜查和查封actus reus 犯罪行为mens Rea 犯意bill of information起诉书complaint 诉状the grand jury process 大陪审团程序booking 登记arrest 拘留in custody 被监管；被拘留contraband 违禁品preliminary investigation 初步调查decision to prosecuted 提起指控的决定the initial appearance 首次开庭formal indictment 正式起诉书preliminary hearing 预审the arraignment 传讯insanity 精神错乱bench trial 无陪审团的庭审/法官审判voir dire /selection of jury筛选陪审团opening statement 开庭陈述the prosecutor’s case 公诉人举证motion for a directed verdict 直接裁决的动议the defendant’s present ation辩护词closing arguments 结案陈词jury instruction 陪审团指令jury deliberation 陪审团审议probation 缓刑voluntary/involuntary manslaughter 故意/过失杀人verdict 陪审团的判断、裁定sentence 宣判、判决sentencing guide 量刑指南capital punishment/capital sentence 死刑appeal 控诉、上诉search warrant 搜查令breach the precedent 打破先例good-faith exception 善意例外exclusionary rule 排除原则justiceships 大法官地位（职务、任期）chief justice 审判长、首席法官、法院院长brutal physical force残酷的体罚corporal/physical punishment体罚arbitration 仲裁coerced confession 强迫认罪adjudication 判决、宣告Unit Six Civil Procedureprocedure 诉讼程序action 诉讼(多指民事诉讼);行为，作为wrong不法行为(侵犯个人的不法行为; 公共不法行为)citation法院传票; 警方传讯; 引注ordinance （地方政府）条例,法令homicide 杀人felony 重罪、misdemeanor 轻罪custody监管、监护；羁押；拘禁；监禁custodian 监护人applicable law适用的法律appellate courts 上诉法院burden of proof 举证责任cross-examinations 交叉质证direct-examination 直接质证directed verdict 直接裁决debtor 债务人default 缺席demurrer抗辩execution 执行federal courts 联邦法院motions 议案/动议pleading theory辩护理论personal injury人身伤害property damage财产损害personal jurisdiction属人管辖replead再辩护the parties 当事人sheriff 警长治安官trial court 初审法院trial stage 庭审阶段Unit Eight Tort Lawwarden 警卫；典狱长；监狱长confinement 限制；监禁；拘禁；关押lawsuit 诉讼(尤指非刑事案件) tortfeasor 侵权行为者arguably 可论证的fallibility 不可靠，易混admonitory 警告的、劝诫的cautionary 警戒的substantive 有实质的，独立的litigation 诉讼，起诉sue （民事）起诉punitive damage 惩罚性赔偿compensatory damages补偿性赔偿金circuit court of appeals 巡回上诉法院Unit 8civil wrong 民事不法行为damages赔偿金act or omission 作为和不作为tort liability/ contract liability 侵权责任／合同责任intentional tort故意侵权personal/property tort人身／财产侵权compensatory/punitiv /exemplary damages 补偿／惩罚／惩戒性赔偿金state of mind主观状态circumstantial evidence间接证据false imprisonment 非法监禁trespass to land/ chattels侵入领地／动产right to exclusive use of land 土地的排他性使用权ownership 所有权charge 控罪physical harm 身体伤害standard of care/duty of care注意的标准／义务contributory /comparative negligence 共同／相对过失assumption of the risk 自我承担危险proximate cause近因foreseeablity可预见性actionable 可诉的tortuous/intervening act侵权行为／介入行为strict liability 严格责任privity of contract合同的私密条款deformation/ slander/libel 诽谤／口头／书面诽谤Jury(petty) jury 陪审团grand jury 大陪审团jury trial 陪审团审判right to jury 拥有陪审团审判的权利hung jury 悬案陪审团dismiss a jury 解散陪审团challenge for cause 有因回避peremptory challenges无因回避jury box 陪审团席位jury oath 陪审团宣誓jury selection 挑选陪审团potential/perspective juror 潜在的陪审团成员impartial jury 公正的陪审团jury of one’s peers同阶陪审团（指陪审团成员必须是与被审判者有相同社会背景、处于同一阶层的人员）jury pool待选陪审员库jury summon 陪审团传票juror 陪审团成员bailiff 法警jury instruction/ jury charge（法官）对陪审团的指令deliberation （陪审团）审议unanimous decision 全体一致的裁决simple majority 简单多数Fifth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution 美国宪法第五修正案guilty decision 有罪裁决verdict （陪审团）裁决foreman of the jury 陪审团团长render the verdict （陪审团向法庭）提交裁决speak the verdict （陪审团团长在法庭）宣读裁决fact-finder 事实的发现者jury box 陪审团席位jury room 陪审团审议时witness 证人testimony 证词common sense 常识state attorney 检察官true bill （大陪审团签发的）予以起诉书no bill （大陪审团签发的）不予以起诉书summary judgment 即决判决Jurisdiction n.