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1、颅脑大脑 cerebrum大脑纵裂 longitudinal cerebral fissure大脑皮质 cerebral大脑镰 falx cerebri大脑导水管，中脑水管 cerebral aqueduct中脑 midbrain, mesencephalon小脑 cerebellum小脑幕 tentorium cerebelli丘脑，视丘 thalmus延髓 medulla oblongata侧脑室 lateral ventricle第三脑室 third ventricle第四脑室 fourth ventricle第五脑室 fifth ventricle脑桥，桥脑 pons脑干 brain stem间脑 diencephalon中间块 intermidiate mass尾状核 caudate nucleus脉络丛 choroid plexus胼胝体 corpus callosum脑岛，岛叶 insula大脑脚 cerebral peduncles大脑外侧沟（窝、裂） lateral sulcus , sylvius fissure 穹窿 fornix透明隔 septum pellucidum透明隔腔 cavity of septum pellucidum额叶 frontal lobe顶叶 parietal lobe枕叶 occipital lobe颞叶 temporale lobe缘叶 limbic lobe大脑动脉环 Willi's artery circle大脑前动脉 anterior cerebral artery大脑中动脉 middle cerebral artery大脑后动脉 posterior cerebral artery基底动脉 basilar artery后交通支（动脉） posterior communicating branch颅前窝，凹 anterior cranial fossa颅中窝，凹 middle cranial fossa颅后窝，凹 posterior cranial fossa2、眼、面颈、涎腺、乳腺、胸肺眼球 optic bulb ,eyeball角膜 cornea前房 anterior chamber虹膜 iris睫状体 ciliary body视网膜 retina脉络膜 choroid巩膜 sclera房水 aqueous humour玻璃体 vitreous玻璃体膜 hyaloid membrae晶状体 lens（眼）直肌 recti muscles视神经 optic nerve眶上动脉 supraorbital artery眼动脉 ophthalmic artery视网膜中央动脉 central retinal artery睫状后长（短）动脉posterior long (short) ciliaryartery泪腺动脉 lacrimal gland artery滑车上动脉 supratrochlear artery眼静脉 ophthalmic vein眶上静脉 suprorbital vein滑车上静脉 supratrochlear vein视网膜中央静脉 central retinal vein涡状静脉 vorticose veins眼眶 orbit结膜 conjunctiva唾液腺、涎腺 salivary gland腮腺 parotid (gland)颌下腺 submaxillary gland舌下腺 sublingual gland甲状腺 thyroid (gland )甲状旁腺 parathyroid (gland )上颌窦 maxillary sinus气管 trachea乳腺 breast, mammary gland额 front枕 occiput颞 temples颊 cheek胸廓、胸腔 thorax, thorax cavity肋骨 ribs, costae肋软骨costal cartilages胸骨 sternum乳腺组织 breast tissue悬韧带suspensory ligament, Copper's ligament乳腺后组织 retromammary tissue横膈 diaphragm颈总动脉 common carotid artery颈外动脉 external carotid artery颈内动脉 internal carotid artery椎动脉 vertebral artery无名动脉 innominate artery颈内静脉 internal jugular vein甲状腺上动脉 superior thyroid artery乳房内动脉 internal mammary artery3、腹部血管、周围血管腹主动脉 abdominal aorta腹腔动脉 celiac artery肠系膜上动脉 superior mesenteric artery肠系膜下动脉 inferior mesenteric artery肝总动脉 common hepatic artery肝动脉 hepatic artery胃左动脉 left gastric artery胃十二指肠动脉 gastroduodenal artery脾动脉 splenic artery肾动脉 renal artery卵巢动脉 ovarian artery髂总动脉 common iliac artery髂内动脉 internal iliac artery髂外动脉 external iliac artery锁骨下动脉 subclavian artery椎动脉 vertebral artery乳房内动脉 internal mammary artery颈内静脉 internal jugular vein颈外静脉 external jugular vein奇静脉 azygos vein大隐静脉 great saphenous vein下腔静脉 inferior vena cava门静脉 portal vein肠系膜上静脉 superior mesenteric vein肝静脉 hepatic vein肾静脉 renal vein腰静脉 lumbar vein精索静脉 spermatic vein肾弓形动脉 renal arcuate arteries股动脉 femoral artery肱动脉 humeral artery桡动脉 radial artery尺动脉ulnar artery面动脉 facial artery锁骨下动脉 subclavian artery颈浅动脉 superficial cervical artery颞浅动脉 superficial temporal artery4、肝、胆、胰、脾、泌尿男生殖肝左叶left liver lobe(LL)肝右叶right liver lobe(RL)尾状叶 caudate lobe(CL)方叶 quadrate lobe(QL)附垂叶Riedel's lobe胆囊gallbladder(GB)胆囊管 cystic duct(CD)肝管 hepatic duct(HD)胆总管common bile duct (CBD)肝门 porta hepatis胆囊窝 gallbladder forssa肝圆韧带 hepatoumbilical ligament, round ligament肝镰状韧带 falciform ligament肝静脉韧带 venose ligament胆管、胆道 bile duct(BD)螺旋状瓣 spiral valve肝总管 common hepatic duct肝外胆管 extrahepatic duct乏特壶腹 Vater's ampulla胰腺 pancreas胰管 pancreatic duct , Wirsung's duct副胰管 Santorini duct胰颈 neck of pancreas胰体 body of pancreas胰尾 tail of pancreas钩突 uncinate process脾 spleen脾门 splenic hilum肾周脂肪 perinephrit fat集合系统 collective system肾 kedney肾盂 renal calyes锥体 pyramids肾柱 renal colums肾上腺 adrenal gland输尿管 ureters, ureteral , uretero膀胱 urinary bladder , bladder尿道 urethra睾丸 testis附睾 epididymis鞘膜 tunica vagialis, vagina tunic白膜 tunica albuginea , albuginea输精管 ductus deferens, deferent duct精囊 vesiculae seminals, seminal vesicle射精管 ejaculatory ducts阴囊 scrotum, scrotal sac精索 spermatic cord腹股沟 inguen前列腺 prostate5、妇产科子宫 uterus输卵管 uterine tube, oviduct卵巢 ovary, ovaries子宫颈 cervix子宫腔 uterine canal子宫内膜 endometriosis子宫直肠陷凹 rectouterine fossa子宫内口 internal ostium of the uterus子宫口 orifice of the uterus阴道 vagina胚胎 embryo卵黄囊 yolk sac羊膜 amnion蜕膜 decidua绒毛 villus绒毛膜 chorion胎盘 placenta胎儿 fetus胎心 fetal heart胎动fetal movement, feta motion胎儿脊柱 fetal spine胎儿胃泡 fetal stomach bubble胎儿胸部fetal thorax胎儿肾 fetal kidney胎儿肢体 fetal limb脐带 umbilical cord卵泡，滤泡 follicle附件 adnexa羊水 amniotic fluid宫内节育器 intrauterine device妊娠囊 gestational sac顶臀长度 crown-rump length双顶径 biparietal diameter胎头指数 cephalic index枕额径 occipito-frontal diameter头围 head circumference胸围 thoracic circumference腹围 abdominal circumference小脑径 cerebellum diameter头（径）指数 cephalic index双眼间距 ocular distance腹部横径 transverse trunk diameter腹部前后径 anteroposterior trunk diameter椎骨长度（胸6～腰3）length of vertebrae脊柱 spine, vertebral colum股骨长度 femur length肱骨长度 humerus length胎儿体重 fetal weight脐动脉 umbilical artery脐静脉 umbilical vein胎盘 placenta孕周 gestational week孕龄 gestational age。

