最新Group 2 morpheme & allomorph
Unit 02 Word Formation
derivational or inflectional?
Derivational morphemes vs. inflectional morphemes
Derivational morphemes may go along with roots alone (as shown by “-ship” in “friendship”), or affixed roots (as shown by “-ful” in “meaningful”).
NOTE:Inflectional morphemes are attached to stems only.
Derivational morphemes vs. inflectional morphemes
✎Note “-er” in “worker” is derivational, “-er” in “stronger” is inflectional. Dad is drinking. Life is meaningful.
☞-ship, tele-, trans-, -gram, -dom, etc.
Free morphemes vs. bound morphemes ✎Note morpheme “-ship” in "friendship" . the free morpheme “ship”
Root morphemes vs. affix morphemes
• • morpheme • • • •
free root root bound root inflectional affix affix derivational affix (prefix, suffix)
comparison A stem is the part of word form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed. A root is that part of a word-form that remains when all the inflectional and derivational affixes, if any, have been removed. ❉It suggests that a stem may consist of one or more roots.(as in "classmates")
第三章 英语词汇的形态结构
第三章英语词汇的形态结构第三章英语词汇的形态结构【概要】本单元阐释了英语词汇的形态结构～讨论了词素、词素变体、词素的分类和辨别、以及词素和构词的关系～并介绍了词缀、词根、词干、词基等基本概念。
【知识点】1. Morphemes2. Morphs and Allomorphs3. Classifying Morphemes4. Identifying Morphemes5. Morpheme and Word-formation(1)Affix(2)Root, Stem, Base【文本翻译】我们已经讨论了推动英语词汇发展的历史、文化和社会因素。
正如我们所见，借词在扩大词汇量方面起到了积极的作用。
然而，在现代，主要是在内部基础之上来扩大词汇量的。
也就是说，我们运用英语中可以得到的构词材料去创造新的单词。
但是在我们讨论创造新词的实际方法和途径以前，我们需要对英语单词的结构和它们的成分—构词因素有一个清楚的认识。
这一章将讨论词素、词素的分类和辨别，以及词素与构词法之间的关系。
3.1 词素传统上，单词通常被作为一种语言里基本和最小的单位用于遣词造句，而句子则是根据句法规则将单词组合到一起。
但是，从结构上来看，单词并不是最小的单元，因为很多单词都能被分解成更小的意义单位。
以decontextualization一词为例，这是一个单词，但是可以被分解为de-， con-， text，-al， -iz(e)， -ation，每一个都有其独特的意义。
这些成分不能被进一步地切分了，否则，它们中的任何一个都不会具有完整的意义。
虽然-ation有着一系列的变体形式，比如-tion，-sion，-ion，它们都属于同一个后缀。
因为它们有着同样的意义和语法功能，仅仅是出现在不同的语音环境之中。
这些最小的意义单位被称为词素(morphe 是希腊词汇，意思是…形式?;-eme出现于…phoneme?这样的单词中，意为…类?)。
(完整版)Morpheme
02 章 节
Part
Allomorphs
成功项目展示
one map – two maps one dog – two dogs one rose – two roses
one mouse – two mice one man – two men one ox – two oxen one sheep – two sheep
工T作h完e成d情iff况erence between free morpheme and bound morpheme
Free morpheme
principally independent from sound
Phonemes
the smallest of sound
the abstract unit of sound ‘in the mind’
distinguish two words
工作完成情况
For example, the word zebra consists of five
CONTENTS
01 Morpheme
02 Allomorph
Free morpheme and
03
Bound morpheme 04 Root and Affixes
The Root, the Stem
05
and the Base
01 章 项目展示
One Two Three
The three different phonological forms, /s/, /z/, and /iz/, are variants of the same morpheme –s.
The different forms, -s, -en and zero suffix in dogs, oxen and sheep respectively, are variants of the plural morpheme.