司法权，审判权，管辖权under the jurisdiction of the trial courtThe court has jurisdiction over this case.territorial/hierarchy/inferior/general/specialized/appellate jurisdiction地域/级别/有限/一般/特殊/上诉管辖权adj. Judicial 法庭的，司法的，法官的a judicial inquiry/review/system 法庭的审讯、复审、司法制度judicial relief 司法救济n. judiciary 一国的法官总称Apply vi/vt实施，适用apply a law/rule 执行法律、规则apply local customs 适用当地的风俗习惯The regulations and rules of local governments apply within respective jurisdiction. apply for a retrial/deferment 申请再审/延期n. application 实施，生效the strict application of the law 严明执法adj. （作表语）applicable可适用be applicable to sb/sthDecision n.判决=judgmentLegislation n.[u]立法legislation of the People’s Congress 人大立法make new legislation=enact a new lawvi. legislate legislate for/agist sthadj. legislative legislative reform 立法改革Procedure n.法律程序civil procedure 民事诉讼程序（对比proceedings 诉讼过程：proceedings against sb/for sth）adj. Procedural procedural rules 程序规则Amend vt.修改Amend the existing/current law 修改现行法=make amendments to the current law Subject n. 法律主体Petition vt/vi 向。
美国的法院体系中英文版
美国的法院体系中英⽂版The U.S. Court System The U.S. court system, as part of the federal system of government, is characterized by dual hierarchies: there are both state and federal courts. Each state has its own system of courts, composed of civil and criminal trial courts, sometimes intermediate courts of appeal, and a state supreme court. The federal court system consists of a series of trial courts (district courts) serving relatively small geographic regions, circuit courts of appeal that hear appeals from many district courts in a particular geographic region and the Supreme Court of the United States. The two court systems are to some extent overlapping in that certain kinds of disputes (such as a claim that a state law is in violation of the Constitution) may be initiated in either system. They are also to some extent hierarchical, the federal system stands above the state system. Litigants who lose their cases in the state supreme court may appeal their cases to the Supreme Court of the United States. Thus, the typical court case begins in a trial court-a court of general jurisdiction -in the state or federal system. Most cases go no further than the trial court: for example, the criminal defendant is convicted and sentenced by the court and the case ends, the personal injury suit results in a judgment by a trial court (or an out-of-court settlement by the parties) and the parties leave the court system. Burt sometimes the losing party at the trial court cares enough about the case that the matter does not end there. In these cases, the 'loser' at the trial court may appeal to the next higher court. 美国法院体系是政府联邦体系的组成部分，它以两级结构为特点：包括州法院和联邦法院。
美国的体育运动
美国的体育运动2006-7-15 11:33页面功能【字体：大中小】【打印】【关闭】In many parts of the world， there are four seasons： spring， summer， fall and winter. In the U.S.， there are only three： football， basketball and baseball. That's not completely true， but almost. In every season， Americans have a ball. If you want to know what season it is， just look at what people are playing. For many Americans，sports do not just occupy the sidelines. They take center court.世界上的许多地方，一年有四季：春、夏、秋、冬。