365编号外国文献的中英文对照版

diabetes neuropathies: update on definitions,diagnostic criteria,estimation of severity,and treatments糖尿病神经病变：更新的定义，诊断标准，估计的严重程度，与治疗Tesfaye S,Boulton A J.Dyck P J,et al.内容概要，博尔顿一·戴克磷，等。

AbstractPreceding the joint meeting of the 19th annual Diabetic Neuropathy Study Group of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (NEURODIAB) and the 8th International Symposium on Diabetic Neuropathy in Toronto, Canada, 13–18 October 2009, expert panels were convened to provide updates on classification, definitions, diagnostic criteria, and treatments of diabetic peripheral neuropathies (DPNs), autonomic neuropathy, painful DPNs, and structural alterations in DPNs.前联席会议第十九年糖尿病神经病变研究组欧洲糖尿病研究协会（neurodiab）和第八届国际糖尿病神经病变在多伦多，加拿大，–13 18 2009年十月，专家小组召开了提供更新的定义，分类，诊断标准，治疗糖尿病周围神经病变（标准草案），自主神经病变，痛苦的标准草案，和结构改变的标准草案。

医学英语文献选读2部分文章全文翻译

医学英语文献选读部分文章全文翻译Unit1 Text B定义和自然的炎症反应当生活组织都受伤了,一系列的变更,这可能会持续几个小时,几天或几周内,发生在和伤病的周围。

这个反应损伤被称为炎症,术语源自拉丁语inflammare意义燃烧.这受伤异常但身体的反应,炎症,是很正常的,如果复杂的、生理的反应——唯一一个可能的情况下的特殊损伤。

炎症反应的性质是首先被约翰亨特(1794),他在研究战伤后,得出结论:infammation本身是不应被视为一种疾病,但从而有利于机体要么暴力或一些疾病”。

许多不同类型的损伤可能引发炎症。

他们可分为如下:(1)物理因素如过度加热或冷却,紫外线和电离辐射或机械创伤。

(2)化学物质,包括各种细菌毒素。

(3)过敏反应。

反应的抗体或敏感的淋巴细胞和细菌或其他抗原可以释放物质的机制导致过敏炎症反应.(4)微生物感染中是一个非常重要的原因的炎症反应。

微生物在几个方面可能会伤害到组织——的释放将外——或者endo -毒素,通过超敏反应机制或细胞内乘法紧随其后的是细胞死亡中看到许多病毒感染。

(5)坏死的组织几乎任何原因导致释放物质诱发炎症在邻近的生活组织。

(6)反应在受伤后的头几个小时,一般印象和广泛不同的损伤缺陷引起simlilar最初反应-急性炎症反应。

炎性病变的性质通常是suffixitis所表示的。

因此发炎的阑尾是阑尾炎,肝肝炎等。

偶尔会有一些异常历史。

肺部炎症传统上是肺炎,而不是肺炎以及不pleuritis胸膜炎的胸膜。

急性和慢性的术语指响应的时间。

急性炎症持续几天或几周;慢性炎症持续数周、数月甚至数年。

炎性反应通常是有益的,事实上它是根本的在对抗大多数感染和限制的有害影响的许多有毒因子。

但是,事情并非总是有利的。

在许多情况下破坏的组织或其他意料之外的效果是由于不破坏代理,但一个或其他方面的受伤的身体反应。

例如在急性炎症喉部可能有足够的炎性肿胀来阻止气道,导致死亡的窒息。

在阿尔都反应和当地应对某些蜱虫叮咬,坏死的组织是由于物质的解放polymorphonuclear白细胞的累积损伤的部位的炎症反应的一部分:这种坏死并没有出现在动物的血液白细胞剥夺由之前的治疗与骨髓毒药如氮芥。