Lecture 2 Word and morpheme
2.1 What is a word?
the smallest of the linguistic units which can occur on its own in speech or writing. (Richards et al, 2000: 510) traditionally the smallest of the units that make up a sentence, and marked as such in writing. (Matthews, 1997: 404) 词是能独立运用 能独立运用的 最小的、有语义的 词是能独立运用的、最小的、有语义的 语言单位。 语言单位。(汪榕培, 1997: 11)
Inflectional affixes/morphemes (屈折词缀) are attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships, e.g. –s(es) (the regular plural suffix ) –er, -est –ed (the past tense marker) -ing
unhappiness contemporary inaccessibility internationalization rear-view mirror
Anatomy of jaw-breakers
antidisestablishmentarianism
anti反对
dis否定
establish
Free or bound?
man, -ly, faith, un-, read, red, -ness, non-, cold, write, -able
《英语词汇学》知识点归纳-（最新版）
English Lexicology(英语词汇学)Lexicology（词汇学）: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.The Nature and Scope of English lexicology：English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to：English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论）and lexicography(词典学) The reason for a student to study English lexicology：According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English.A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules of word-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power. The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise their problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study.Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentenceSound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years （3）some of the difference were creates by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabularyVocabulary（词汇）: all the words in a language make up its vocabularyClassification of English Words：By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabularyBy notion:content words&functional wordsBy origin:native words&borrowed wordsThe basic word stock（基本词汇）: is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary.The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征):1)All-National character（全民通用性most important）2)Stability（相对稳定性）3)Productivity（多产性）4)Polysemy（多义性）5)Collocability（可搭配性）没有上述特征的words:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话）(3)slang（俚语）(4)Argot（暗语）（5）Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms（古语）(7) Neologisms（新词语）:Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email)Content words/notional words实词(cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently) and functional words/empty words虚词(on, of, and, be, but)Native Words and Borrowed WordsNative words（本族语词）: known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basic word-stocks).Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in useBorrowed words/Loan words（外来语词）: words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)4 Types of loan words:1) denizens(同化词): (shirt from skyrta(ON))2) aliens（非同化词/外来词）:are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling (kowtow (CH)磕头)3) translation loans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语long time no see (from China)4) semantic loans（借义词）：they are not borrowed with reference to the form,but their meanings are borrowedChapter 2 the development of the English VocabularyThe Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系)The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages（8大印欧语群）The Eastern set:（1）The Balto-slavic Group（波罗的-斯拉夫语族）：Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc.（2）The Indo-Iranian Group（印度-伊朗语族）：Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc.(3)The Armenian Group（亚美尼亚语族）：Armenian.(4)The Albanian Group（阿尔巴尼亚语族）：Albanian.The Western set:(5)The Hellenic Group（古希腊语族）：Greek.(6)The Italian Group（意大利语族）：Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian) etc.(7)The Celtic Group（凯尔特语族）：Irish,Welsh,Breton etc.(8)The Germanic Group（日耳曼语族）：Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc.The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language.2 Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endings were mostly lost with just a few expections.English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language.Modes of Vocabulary Development(词汇的发展模式):1)creation创造新词：the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely toots,affixes and other elements.(最重要方式)2)semantic change旧词新义:does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new useages of the words.3) borrowing借用外来词:constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new wordsReviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant.Chapter 3 Word Formation IMorpheme(词素):the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words Allomorph(词素变体): is a different variant form of a morpheme，differ in phonological and spelling form, but at the same in function and meaningType of Morpheme(词素的分类)（1）Free Morphemes（自由词素）: have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (independent).（2）Bound Morpheme(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself. Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root(粘附词根) (2)Affix(词缀)Affixes can be put into two groups:1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes.2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀): A) prefix: A prefix comes before words. B)suffix:An adjective suffix（形容词后缀）that is added to the stem, whatever class is belongs to , the result will be an adjective.Free Morpheme =free root（自由词根）Morpheme(词素)Bound root prefixbound derivationalaffix suffixinflectionalRoot and stem（词根和词干）The differences between root and stem:A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(构词法)1.Affixation词缀法（Derivation派生法）：the formation of words by adding word-formaing or derivational affixes to stem.（1）Prefixation(前缀法)：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.1)Negative prefixes(否定前缀): un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey(not obey)2)Reversative prefixes（逆反前缀）: un-,de-，dis- etc. unwrap(open)3) Pejorative prefixes: mis（贬义前缀）：mis-，mal-, pseudo- etc.misconduct(bad behaviour)4) Prefixes of degree or size(程度前缀)：arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect. overweight5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude（倾向态度前缀）:contra-,counter-,anti-,pro- etc.anti-nuclear6)Locative prefixes（方位前缀）:extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc. extraordinary(more than ordinary)7) Prefixes of time and order（时间和顺序前缀）:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc. monorail(one rail)8) Number prefixes（数字前缀）:uni-，mono-, bi-，di-, tri-,multi-，poly- ，semi-，etc.bilingual(concerning two languages)9) Miscellaneous prefixes（混杂前缀）：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-.vice-chairman(deputy chairman)(2)Suffixation（后缀法）: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixespounding复合法（also called composition）Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stemsCompounds are written in three ways: solid连写(airmail)，hyphenated带连字符(air-conditioning)and open分开写(air force, air raid)Formation of compounds（复合词的形式）（1）noun compounds ：e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot（2）adjective compounds ：e.g. acid + head = acid-head（3）verb compounds ：e.g. house + keep = housekeep3.Conversion转类法Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.（功能转换，又叫零派生.functional shift/zero-derivation）4.Blending拼缀法Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. e.g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN5.Clipping截短法Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead.e.g. plane from airplane, phone from telephone. 四种形式：1).Front clippings删节前面(phone from telephone)2).Back clippings删节后面(dorm from dormitory)3).Front and back clippings 前后删节(flu from influenza)4).Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music)6.Acronymy首字母缩写法Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.（1）Initialism（首字母缩写词法）: initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. e.g.: BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)（2）Acronym（首字母拼音法）:Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word. E.g.:TEFL(teaching English as a foreign language)7.Back-formation（逆生法，逆构词）Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It’s the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. (greed from greedy)8.Words From Proper Name(专有名词转成法):Names of people, places, book, and tradenames (e.g.: sir watt siemens(人名) -- watt（瓦特，电功率单位）Chapter 5 Word MeaningThe meanings of “Meaning” (“意义”的意义)Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word. It is the arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.Concept（概念）:which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Sense（意义）:It denotes the relationship inside the language. ‘The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.’Motivation(理据)：It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.1) Onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）:words whose sounds suggest their meaning, for these words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. E.g.: bang, ping-pong, ha ha. 2)Morphological motivation （形态理据）:multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combines. E.g.: airmail, miniskirt .例外：black market, ect.3)Semantic motivation（词义理据）：refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. E.g:the foot of the mountain(foot)4)Etymological motivation （词源理据）:the history of the word explains the meaning of the word. E.g:pen-featherTypes of meaning(词义的类别)1.Grammatical Meaning（语法意义）:indicates the grammatical concept or relationships (becomes important only in actual context)2.Lexical Meaning （词汇意义）(Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning)Lexical meaning has 2 components内容: Conceptual meaning(概念意义) and associative meaning(关联意义)1）Conceptual meaning(概念意义): also known as denotative meaning(外延意义) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.2）Associative meaning(关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning.[4types:（1）Connotative（内涵意义）：the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations.(例如“母亲”经常与“爱”“关心”“温柔”联系起来)（2）Stylistic（文体意义）：many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts.（3）Affective（感情意义）：indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question.