美国，却只有三季：足球、篮球和棒球季。
这并非完全正确，但也差得不远了。
每一个季节，美国人都有乐趣。
若你想知道此季为何，看看人们正在打什么球就行了。
对于多数美国人而言，运动并非只是一旁站的小消遣，它是生活中很重要的一环。
Besides "the big three" sports， Americans play a variety of other sports. In warm weather， people enjoy water sports. Lovers of surfing， sailing and scuba diving flock to the ocean. Swimmers and water skiers also revel in the wet stuff. Fishermen try their luck in ponds， lakes and rivers. In winter sportsmen delight in freezing fun. From the first snowfall， skiers hit the slopes. Frozen ponds and ice rinks become playgrounds for skating and hockey. People play indoor sports whatever the weather. Racquetball，weightlifting and bowling are year-round activities.除了这「三大运动」，美国人还做许多其它的运动。
作文范文之宗教信仰英语作文
宗教信仰英语作文【篇一：英语】2009年阅读高分词汇：text 11. mindlessly 不知不觉地；unconsciously; instinctively 本能地;2. ueflecting 没有思想的；不反省的3. herd 民众(容易受他人影响的人)4. connotation 含义，意义5. paradoxical 矛盾的；contradictory 矛盾的6. innovation 创新；innovative 创新的7. parallel 平行；类似8. inherently 固有的，内在的9. dismiss sb. as 不屑地把某人视为?10. rut 路径；tracks 路径11. bypass 绕路12. explore 探讨13. analytical 分析的14. modes of thought 思维方式15. highlight 突出16. collaborative 合作的17. perpetuate 维持，坚持18. foster 培育；滋养19. fantastic 绝妙的；20. causal 随意的21. mechanical 机械的22. regulate 制约；限制23. trace 追踪24. activate 激活；激发25. commonness 平庸26. comply with 遵守text 21. boost 促进，提高2. paternal 父亲的；maternal 母亲的3. shell out 花钱；4. kit 成套用品或工具5. prescription 处方6. kinship 亲属7. adopted children 养子8. rage 流行9. genealogist 系谱专家10. swab 拭抹11. candidate 人选12. skeptical 怀疑的13. hawk 鼓吹，叫卖14. ancestry testing 家谱检测15. lineage 宗系；谱系；家系16. patent 受到专利保护17. be subject to 受到18. peer review 同行评阅19. evaluation 评估20. availability 获得21. flexibility 灵活性22. bloodlines 血缘关系23. overlapping 交叉的；重复的text 31. priority 优先权；优先考虑2. consistently 一致地3. recessing 衰退的4. pre-bubble 泡沫前5. deride 嘲笑6. automotive-assembly 汽车装配生产力7. counterparts 同行，类似人或物8. housing 住房9. constrain 抑制10. groundless 毫无依据的11. fall victims of 成为?.牺牲品12. downgrade 低估13. overestimate 高估14. prior to 在?之前text 41. unfold 展开；进展2. dominant 占主导地位的3. episode 插曲4. civility 修养5. virtuosity 美德6. carrier 承载者7. let alone 更不用说8. dependents 家眷9. superstitious 迷信的10. mock 嘲笑11. end 目的12. religious commitments 宗教信仰13. learned 有学问的14. dominate 主宰15. obsess 着迷16. sermons 布道17. illusory 虚幻的18. groundbreaking 开创性的19. diffuse 传播20. solidarity 团结，一致21. institution 机构，组织；制度22. by-products 副产品23. directive 指导性的24. disposition 性情25. secure 获得，确保26. tuition 学费，教育27.schooling 学校教育2010年阅读真题词汇text 11. inexorable =irresistible 不可阻挡的2. scope 范围；far removed from 与?有很大差异3. arts coverage 文艺报道；arts criticism 文艺评论；news coverage 新闻报道4. a considerable number of 相当量的；大量的5. in a large part=largely 大部分6. paper reviews 报纸评论；book review 书评7. marvel at 惊叹；8. learned 广博的；有学问的9. deem 认为，同义词contend=argue=imagine10. publication 出版；刊登11. general-circulation 大众发行；12. daily-dailies 日报13. unfocused 不集中的14. newsprint 新闻用纸15. ornaments 装饰16. at length 详细地；成分地17. wear one’s learning lightly 卖弄学问18. the turn of the century 本世纪初19. journalism 新闻；20. calling 职业；profession21. literary gift 文学天赋22. keep their own end up 在困境中满怀勇气和希望23. be tempted to=can’t help doing 禁不住做24. define sb. as 把?