各类医学中英文对照

医学文献翻译(中英对照)

The clinical and cost-effectiveness of Pharmalgen®for the treatment of bee and wasp venom allergy1 TITLE OF PROJECTThe clinical and cost effectiveness of Pharmalgen®for the treatment of bee and wasp venom allergy2 TAR TEAMLiverpool Reviews and Implementation Group (LR i G), University of Liverpool Correspondence to:Rumona Dickson, MsDirector, LR i GUniversity of LiverpoolRoom 2.12WhelanBuildingThe QuadrangleBrownlow HillLiverpoolL69 3GBTel: +44 (0) 151 794 5682Fax: +44 (0)151 794 5585Email: R.DicksonFor details of expertise within the TAR team, see section 7.3 PLAIN ENGLISH SUMMARYAllergic reactions to bee and wasp venom may occur in venom-sensitive patients immediately following a sting, and can vary in severity, with initially mild symptoms sometimes progressing to critical conditions within seconds. The most severe systemic allergic reactions (generalised reactions) are known as anaphylaxis, a reaction characterised by abnormally low blood pressure, fainting or collapse, and in extreme reactions these symptoms can cause death.Each year in the UK there are between two and nine deaths from anaphylaxis caused by bee and wasp venom. The immediate treatment for severe allergic reactions to bee and wasp venom consists of emergency treatment with drugs to decrease the patient’s response to the venom and support breathing, if required.To avoid further reactions, the use of sensitisation to bee and wasp venom, through a process known as venom immunotherapy (VIT), has been investigated. Venom immunotherapy consists of subcutaneous injections of increasing amounts of venom into patients with a history of anaphylaxis to bee and wasp venom. Pharmalgen®has had UK marketing authorisation for the diagnosis and treatment (using VIT) of allergy to bee venom (using Pharmalgen®Bee Venom) and wasp venom (using Pharmalgen®Wasp Venom) since March 1995, and it is used by more than 40 centres across the UK. This review aims to assess whether using Pharmalgen®in VIT is clinically useful when treating people with a history of severe reaction to bee and wasp stings. The review will compare preventative treatment withPharmalgen®to other treatment options, including high dose antihistamines, advice on the avoidance of bee and wasp stings and adrenaline auto-injector prescription and training. If suitable data are available, the review will also consider the cost effectiveness of using Pharmalgen®for VIT and other subgroups including children and people at high risk of future stings or severe allergic reactions to future stings.4 DECISION PROBLEM4.1 Clarification of research question and scopePharmalgen®is used for the diagnosis and treatment of immunoglobin E (IgE)-mediated allergy to bee and wasp venom. The aim of this report is to assess whether the use of Pharmalgen®is of clinical value when providing VIT to individuals with a history of severe reaction to bee and wasp venom and whether doing so would be considered cost effective compared with alternative treatment options available in the NHS.4.2 BackgroundBees and wasps form part of the order Hymenoptera (which also includes ants), and within this order the species that cause the most frequent allergic reactions are the Vespidae (wasps, yellow jackets and hornets), and the Apinae (honeybees).1Bee and wasp stings contain allergenic proteins. In wasps, these are predominantly phospholipase A1,2 hyaluronidase2 and antigen 5,3 and in bees are phospholipase A2 and hyaluronidase.4 Following an initial sting, a type 1 hypersensitivity reaction may occur in some individuals which produces the IgE antibody. This sensitises cells to the allergen, and any subsequent exposure to the allergen may cause the allergen to bind to the IgE molecules, which results in an allergic reaction.These allergens typically produce an intense, burning pain followed by erythema (redness) and a small area of oedema (swelling) at the site of the sting. The symptoms produced following a sting can be classified into non-allergic reactions, such as local reactions, and allergic reactions, such as extensive local reactions, anaphylactic systemic reactions and delayed systemic reactions.5-6 Systemic allergic reactions may occur in venom-sensitive patients immediately following a sting,7 and can vary in severity, with initially mild symptoms sometimes progressing to critical conditions within seconds.1The most severe systemic allergic reaction is known as anaphylaxis. Anaphylactic reactions are of rapid onset (typically up to 15 minutes post sting) and can manifest in different ways. Initial symptoms are usually cutaneous followed by hypotension, with light-headedness, fainting or collapse. Some people develop respiratory symptoms due to an asthma-like response or laryngeal oedema. In severe reactions, hypotension, circulatory disturbances, and breathing difficulty can progress to fatal cardio-respiratory arrest.Anaphylaxis occurs more commonly in males and in people under 20 years of ageand can be severe and potentially fatal.84.3 EpidemiologyIt is estimated that the prevalence of wasp and bee sting allergy is between 0.4% and 3.3%.9 The incidence of systemic reactions to wasp and bee venom is not reliably known, but estimates range from 0.15-3.3%,10-11 Systemic allergic reactions are reported by up to 3% of adults, and almost 1% of children have a medical history of severe sting reactions.9, 12 After a large local reaction, 5–15% of people will go on to develop a systemic reaction when next stung.13 In people with a mild systemic reaction, the risk of subsequent systemic reactions is thought to be about 18%.13 Hymenoptera venom are one of the three main causes of fatal anaphylaxis in the USA and UK.14-15 Insect stings are the second most frequent cause of anaphylaxis outside of medical settings.16 Between two and nine people in the UK die each year as a result of anaphylaxis due to reactions to wasp and bee stings.17 Once an individual has experienced an anaphylactic reaction, the risk of having a recurrent episode has been estimated to be between 60% and 79%.13In 2000, the register of fatal anaphylactic reactions in the UK from 1992 onwards was reported by Pumphrey to determine the frequency at which classic manifestations of fatal anaphylaxis are present.18 Of the 56 post-mortems carried out, 19 deaths were recorded as reactions to Hymenoptera venom (33.9%). A retrospective study in 2004 examined all deaths from anaphylaxis in the UK between 1992 and 2001, and estimated 22.19% to be reactions to Hymenoptera venom (47/212). This further breaks down into 29/212 (13.68%) as reactions to wasp stings, and 4/212 (1.89%) as reactions to bee stings. The remaining 14/212 were unidentified Hymenoptera stings (6.62%).194.4 Current diagnostic optionsCurrently, individuals can be tested to determine if they are at risk of systemic reactions to bee and wasp venom. The primary diagnostic method for systemic reactions to bee and/or wasp stings is venom skin testing.Skin testing involves intradermal injection with the five Hymenoptera venom protein extracts, with venom concentrati ons in the range of 0.001 