这种情感价值观分两类：褒义和贬义appreciative & pejorative （4）Collocative（搭配意义）：is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.]Chapter 6 --Sense relation and semantic field（语义关系和语义场）Polysemy（多义关系）Two approached to polysemy（多义关系的两种研究方法）:1.diachronic approach(历时方法) ：from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. First meaning is the primary meaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings.2. synchronic approach (共时方法) : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time.基本意义是central meaning , 次要意义是derived meaning.Two processes of development（词义的两种发展类型）:1.radiation（辐射型）：is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands atthe centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes.(e.g: face, neck)2.concatenation（连锁型）:is the semantic process in which the meaning of a wordmove gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.(e.g:treacle)3.In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primarymeaning. In concatenation, each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains. Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no direct connection in between.4.They are closely related, being different stages of the development leading topolysemy. Generally, radiation precedes concatenation. In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other.Homonymy（同形同音异义关系）:words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.Types of homonyms(同音同形异义关系的类别)1）Perfect homonyms（完全同音同形异义词）：words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.2)Homographs（同形异义词）:words identical only in spelling, but different in sound and meaning.(最多最常见)3）Homophones（同音异义词）：words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning.Origins of homonyms (同形同音异义词的来源)1）change in sound and spelling ：(eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long)2）borrowing (feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball )3）Shortening(缩略): (ad-advertisement,)The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes（同音同形异义词和多义词的区别)：1)The fundamental difference : Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings.2)One important criterion is to see their etymology(词源)：Homonymys are from different sources. Polysemant is from the same source.3)The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness(语义关联): The various meanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning. Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.Rhetoric features of homonyms(同形同音异义词的修辞特色)：As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule.Synonymy (同义关系): one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning .Types of Synonymy(同义词的类别) :(1)Absolute synonyms（完全同义词）：also known as complete synonyms are wordswhich are identical in meaning in all aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings.[ Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology. ](2)relative synonyms（相对同义词）:also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly thesame in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees ofa given quality.(e.g: change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer,idle/lazy/indolent)Sources of synonyms(同义词的来源) :1)Borrowing（借词）：最重要的来源(room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid, leave-depart, wise-sage, buy-purchase)2)Dialects and regional English （方言和地区英语）3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words （单词的修饰和委婉用法）:occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer--star-gazer, drunk-elevated, lie-distort of fact.4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions（与习惯表达一致）:win-gain the upper hand, decide-make up one’s mind, finish-get through, hesitate-be in two minds, help-lend one a hand.Discrimination of Synonyms(1)difference in denotation外延不同. Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity ofmeaning.(rich-wealthy, work-toil, want-wish-desire)(2)difference in connotation内涵不同. By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotivecolouring of words. Some words share the same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness. (借词：answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual, unlike-dissimilar, homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal.中性词：policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request. 古语词、诗歌：ire/anger, bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadful, list-listen, enow-enough, save-expect, mere-lake ) (3)difference in application. Many words are synonymous in meaning but difference inusage in simple terms. They form different collocations and fit into difference sentence patterns. (allow sb. to do sth.- let sb. do sth. / answer the letter-reply to the letter)Antonymy (反义关系) :it is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.Types of Antonyms:1)contradictory terms (矛盾反义词): these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. 特点：①The assertion of one is the denial of the other. ②Such antonyms are non-gradable. They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like “very” to qualify them . (e.g: single/married)2)contrary terms（对立反义词）: antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.