定义为25. apply 运用；apply theory to practice 把理论运用到实践中去26. solely=only27. stylist 文体家；28. best-seller 畅销书29. in print 在版；在印刷30. his vast body of writing 他的大量作品31. save to=except 除?之外32. revival 复苏；复活33. prospect seem remote 前景似乎渺茫34. upholster 装饰；修饰35. prose 散文36. be specialized in 擅长；specialist 专家37. amateur 业余的；professional 职业的38. headlong 迅猛的；猛冲的39. in retreat 后退中40. be characterized by 具有?特征41. retain 保留42. suitability 合适性43. elaborate layout 精细的版面编排44. contemptible 鄙视的45. be capable of 能够做46. appeal to 吸引47. reputation 声誉48. in dispute 有争议49. cater to 迎合50. follow the amateur tradition 遵循业余传统51. the lost horizon 消失在视野之中的52. mournful decline 令人惋惜的衰退53. prominent 著名的text 21. patent 专利；parent 父母亲2. grant 授予；take sth for granted 认为?理所当然3. one-click online payment system “一键式”在线支付系统4. asset allocation 资产分配5. top patent court 最高专利法院6. scale back 缩小规模7. controversial 有争议的8. authorize 授权；批准9. move 提议；建议10. abuzz 闹得沸沸扬扬11. conduct a broad review 就行一个广泛的审查12. eliminate 消除13. an entire class of 整个一类；a big deal 大事14. curb 限制15. about face 彻底转变16. pool 汇集；集中17. ruling 裁决18. patent filings 专利申请【篇二：大学英语i(写作)课程教案1-3】chapter one fundamentals of business communication i. teaching objectiveson completion of this chapter, students should be able to:1.2.3.4.5. grasp the definition of communication; identify the importance of communication; understand the process of communication; identify the flow of communication; know how cultures influence communication and communication channel. ii. the points to be highlighted1.2.3.4.5. the definition of communication the process of communication the flow of communication internal andexternal communication the influence of culture on communicationiii. teaching approaches and facilitiesapproaches: 1. pair/group work 2. discussion 3 task-based approach4. communicative approach5. questions and answers……facilities: blackboard, video clip; media classroom; on-line research;iv. background information研究者、学术界关于沟通(communication)的界定不下百余种。
英国教育体系英文
❖ Pupils mainly attend state sector primary schools (co-educational or mixed schools).
❖ The Queen once said, “ A headmaster once told me that in his opinion the freedom which teachers have is the most valuable thing in British education”.
School Today
❖Pre-primary Schools ❖Primary Schools ❖Secondary Schools ❖University / College
Pre-Primary Schools
❖ Pre-school education is available (often on a fee-paying basis) for children aged 2 to 4/5 through playgroups and nursery schools (many are private).
❖ History
❖ Information Technology
❖ Modern Foreign Language
❖ Music
Exams
❖ Compulsory education ends at age 16.
❖ At 16, students in England and Wales take GCSE (General Certificate of Secondary Education中学毕业证书) examinations involving a final exam, an assessment of work done during the two-year course, or both of these things. Then they can leave school and find a job.
英国的政治体系【英文】
The political system
U.S.