to 1.0 μg/ml. This establishes the minimum concentration giving a positive result (a reaction occurring in the individual). As venom tests show unexplained variability over time,20 and as negative skin tests can occur following recent anaphylaxis, it is recommended that tests be repeated after 1 to 6 months.21Other methods of diagnosis in patients following an anaphylactic reaction include radioallergosorbent test (RAST), which detects allergen-specific IgE antibodies in serum. This test is less sensitive than skin testing but is useful when skin tests cannot be done, for example in patients with skin conditions.22-234.5 Current treatment optionsPreventative treatments include education on how to avoid bee and wasp venom,and prescription of high dose antihistamines. Patients with a history of moderate local reactions should be provided with an emergency kit,24 containing aH1-blocking antihistamine and a topical corticosteroid for immediate use following a sting. Patients with a history of anaphylaxis should be provided with an emergency kit containing a rapid-acting H1-blocking antihistamine, an oral corticosteroid and an auto-injector for self administration, containing epinephrine.Injected epinephrine (a sympathomimetic drug which acts on both alpha and beta receptors) is regarded as the emergency treatment of choice for cases of acute anaphylaxis as a result of Hymenoptera stings.25 For adults, the recommended dose is between 0.30 mg/ml and 0.50 mg/ml I.M, and 0.01 ml/kg I.M. for children. Individuals with a history of anaphylactic reactions are recommended to carry auto injectors containing epinephrine (commonly known as EpiPen®, Adrenaclick®, Anapen®or Twinject®). These are intended for immediate self-administration by individuals with a history of hypersensitivity to Hymenoptera stings and other allergens.Preventive measures following successful treatment of a systemic allergic reaction to Hymenoptera venom consists of either allergen avoidance or specific allergen immunotherapy, known as VIT. Venom immunotherapy is considered to be a safe and effective treatment.26 Currently, VIT can be used with several regimes, including Pharmalgen®(manufactured by ALK Abello, and licensed in the UK), Aquagen®and Alutard SQ®(both manufactured by ALK Abello and unlicensed in the UK but licensed in some parts of Europe), VENOMENHAL®(HAL Allergy, Leiden, Netherlands, unlicensed in the UK), Alyostal®(Stallergenes, Antony Cedex, France, unlicensed in the UK), and Venomil®(Hollister-Stier Laboratories LLC, unlicensed in the UK). Venom immunotherapy is recommended to prevent future systemic reactions. It is recommended that VIT is considered ‘when positive test results for specific IgE antibodies correlate with suspected triggers and pa tient exposure’.27 Venom immunotherapy consists of subcutaneous injections of increasing amounts of venom, and treatment is divided into two periods: the build up phase and maintenance phase. Venom immunotherapy is now the standard therapy for Hymenoptera sting allergy,28 and is a model for allergen-specific therapy,29-30 with success rates (patients who will remain anaphylaxis free) being reported as more than 98% in some studies.4, 31 There are now 44 centres across the UK which provide VIT to people for bee and wasp sting allergy. Venom immunotherapy is normally discontinued after 3 to 5 years, but modifications may be necessary when treating people with intense allergen exposure (such as beekeepers) or those with individual risk factors for severe reactions. There is no method of assessing which patients will be at risk of further anaphylactic reactions following administration of VIT and those who will remain anaphylaxis free in the long term following VIT.27Local or systemic adverse reactions may occur as a result of VIT. They normally develop within 30 minutes of the injection. Each patient is monitored closely following each injection to check for adverse reactions. Progression to anincreased dose only occurs if the previous dose is fully tolerated.4.6 The technologyPharmalgen®is produced by ALK Abello, and has had UK marketing authorisation for the diagnosis (using skin testing/intracutaneous testing) and treatment (using VIT) of IgE-mediated allergy to bee venom (Pharmalgen®Bee Venom) and wasp venom (Pharmalgen®Wasp Venom) since March 1995 (marketing authorisation number PL 10085/0004). The active ingredient is partially purified freeze dried Vespula spp. venom in Pharmalgen®Wasp Venom and freeze dried Apis mellifera venom in Pharmalgen®Bee Venom, each provided in powder form for solution for injection.Before treatment is considered, allergy to bee or wasp venom must be confirmed by case history and diagnosis. Treatment with Pharmalgen®Bee or Wasp Venom is performed by subcutaneous injections. The treatment is carried out in two phases: the initial phase and the maintenance phase.In the build up phase, the dose is increased stepwise until the maintenance dose (the maximum tolerable dose before an allergic reaction) is achieved. ALK Abello recommends the following dosage proposals: conventional, modified rush (clustered) and rush updosing. In conventional updosing, the patient receives one injection every 3-7 days. In modified rush (clustered) updosing, the patient receives 2-4 injections once a week. If necessary this interval may be extended up to two weeks. The 2-4 injections are given with an interval of 30 minutes. In rush updosing, while being hospitalised the patient receives injections with a 2-hour interval. A maximum of four injections per day may be given in the initial phase.The build up phase ends when the individual maintenance dose has been attained and the interval between the injections is increased to 2, 3 and 4 weeks. This is called the maintenance phase, and the maintenance dose is then given every 4 weeks for at least 3 years.Contra-indications to VIT treatment are immunological diseases (e. g. immune complex diseases and immune deficiencies); chronic heart/lung diseases; treatment with β-blockers; severe eczema. Side effects include superficial wheal and flare due to shallow injection; local swelling (which may be immediate or delayed up to 48 hours); mild general reactions such as urticaria, erythema, rhinitis or mild asthma; moderate or severe general reactions such as more severe asthma, angioedema or an anaphylactic reaction with hypotension and respiratory embarrassment; anaphylaxis (often starting with erythema and pruritus, followed by urticaria, angioedema, nasal or pharyngial congestion, wheezing, dyspnoea, nausea, hypotension, syncope, tachycardia or diarrhoea). 