(e.g: old/young, rich/young, big/small) The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.3)relative terms（关系反义词）：this type consists of relational opposites.（parent/child, husband/wife, employee/employer, sell/buy, receive-give）Some of the characteristics of antonyms(反义关系的特点):1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition(语义对立)2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion（语义内涵）4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms，differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.(hot/warm: hot-cold/warm-cool)The use of antonyms（反义词的使用）1）Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words.2)To express economically the opposite of a particular thought for the sake of contrast.(e.g :now or never, rain or shine, friend or foe敌友，weal and woe哀乐)3）To form antithesis(对比法) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together. (proverbs and sayings: easy come , easy go./ more haste, less speed.)Hyponymy(上下义关系): Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. For example, a cat is hyponym of animalSuperordinate and Subordinate (上义词和下义词)：use subordinates which are concrete and precise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the reader. Superordinates which convey only a general and vague idea.Semantic Field(语义场)Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory.e.g.(apple, pear, peach, date, mango, orange, lemon, etc. make up the semantic field of ‘fruits’)The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different language.e.g.(aunt in English, may means “父亲的姐姐，妈妈的姐姐，父亲哥哥的妻子” in Chinese.(122)Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning词义的演变Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content. Comparatively the content is even more unstable than the form.Types of Changes (词义变化的种类)1.Extension /generalization(词义的扩大): is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.(e.g: manuscript, fabulous, picture, mill, journal, bonfire, butcher, companion)2.Narrowing/ specialization(词义的缩小)：is the opposite of widening meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense.In other words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-day English.(e.g: deer, corn, garage, liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife, accident, girl). [ when a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly. ]3.Elevation /amelioration(词义的升华):refers to the process by which words rise from humble（粗陋的）beginnings to positions of importance. [nice, marshal, constable, angel, knight, earl, governor, fond, minister, chamberlain ]4.Degradation / pejoration(词义的降格):A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in derogatory（贬损的）sense.[boor, churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly, knave, lewd, criticize, lust ]5.Transfer(词义的转移): Words which were used to designate指明one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer. Causes of Semantic Change(词义变化的原因)1.Extra-linguistic factors(词义演变的语言外部因素):1) Historical reason(历史原因)：Increased scientific knowledge and discovery, objects, institutions, ideas change in the course of time. E.g: pen, car, computer.2 )Class reason(阶级原因)：The attitude of classes have also made inroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or degradation.3) Psychological reason(心理原因)：the associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words are often due to psychological factors. Such slow, humble and despised occupations take more appealing names is all due to psychological reasons.2.Linguistic factors（语言内部原因）：the change of meaning may be caused by internal factors with in the language system.1)shorting缩略:gold-gold medal, gas-coal gas, bulb-light bulb, private-private soldier2)borrowing借用:deer-animal-beast3)analogy类推:Chapter 8 Meaning and Context 词义和语境Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word. Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic and extra-linguistic contexts.Two types of context（语境的种类）1. Extra-linguistic context/ Non-linguistic situation（非语言语境）：In a broad sense, context includes the physical situation as well, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background. (look out, weekend, landlord )2.Linguistic context/ grammatical context(语言语境)：In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. It may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book.分为两类：1) Lexical context（词汇语境）：It refers to the word that occurs together with the word in question. (e.g: paper, do)2) Grammatical context（语法语境）：It refers the situation when the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. (e.g: become)The role of context(语境的作用)1.Elimination of ambiguity(消除歧义)1）Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy.2）Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity如何消除歧义？——①extend the original sentence ②alter the context a little2.Indication of referents(限定所指)如何限定所指？——①with clear context ②with adequate verbal context3.Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning (提供线索以猜测词义)1)definition2)explanation3)example4)synonymy5)antonymy6)hyponymy（上下义关系）7)relevant details8)word structureChapter 9 English Idioms 英语习语Idioms（习语的定义）: are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms （俗语）, Catchphrases（标语）,slang expressions （俚语）,proverbs（谚语）,etc. They form an important part of the English vocabulary.Characteristics of Idioms（英语习语的特点）1.Semantic unity （语意的整体性）：words in the idiom they have lost their individual identity. Their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom.The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literal meaning of each of the idiom.2.Structural stability(结构的稳定性):the structure of an idiom is to a large extent un changeable.1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced2) the word order cannot be inverted or changed3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article.4) many idioms are grammatically unchangeableThe fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity.习语性表达习惯Classification of Idioms（英语习语的分类）1. idioms nominal in nature 名词性习语(white elephant累赘物)2 .idioms adjectival in nature形容词性习语（as poor as a church mouse）3 .idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语（look into）4 .idioms adverbial in nature副词性习语（tooth and nail 拼命）5 .sentence idioms 句式习语（never do things by halves）Use of idioms（习语的使用）1.Stylistic features（文体色彩）：1）colloquialisms（俗语）2）slang （俚语）3）literary expressions（书面表达）The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned（指派）different meanings.2.Rhetorical features(修辞色彩)1) phonetic manipulation （语音处理）：（1）alliteration头韵法（2）rhyme尾韵法2）lexical manipulation（词法处理）（1）reiteration（duplication of synonyms）同义词并举[scream and shout]（2）repetition 重复[out and out]（3）juxtaposition (of antonyms) 反义词并置[here and there]3.figures of speech（修辞格）（1）simile明喻（2）metaphor暗喻（3）metonymy换喻/以名词代动作：live by one’s pen（4）synecdoche提喻/以部分代整体：earn one’s bread（5）Personification拟人法（6）Euphemism委婉语：kick the bucket(die)（7）hyperbole 夸张：a world of troubleVariations of idioms(习语的变异形式)：1.addition增加2.deletion删除3.replacement替换4.position-shifting位置转移5.dismembering分解Chapter 10 English Dictionaries 英语字典Dictionary: presents in alphabetical order the words of English, with information as to their spelling ,pronunciation, meaning, usage , rules and grammar, and in some, their etymology（语源）.Types of dictionaries(词典的种类):1.Monolingual & bilingual dictionaries（单语词典和双语词典）：最早的词典都是双语的(1).Monolingual dictionary: is written in one language (LDCE, CCELD). The headword or entries are defined and illustrated in the same language.(2).Bilingual dictionary: involve two languages (A New English-Chinese D, A Chinese-English D)2.Linguistic and Encyclopedic dictionaries（语文词典与百科词典）（1）Linguistic dictionary: aim at defining words and explaining their usages in the language (spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammatical, function, usage and etymology etc.)可以是单语或是双语的（2）Encyclopedic dictionary:1）encyclopedia (百科全书):is not concerned with the language per se（本身）but provides encyclopedic information. Concerning each headword (not pronunciation, meanings, or usages) but only information.2）Encyclopedic Dictionaries: have the characteristics of both linguistic D and encyclopedia (<Chamber’s Encyclopedic English Dictionary>)3.Unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries(大型词典、案头词典、袖珍词典)（1）Unabridged D: basic information about a word——its origin, meaning, pronunciation, cognates(同词源的),usage, grammatical, function, spelling, hyphenation,。
morpheme概念解释
morpheme概念解释【最新版】目录1.Morpheme 的定义与作用2.Morpheme 的分类3.Morpheme 与语素、偏旁的比较4.Morpheme 在汉语中的应用5.总结正文Morpheme 是语言学中语法分析的最小单位，即组成各种词的最小的功能单位。
在英语中，Morpheme 被定义为“最小的语义或功能单位”。
Morpheme 有两种类型，分别为 free morpheme 和 bound morpheme。
Free morpheme 可以独立成词，或在组词过程中充当 stem，例如：open”tour”。
Bound morpheme 则需附着在其他语言形式上才能成词，往往以 affixe 的形式出现，例如：re-”-ist”-ed”-s”等。
Morpheme 与语素、偏旁有相似之处，但也存在诸多差异。
语素是最小的语言单位，不能再进一步划分为更小的语言单位而不破坏或彻底改变其词汇或语法意义。
语素和 Morpheme 之间的区别在于，语素是词汇中最小的音义结合体，而 Morpheme 是语法中最小的功能单位。
偏旁是汉字构成的一部分，与 Morpheme 不属于同一体系，但它们在形态上有一定的相似性。
在汉语中，与 Morpheme 相对应的语言单位应当是语素。
汉语语素在词汇和语法中有着重要的作用，它们是构建词汇和句子的基本单位。
然而，汉语语素与 Morpheme 之间存在一些差异，例如在语法功能、构成方式和语义表达等方面。
总之，Morpheme 是语言学中重要的概念，它在语法分析和词汇构成中发挥着关键作用。
在汉语中，语素与 Morpheme 有许多相似之处，但也存在一些差异。
英语词汇学4PPT课件
b. Bound roots: Quite a number of roots derived from foreign sources, esp. from Greek and Latin, belong to the class of bound morphemes. A root, whether it is free or bound, generally carries the main component of meaning in a word.
脚
foot
ped
uniped, pediform
音
sound phon
phonetics, microphone
日
sun
sol
solar, insolation
月 moon lun
lunar， lunatic
星 世界 生命
star world life
astro(er) cosm(o) bi(o)
Notice what the following words have in common: e.g. -tain contain, detain retain (L tenere "to hold")
-ceive conceive, deceive receive. (L capere "to take") revive vitamin vital vivacious vivid In Modern English, they are not words, and not free morphemes; they cannot exist on their own. Nor can they be used to form new words, because these items have no identity outside the small group of words in which they appear. So on formal grounds, ceive, -tain are considered bound morphemes or bound roots which always occur in morphemic sequences, i.e. in combination with roots or affixes.