Domestic economy
Russia
Legislature Executive Bureaucracies Political parties
Court
Interest groups
Domestic culture France
Electoral system
• Single-member district • First-past-the-post (winner-take-all) system
Election results
Parliament
• The House of Commons
– 659 members – voting is 100% along party lines in most votes – party versus constituency interests
Majority party
voters
Minority party
Parliament
Prime minister & cabinet
British government
• Government
– Queen’s, Tony Blair’s, or Labour government
• Whitehall Street
– created in 1801
• Great Britain
– England – Scotland – Wales
Historical evolution: gradualism
• Historical challenges to all industrialized democracies:
U.S. Supreme Court
U.S. Supreme CourtThe U.S.Supreme Court is the only federal court mentioned by name in the Constitution,which spells out the general contours of the High Court jurisdiction.Although the Supreme Court is usually thought ofas an appel-late tribunal,it does have some general original jurisdiction.Probably the most important subject ofsuch jurisdiction is a suit between two or more states.The High Court shares original ju-risdiction (with the U.S.districtcourts) in certain cases brought by or against foreign ambassadors or con-suls,in cases between the United States and a state,and in cases commenced by a state against citizens of another state or another country.In situations such as these,where jurisdiction is shared,the courts are said to have con-current jurisdiction.Cases over which the Supreme Court has original juris-diction are often important,but they do not constitute a sizable proportion of the overall caseload.In recent years less than 1 percent ofthe High Court docket consisted ofcases heard on original jurisdiction.The U.S.Constitution declares that the Supreme Court shall have appel late Jurisdiction...under such Regula-tions as the Congress shall make.Over the years Congress has passed much legislation setting forth the ＂Regulation ＂sdetermining which cases may appear before the nation most august judicial body.Appeals may reach the Supreme Court through two main avenues.First,there may be appeals from all lower federal consti-tutional and territorial courts and also from most,but not all,federal legisla-tive courts.Second,the SupremeCourt may hear appeals from the highest court in a state -as long as there is a substantial federal question.Most of the High Courts docke consists ofcases in which it has agreed to issue a writ ofcertiorari a discretionary action.Such a writ (whichmust be supported by at least four jus-tices) is an order from the Supreme Court to a lower court demanding that it send up a complete record of a case so that the Supreme Court can re-view it.Historically,the Supreme Court has agreed to grant the petition for a writ ofcertiorari in only a tiny proportion of cases usually less than 10 percent ofthe time,and in re-cent years the number has been closer to 1 percent.Another method by which the Supreme Court exercises its appellate jurisdiction is certification.This pro-cedure is followed when one of the ap-peals courts asks the Supreme Court for instructions regarding a question of law.The justices may choose to give the appellate judges binding instruc-tions,or they may ask that the entire record be forwarded to the Supreme Court for review and final judgment.from：http:///classroom/flyy/。
[有线电视新闻网学生新闻].[cnn.student.news].Transcript.for.10-01-15
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TranscriptTHIS IS A RUSH TRANSCRIPT. THIS COPY MAY NOT BE IN ITS FINAL FORM AND MAY BE UPDATED.CARL AZUZ, CNN STUDENT NEWS ANCHOR: Wrapping up the week here on CNN Student News, I'm Carl Azuz. Welcome to the show.First Up: Haiti Relief EffortAZUZ: First up, a massive relief effort is underway to help victims of this week's deadly earthquake in Haiti. The U.S. has pledged $100 million in aid. So has the World Bank. The United Nations has announced $10 million in aid. And technology is playing a part in all of this, as well. The American Red Cross has raised at least $4 million through text message donations.In addition to the money, many countries and relief organizations are sending supplies and personnel. But the damage caused by the quake is making it hard to get that help to the victims who need it. Roads are blocked; docks are damaged; and the airport in Port-au-Prince, the capital city, is so crowded that there's not enough space for planes to land. Many Haitians are taking recovery efforts into their own hands, working to find and free survivors of the quake who've been trapped under the rubble. Part of the reason why this tremor was so destructive is because of where it happened. Jenny Harrison looks at the science behind the quake.