324.7 Objectives of the HTA projectThe aim of this review is to assess the clinical and cost effectiveness of Pharmalgen®in providing immunotherapy to individuals with a history of type 1 IgE-mediated systemic allergic reaction to bee and wasp venom. The review willconsider the effectiveness of Pharmalgen®when compared to alternative treatment options available in the NHS, including advice on the avoidance of bee and wasp stings, high dose antihistamines and adrenaline auto-injector prescription and training. The review will also examine the existing health economic evidence and identify the key economic issues related to the use of Pharmalgen®in UK clinical practice. If suitable data are available, an economic model will be developed and populated to evaluate if the use of Pharmalgen®for the treatment of bee and wasp venom allergy, within its licensed indication, would be a cost effective use of NHS resources.5 METHODS FOR SYNTHESISING CLINICAL EFFECTIVENESS EVIDENCE5.1 Search strategyThe major electronic databases including Medline, Embase and The Cochrane Library will be searched for relevant published literature. Information on studies in progress, unpublished research or research reported in the grey literature will be sought by searching a range of relevant databases including National Research Register and Controlled Clinical Trials. A sample of the search strategy to be used for MEDLINE is presented inAppendix 1.Bibliographies of previous systematic reviews, retrieved articles and the submissions provided by manufacturers will be searched for further studies.A database of published and unpublished literature will be assembled from systematic searches of electronic sources, hand searching, contacting manufacturers and consultation with experts in the field. The database will be held in the Endnote X4 software package.Inclusion criteriaThe inclusion criteria specified in Table 1 will be applied to all studies after screening. The inclusion criteria were selected to reflect the criteria described in the final scope issued by NICE for the review. However, as there is likely to be a limited amount of RCT data, the inclusion criteria of study design may be expanded to include comparative studies and descriptive cohorts. The clinical and cost effectiveness of Pharmalgen®for the treatment of bee and wasp venom allergy Page 11 of 21Table 1: Inclusion criteria Intervention(s) Pharmalgen®for the treatment of bee and wasp venom allergy,Population(s) People with a history of type 1 IgE-mediatedsystemic allergic reactions to:wasp venom and/or bee venomComparators Alternative treatment options available inthe NHS, without venom immunotherapyincluding:advice on the avoidance of bee and wasp venom,high-dose antihistamines,adrenaline auto-injector prescription andtrainingStudy design Randomised controlled trialsSystematic reviewsOutcomes Outcome measures to be considered include:number and severity of type 1 IgE-mediatedsystemic allergic reactionsmortalityanxiety related to the possibility of futureallergic reactionsadverse effects of treatmenthealth-related quality of lifeOther considerations If the evidence allows, considerations willbe given to subgroups of people, according totheir:risk of future stings (as determined, forexample, by occupational exposure)risk of severe allergic reactions to futurestings (as determined by such factors asbaseline tryptase levels and co-morbidities)If the evidence allows, the appraisal willconsider separately people who have acontraindication to adrenaline.If the evidence allows, the appraisal willconsider children separately.Two reviewers will independently screen all titles and abstracts of papers identified in the initial search. Discrepancies will be resolved by consensus and where necessary a third reviewer will be consulted. Studies deemed to be relevant will be obtained and assessed for inclusion. Where studies do not meet the inclusion criteria they will be excluded.Data extraction strategyData relating to study design, findings and quality will be extracted by one reviewer and independently checked for accuracy by a second reviewer. Study details will be extracted using a standardised data extraction form. If time permits, attempts will be made to contact authors for missing data. Data from studies presented in multiple publications will be extracted and reported as a single study with all relevant other publications listed.Quality assessment strategyThe quality of the clinical-effectiveness studies will be assessed accordingto criteria based on the CRD’s guidance for undertaking reviews in healthcare.33-34 The quality of the individual clinical-effectiveness studies will be assessed by one reviewer, and independently checked for agreement by a second. Disagreements will be resolved through consensus and if necessary a third reviewer will be consulted.Methods of analysis/synthesisThe results of the data extraction and quality assessment for each study will be presented in structured tables and as a narrative summary. The possible effects of study quality on the effectiveness data and review findings will be discussed. All summary statistics will be extracted for each outcome and where possible, data will be pooled using a standard meta-analysis.35 Heterogeneity between the studies will be assessed using the I2 test.34 Both fixed and random effects results will be presented as forest plots.6 METHODS FOR SYNTHESISING COST EFFECTIVENESS EVIDENCEThe economic section of the report will be presented in two parts. The first will include a standard review of relevant published economic evaluations. If appropriate and data are available, the second will include the development of an economic model. The model will be designed to estimate the cost effectiveness of Pharmalgen®for VIT in individuals with a history of anaphylaxis to bee and wasp venom. This section of the report will also consider budget impact and will take account of available information on current and anticipated patient numbers and service configuration for the treatment of this condition in the NHS.6.1 Systematic review of published economic literatureThe literature review of economic evidence will identify any relevant published cost-minimisation, cost-effectiveness, cost-utility and/or cost-benefit analyses. Economic evaluations/models included in the manufacturer submission(s) will be included in the review and critiqued as appropriate.Search strategyThe search strategies detailed in section 5 will be adapted accordingly to identify studies examining the cost effectiveness of using Pharmalgen®for VIT in patients with a history of allergic reactions to bee or wasp venom. Other searching activities, including electronic searching of online health economic journals and contacting experts in the field will also be undertaken. Full details of the search process will be presented in the final report. The search strategy will be designed to meet the primary objective of identifying economic evaluations for inclusion in the cost-effectiveness literature review. At the same time, the search strategy will be used to identify economic evaluations and other information sources which may include data that can be used to populate a de novo economic model where appropriate. Searching will be undertaken in MEDLINE and EMBASE as well as in the Cochrane Library, which includes the NHS Economic Evaluation Database (NHS EED).Inclusion and exclusionIn addition to the inclusion criteria outlined in Table 1, specific criteria required for the cost-effectiveness review are described in Table 2. In particular, only full economic