morphemes例子
morphemes例子Morphemes 是语言学中的重要概念。
它是构成单词的最小意义单位，是词汇结构的基本组成部分。
通过了解 morphemes 的例子，我们可以更好地理解语言的构成方式和词汇的含义。
举个简单的例子，让我们来看一下单词 "unhappiness"。
这个单词由三个morphemes 构成：un-，happy-，和 -ness。
第一个 morpheme "un-" 是一个前缀，表示“不”，它改变了后面的词的含义。
第二个 morpheme "happy-" 是一个词根，表示“快乐”。
第三个 morpheme "-ness" 是一个后缀，表示“状态”或“品质”。
通过将这三个 morphemes 组合在一起，我们可以解读出整个单词 "unhappiness" 的含义为“不快乐的状态”。
另一个例子是单词 "unbelievable"。
这个单词由两个 morphemes 构成：un- 和believable。
前缀 "un-" 仍然表示“不”，而 "believable" 是一个词根，表示“可信的”。
将这两个 morphemes 结合起来，我们可以理解单词 "unbelievable" 的含义为“不可信的”。
通过分析这些例子，我们可以看到 morphemes 如何赋予词汇以特定的含义。
无论是前缀、后缀还是词根，每个 morpheme 都对词义的构成起着重要作用。
了解morphemes 的概念有助于我们更好地理解语言的结构和词汇的构成方式。
通过学习更多的例子，我们可以逐渐掌握和运用这些 morphemes，提高我们的语言表达能力。
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Differences in stem and root
A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes, can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.
Bound morpheme （粘着语素）
Definition :
-s in dogs, -al in national, and dis- n disclose, cannot occur alone. They must appear with at least another morpheme, and are called bound morphemes .
affix
Definition： the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem) 词缀是一个构词成分的集合,它们只能附加于 另一个语素词根或词干上
Affixes are limited in number in a language, and are generally classified into three subtypes, namely, prefix, suffix, and infix, depending on their position with reference to the root or stem of the word.
Stem
Definition: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. 词干是指能加上屈折词缀的语素或语素的 组合
a stem is the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added. A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself 派生词缀可加在已存在的形式词上形成的一 个新词，原来存在的形式词被称为词干。词 干可以是粘着词根，自由词素和一个派生词
不能单独出现,它们必须跟至少一个其 他语素共现,这样的语素叫做粘着语素
root
affix stem
Root（词根）: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word left w removed. 词根是词的基本形式,不能再作进一步的分 析而完全不损失同一性。也就是说，去掉 所有的词缀后，词所剩下的部分就是词根 All words contain a root morpheme.
e.g: chairman nothingness childhood
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
boy,desire ,desk,chair, kind ,book boyish, unkind ,bookworm boyishness, disappointment gentlemanliness, undesirablity ungentlemanliness
Inflectional affix includes
-s/-es noun plural -'s noun possessive -s/-es verb present tense third person singular -ed verb simple past tense -ed verb past perfect participle -ing verb present participle/gerund -er adjective comparative -est adjective superlative
Free: those that can stand by themselves, eg. black in blackboard, blackbird;
Bound: those that cannot stand by themselves, eg. –tain in retain, contain, maintain.
Morpheme and Allmorphe
Contents
• Morpheme and morphology----任亚
• Types of morphemes----熊丽萍 邓欣 • Allomorph ----吴晓文
• Morphological change----郭晓羽
Morpheme and morphology
Morphology
• • • • • A ample simple false pure B amplify simplify falsify purify
Any connection between these two sets of words?
Words in column B = Words in column A +-ify
BACK
Types of morpheme
◆ free morpheme and bound morpheme
◆ root
affix
stem
Free morpheme ------自由语素
Definition : Those morphemes which may occur alone, that is , those which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes(能单独出现,也就是能独自成 词的,叫做自由语素.) ( mono-morpheme) 单语素词 all mono-morphemic words are free ☆ morpheme
Eg.
Dog nation close
mono-morpheme(单语词素） （all mono-morpheme are free morphemes)
Eg. Paymaster babysit national disclose
poly-morpheme （多语词素）
compound bound morpheme
• • • • • Sentence Clause Word group/ Phrase Word Morpheme
What is morpheme?
----A morpheme (语素) is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. ----Words are composed of morphemes.
A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.
Relation in stem and root
1.A stem may be the same as a root 2.A stem may contain a root and one or more than one , derivational affix
Examples
girls, father's, talked, higher, happiest, giving, singing, called, likes, speeches,lowest
Derivational affix
Definition
A derivational affix is an affix by means of which one word is formed (derived) from another. The derived word is often of a different word class from the original.
Prefix suffix
infix
Prefix: modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word. Eg. dis-; un; mis- para-; miniSuffix: suffixes are added to the end of stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech. -ly; -ness; -tion; -ise Infix: foot/feet goose/geese (-oo-, -ee-)
•
• •
•
C likely happy developed