(BEGIN VIDEO)JENNY HARRISON, CNN INTERNATIONAL WEATHER ANCHOR: Let me just show you where we are talking about. Here is the fault line. And of course, straightaway, you can see how close to that Port-au-Prince is. There's the epicenter close, as well, to Carrefour. This is the fault we're talking about. Now, this is what is called a strike-slip earthquake, and literally this is what happens. You have the two plates rubbing up against each other. That friction is building, it is building, it is building, and eventually something has to happen.Now, when you have an area that sees many, many earthquakes over whatever period of time, well, then what actually happens is that a lot of that pressure or that friction is actually released periodically, so you don't get this massive buildup of friction, which is exactly what happened here.The deeper down, of course, as you can well imagine, by the time the waves actually reach the surface, those shockwaves, you barely feel it. Thecloser to the earth's surface, then the more shocking it will be; the more impact it is going to have. And again, the distance that you are from the epicenter plays a part, as well as the depth in the earth.Now, also what happened here, was that the epicenter of the quake was well inside the mountains. Very, very dense; much less shaking. But again, once it headed out and was pushing out towards the coast, that's when it began to be felt. Much less dense.Now, at the same time, of course, it couldn't have happened in a worse place because of the population. This gives you an idea of the population of Haiti. And of course, the gray blocks trying to illustrate the intensity of populations. So, the two most densely populated cities, of course, the capital Port-au-Prince and also Carrefour. The violent shaking was felt dramatically all around that area.Now, first of all, you have what is called a primary wave, and this moves everything, obviously, very violently, but can sometimes be over fairly quickly. This is then followed by the S-wave, the secondary waves, of which there could be numerous. We've had numerous aftershocks reported. And you can see what happens. It's called that for a reason: it moves in an S shape. It moves vertically or horizontally. When it moves vertically, this is when we see the most damage, because this is when we see the tops of the buildings coming off like the presidential palace. Literally, it is just shaken off the roots of its foundations.(END VIDEO)Haiti Earthquake ReactionAZUZ: We'd like to know how this story from Haiti has affected you. What's gone through your mind as you've seen images of the people, the rubble, the relief efforts? Log on to , and let us know what you're thinking.Money WordTOMEKA JONES, CNN STUDENT NEWS: Here's the deal: Today's Money Word is foreclosure. It describes when a lender, like a bank, takes control of a property from its owner because the owner has not made payments on a loan. Put that in your word bank!Record ForeclosuresAZUZ: There were more foreclosures in 2009 than in any other year in U.S. history. Nearly three million people fell behind on their mortgage payments, and that was up 21 percent from the year before. Federal and state governments have passed some laws to help homeowners and try to cut down on the number of foreclosures. Some experts say that might have worked, but others argue it's just delaying the inevitable, meaning that more homes will be foreclosed on this year.Proposed Bank FeeAZUZ: Homeowners, not the only ones who needed help in this recession. The banking, auto and insurance industries all got help from the government in the form of financial bailouts. The plan was for that money to be paid back. President Obama wants to make sure that happens, which is why he's asking Congress to charge some of the companies that got federal money a fee. The exact details on how this would work out aren't available yet; they'll be released next month. Some people in the financial industry are against the idea. They point out that a lot of the bailout money has already been paid back, and that this fee would make it harder for the overall U.S. economy to recover.Fast FactsRICK VINCENT, CNN STUDENT NEWS: Time for some Fast Facts! Michael Luther King was born in 1929 in Atlanta, Georgia. His father later renamed him Martin Luther King Jr. He became a national civil rights leader in the mid-1950s after leading a successful bus boycott in Montgomery, Alabama. During the 1963 civil rights demonstration known as the March on Washington, King delivered his famous "I Have a Dream" speech: his vision for a world where people wouldn't be judged based on the color of their skin. In 1964, King was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his work with the civil rights movement. He was assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee in 1968. Nine years later, King was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom.Blog ReportAZUZ: The holiday honoring Dr. King is coming up on Monday; we will be off the air for it. But check this out: free discussion questions and activities are available right now at . Also there: our blog. A couple days ago, I asked whether you thought