evaluations that compare two or more options and consider both costs and consequences will be included in the review of published literature. Any economic evaluations/models included in the manufacturer submission(s) will be included as appropriate. Studies that do not meet all of the criteria will be excluded and their bibliographic details listed with reasons for exclusion.Table 2: Additional inclusion criteria (cost effectiveness) Study design Full economic evaluations that consider both costs and consequences (cost-effectiveness analysis,cost-utility analysis,cost-minimisation analysis and cost benefit analysis)Outcomes Incremental cost per life year gainedIncremental cost per quality adjustedlife year gainedData extraction strategyData relating to both study design and quality will be extracted by one reviewer and independently checked for accuracy by a second reviewer. Disagreement will be resolved through consensus and, if necessary, a third reviewer will be consulted. If time constraints allow, attempts will be made to contact authors for missing data. Data from multiple publications will be extracted and reported as a single study.Quality assessment strategyThe quality of the cost-effectiveness studies/models will be assessed according to a checklist updated from that developed by Drummond et al.36 This checklist will reflect the criteria for economic evaluation detailed in the methodological guidance developed by NICE.37 The quality of the individual cost-effectiveness studies/models will be assessed by one reviewer, and independently checked for agreement by a second. Disagreements will be resolved through consensus and, if necessary, a third reviewer will be consulted. The information will be tabulated and summarised within the text of the report.6.2 Methods of analysis/synthesisCost effectiveness review of published literatureIndividual study data and quality assessment will be summarised in structured tables and as a narrative description. Potential effects of study quality willbe discussed.To supplement findings from the economic literature review, additional cost and benefit information from other sources, including the manufacturer submission(s) to NICE, will be collated and presented as appropriate.Development of a de novo economic model by the AGa. Cost dataThe primary perspective for the analysis of cost information will be the NHS. Cost data will therefore focus on the marginal direct health service costs associated with the intervention.Quantities of resources used will be identified from consultation with experts, primary data from relevant sources and the reviewed literature. Where possible, unit cost data will be extracted from the literature or obtained from other relevant sources (drug price lists, NHS reference costs and Chartered Institute of Public Finance and Accounting cost databases).Where appropriate costs will be discounted at 3.5% per annum, the rate recommended in NICE guidance to manufacturers and sponsors of submissions. 37 b. Assessmentof benefitsA balance sheet will be constructed to list benefits and costs arising from alternative treatment options. LRiG anticipates that the main measures of benefit will be increased QALYs.Where appropriate, effectiveness and other measures of benefit will be discounted at 3.5%, the rate recommended in NICE guidance to manufacturers and sponsors of submissions. 37b. ModellingThe ability of LRiG to construct an economic model will depend on the data available. Where modelling is appropriate, a summary description of the model and a critical appraisal of key structures, assumptions, resources, data and sensitivity analysis (see Section d) will be presented. In addition, LRiG will provide an assessment of the model’s strengths and weaknesses and discuss the implications of using different assumptions in the model. Reasons for any major discrepancies between the results obtained from assessment group model and the manufacturer model(s) will be explored.The time horizon will be a patient’s lifetime in order to reflect the chronic nature of the disease.A formal combination of costs and benefits will also be performed, although the type of economic evaluation will only be chosen in light of the variations in outcome identified from the clinical- effectiveness review evidence.If data are available, the results will be presented as incremental cost per QALY ratios for each alternative considered. If sufficient data are not available to construct these measures with reasonable precision, incrementalcost-effectiveness analysis or cost-minimisation analysis will be undertaken. Any failure to meet the reference case will be clearly specified and justified, and the likely implications will, as far as possible, be quantified.d. Sensitivity analysisIf appropriate, sensitivity analysis will be applied to LRiG’s model in order to assess the robustness of the results to realistic variations in the levels of the underlying parameter values and key assumptions. Where the overall results are sensitive to a particular variable, the sensitivity analysis will explore the exact nature of the impact of variations.Imprecision inthe principal model cost-effectiveness results with respect to key parameter values will be assessed by use of techniques compatible with the modelling methodology deemed appropriate to the research question and to the potential impact on decision making for specific comparisons (e.g. multi-way sensitivity analysis, cost-effectiveness acceptability curves etc).7 HANDLING THE MANUFACTURER SUBMISSION(S)All data submitted by the drug manufacturers arriving before 22nd March 2011 and meeting the set inclusion criteria will be considered for inclusion in the review. Data arriving after this date will only be considered if time constraints allow. Any economic evaluations included in the manufacturer submission(s) will be assessed. This will include a detailed analysis of the appropriateness of the parametric and structural assumptions involved in any models in the submission and an assessment of how robust the models are to changes in key assumptions. Clarification on specific aspects of the model may be sought from the relevant manufacturer.Any 'commercial in confidence' data taken from a manufacturer submission will be clearly marked in the NICE report according to established NICE policy and removed from the subsequent submission to the HTA8 EXPERTISE IN THIS TAR TEAM AND COMPETING INTERESTS OF AUTHORSThis TAR team will be made up of the following individuals:Juliet HockenhullTeam lead /clinical systematicreviewerSenior economic modeller Professor Adrian BagustSystematic reviewer (clinical) Gemma CherrySystematic reviewer (economics) Dr Angela BolandEconomic modeller Dr Carlos Martin SaboridoInformation specialist Dr Yenal DundarMedical statistician James OyeeDirector Ms Rumona DicksonClinical advisor A team of clinical experts will beestablished to address clinicalquestions related to the technologyand to provide feedback on drafts ofthe final report9 REFERENCES1. Freeman T. Hypersensitivity to hymenoptera stings. NEJM. 2004;351:1978-84.。

医药学类文献双语版_汉译英

介导性shRNA能抑制肺癌细胞中livin沉默基因的表达从而促进SGC-7901细胞凋亡背景—由于肿瘤细胞抑制凋亡增殖,特定凋亡的抑制因素会对于发展新的治疗策略提供一个合理途径。

Livin是一种凋亡抑制蛋白家族成员，在多种恶性肿瘤的表达中具有意义。

但是, 在有关胃癌方面没有可利用的数据。

在本研究中,我们发现livin基因在人类胃癌中的表达并调查了介导的shRNA能抑制肺癌细胞中livin沉默基因的表达，从而促进SGC-7901细胞凋亡。

方法—mRNA及蛋白质livin基因的表达用逆转录聚合酶链反应技术及西方吸干化验进行了分析。

小干扰RNA真核表达载体具体到livin基因采用基因重组、测序核酸。

然后用Lipofectamin2000转染进入SGC-7901细胞。

逆转录聚合酶链反应技术和西方吸干化验用来验证的livin基因在SGC-7901细胞中使沉默基因生效。

所得到的稳定的复制品用G418来筛选。

细胞凋亡用应用流式细胞仪(FCM)来评估。

细胞生长状态和5-FU的50%抑制浓度(IC50)和顺铂都由MTT比色法来决定。

结果—livin mRNA和蛋白质的表达检测40例中有19例(47.5%)有胃癌和SGC-7901细胞。

没有livin基因表达的是在肿瘤邻近组织和良性胃溃疡病灶。

相关发现在livin基因的表达和肿瘤的微小分化和淋巴结转移一样(P < 0.05)。

4个小干扰RNA真核表达矢量具体到基因重组的livin基因建立。

其中之一,能有效地减少livin基因的表达,抑制基因不少于70%(P < 0.01)。

重组的质粒被提取和转染到胃癌细胞。

G418筛选所得到的稳定的复制品被放大讲究。

当livin基因沉默,胃癌细胞的生殖活动明显低于对照组(P < 0.05)。

研究还表明,IC50上的5-Fu 和顺铂在胃癌细胞的治疗上是通过shRNA减少以及刺激这些细胞(5-Fu proapoptotic和顺铂)(P < 0.01)。

各类医学中英文对照精品

Eubacteria (真细菌)：组成原核生物中的大部分。
Euchromatin (常染色体)：间期核内除了异染色质之外的所有基因组。
Evolutionary clock (进化钟)：特定基因突变积累的速度定义。
Excision (切除)：噬菌体、附加体或其它序列的切除是指它们以自主DNA分子形式从宿主染色体中释放出来。
Exonucleases (核酸外切酶)：从核酸链中每次从一头切割一个核苷酸，可能特异性切割DNA或者RNA 的5￠或者3￠端。
Expression vector (表达载体)：设计好的克隆载体，使编码序列插入特定的位点，能够转录和翻译成蛋白质。
Extranuclear genes (核外基因)：核外的、定位在细胞器，如线粒体或叶绿体中的基因。
Enhancer (增强子)：是一个顺式作用序列，能够提高一些真核生物启动子的利用，并能够在启动子任何方向以及任何位置(上游或者下游)作用。
Enelopes (包膜)：某些细胞器外膜(如细胞核或线粒体)，由同中心的膜构成，每一个膜由磷脂双分子层组成。
Episome change (后天改变)：不影响基因型但是改变表型。它们包括细胞性质的改变，这是遗传的但是在遗传信息上没有表现出改变。
Eadie plot|Eadie图
Eadie plotting|Eadie作图法[用于酶促反应动力学]
early gene|早期基因[可特指病毒]
early hypersensitivity|早发型超敏反应
early phage|早期[有时特指病毒复制的早期]
Episome (附加体)：能够整合进细菌DNA 中的质粒。
Epistasis (上位性)：指一个基因的表达会模糊另一个基因的表型效果。