Dr. King's dream had come true. Samantha thinks that "for the most part, we have eradicated" -- good word! -- "eradicated racial discrimination in the U.S. We have an African-American president and a Hispanic Supreme Court justice. We've taken huge steps." But Hunter says: "Discrimination is still a problemas much as it was long ago. A black president is a step, but we still have a whole flight of stairs to go." Dreamer wrote that "if Martin Luther King were still here, he would respect us because of how far we've come since that time. I don't know where we'd be today without him." And from Brady: "I still think there are conflicts between white and black people, but we are constantly moving forward."Student ChanceAZUZ: Moving to the basketball court and one Missouri student's dream. After four years handing out water and towels to players on the team, what he really wanted was to get in the game. Recently, he got his chance. Frank Cusumano of affiliate KSDK has the story.(BEGIN VIDEO)FRANK CUSUMANO, KSDK REPORTER: He slapped five, he shook hands, and David "Chubbs" Stillman even had his own personal cheering section.BILL GUNN, KIRKWOOD H.S. BASKETBALL COACH: You see the guy walking down the halls and he just has a smile on his face and people are just drawn to him.CUSUMANO: Especially on Monday night, when the team manager became a starting guard.DAVID "CHUBBS" STILLMAN, KIRKWOOD HIGH SCHOOL SENIOR: A lot of people were going crazy.CUSUMANO: Chubbs has been in special ed since preschool.ANN STILLMAN, DAVID'S MOTHER: He doesn't have a specific medical diagnosis, but he has multiple learning disabilities.CUSUMANO: Chubbs knew two weeks ago that he was going to dress out, so during the holiday break he did a lot of shooting outside in the backyard. And for this game, he was not coming out bashful.GUNN: I told him his role was to find his favorite spot on the floor, and the team's role was to find him opportunities to get shots off.CUSUMANO: And they did. In the fourth quarter, Chubbs let it fly.D. STILLMAN: It was awesome, them feeding me the ball.KEVIN STILLMAN, DAVID'S FATHER: To watch that ball go through the hoop was just an amazing feeling.A. STILLMAN: He's tried for so many years to overcome the obstacles, and he was able to be the star.CUSUMANO: You can say that again. Because with the clock winding down in a convincing victory over Fox, Chubbs drilled his second three-pointer.Where would that night rank in terms of thrills in your lifetime?D. STILLMAN: It will be the best night.CUSUMANO: How long do you think you'll remember it for?D. STILLMAN: Ever.(END VIDEO)Before We GoAZUZ: Great story. Now, you shoppers know that some sales are worth waiting for. But 20,000 years might be a bit much. That's how long it's taken for this wooly mammoth to get to Arizona. The prehistoric beast, or what's left of it, is part of a fossil exhibit. But the company that's putting him on display is hoping somebody will want to take it home. And hey, they're only asking for half a million bucks.GoodbyeAZUZ: Sounds like a tusk assignment, but that's probably a fair price.I mean, they're not trying to pull the wool over anyone's eyes. Remember, we will be off on Monday for the Martin Luther King holiday. We hope you enjoy the long weekend. For CNN Student News, I'm Carl Azuz.。
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The U.S. Court System
The U.S. court system, as part of the federal system of government, is characterized by dual hierarchies: there are both state and federal courts. Each state has its own system of courts, composed of civil and criminal trial courts, sometimes intermediate courts of appeal, and a state supreme court. The federal court system consists of a series of trial courts (district courts) serving relatively small geographic regions, circuit courts of appeal that hear appeals from many district courts in a particular geographic region and the Supreme Court of the United States. The two court systems are to some extent overlapping in that certain kinds of disputes (such as a claim that a state law is in violation of the Constitution) may be initiated in either system. They are also to some extent hierarchical, the federal system stands above the state system. Litigants who lose their cases in the state supreme court may appeal their cases to the Supreme Court of the United States.
Thus, the typical court case begins in a trial court-a court of general jurisdiction -in the state or federal system. Most cases go no further than the trial court: for example, the criminal defendant is convicted and sentenced by the court and the case ends, the personal injury suit results in a judgment by a trial court (or an out-of-court settlement by the parties) and the parties leave the court system. Burt sometimes the losing party at the trial court cares enough about the case that the matter does not end there. In these cases, the 'loser' at the trial court may appeal to the next higher court.。