医学文献指标的中英文术语对照

医学文献指标的中英文术语对照引言:医学文献是医学研究和临床实践中不可或缺的重要信息来源。

在阅读和理解医学文献时，掌握准确的中英文术语对照是十分必要的。

本文将介绍一些常见的医学文献指标的中英文术语对照，帮助读者更好地理解和应用这些指标。

一、Study Design (研究设计)1. 随机对照试验 (Randomized Controlled Trial, RCT)- 定义:将研究对象随机分为实验组和对照组，对比两组结果以评估干预措施的疗效- 示例: A randomized controlled trial of drug A on patients with hypertension2. 前瞻性队列研究 (Prospective Cohort Study)- 定义:在研究开始之前，根据暴露因素进行观察，随访研究对象并记录结果- 示例: A prospective cohort study of smoking and lung cancer risk3. 横断面研究 (Cross-sectional Study)- 定义:在某个特定时间点上收集数据，不考虑因果关系- 示例: A cross-sectional study of the prevalence of diabetes in a rural community二、Outcome Measures (研究终点指标)1. 死亡率 (Mortality Rate)- 定义:在一定时间内发生死亡的患者数与特定人群总数之比- 示例: The mortality rate of patients with heart failure after one year of follow-up2. 生存率 (Survival Rate)- 定义:在一定时间内生存下来的患者数与特定人群总数之比- 示例: The 5-year survival rate of breast cancer patients receiving chemotherapy3. 病情进展率 (Progression Rate)- 定义:患者疾病进展的速度或患病程度的评估指标- 示例: The progression rate of multiple sclerosis measured by MRI scans三、Statistical Analysis (统计分析)1. 方差分析 (Analysis of Variance, ANOVA)- 定义:用于比较多个组别差异的统计方法- 示例: One-way ANOVA was used to analyze the differences in blood pressure among different age groups2. 相关分析 (Correlation Analysis)- 定义:评估两个变量之间关系的统计方法- 示例: Pearson correlation analysis was performed to examine the association between BMI and blood glucose levels3. 生存分析 (Survival Analysis)- 定义:评估患者生存时间的统计方法，常用于研究肿瘤等疾病- 示例: Kaplan-Meier survival analysis was used to assess the overall survival rates of lung cancer patients四、Evidence Levels (证据级别)1. 临床实证 (Level of Evidence)- 定义:根据研究设计和方法的科学性和可靠性评估研究证据的质量- 示例: This meta-analysis provides high-level evidence for the efficacy of drug B in treating depression2. 系统综述及Meta分析 (Systematic Review and Meta-analysis)- 定义:对多个独立研究进行整体分析和结论汇总的研究方法- 示例: A systematic review and meta-analysis of the effectiveness of acupuncture for chronic pain management3. 专家共识 (Expert Consensus)- 定义:基于专家意见和经验形成的共识性陈述- 示例: The current guidelines are based on expert consensus and clinical experience结论:通过掌握医学文献指标中的中英文术语对照，读者能够更准确地理解和应用这些指标，在医学研究和临床实践中获得准确和可靠的信息支持。

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动脉粥样硬化所导致的心脑血管疾病是目前发病率和死亡率较高的疾病之一。

在动脉粥样硬化的形成过程中, 内皮细胞病变是其中极其重要的因素，最显著的变化是动脉内皮功能紊乱, 血管内皮细胞的损伤和功能改变是动脉粥样硬化发生的起始阶段。

Cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease caused by atherosclerosis is one of diseases with higher mortality and morbidity at present . In the formation of atherosclerosis, the endothelial cell lesion is one of the most important factors, in which, the most significant change is endothelial dysfunction. In addition, the injuries and the changes of vascular endothelial cells are the initial factors of atherosclerosis.
许多因素会导致血管内皮细胞受损, 主要包括脂多糖(Lipopolysaccharides , LPS)、炎症介质、氧自由基等。

其中脂多糖因其广泛的生物学作用, 越来越引起研究者的关注。

LPS 是一种炎症刺激物, 是革兰阴性杆菌细胞壁的主要组成成分，其通过刺激血管内皮细胞，引起其相关细胞因子和炎性因子的表达紊乱，尤其是Ca2+ 和活性氧簇(Reactive Oxygen Species , ROS的合成和释放发生改变诱导细胞氧化应激内环境紊乱。

大量研究表明, LPS 直接参与动脉粥样硬化的形成过程, 特别是动脉粥样硬化血管炎症的初始阶段, LPS可通过直接作用或间接影响的方式激活并损伤内皮细胞，从而引
起血管内皮细胞形态与功能的改变。

Many factors induce vascular endothelial cell damage, including lipopolysaccharides (LPS), inflammatory mediators and oxygen free
radical. Of which, LPS, due to its general biologic effects, is paid more and more attention from researchers. As a component of the outer membrane outer Gram-negative bacteria, LPS is an inflammatory stimulus, which induces disorder expression of apoptosis-related factors, by stimulating vascular endothelial cells, especially the releases of Ca2 And reactive oxygen species (ROS) induce oxidative stress in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) . Previous studies have indicated that LPS was directly involved in the process of atherosclerosis, especially in the initial stage of vascular inflammation, and damaged endothelial cells, causing the morphological and functional change of vascular endothelial cells.
线粒体是由内、外双层膜组成的重要细胞器，是细胞呼吸和氧化磷酸化的
主要场所，不仅为细胞的生命活动提供所需能量；而且线粒体结构功能受损与心血管疾病的发生密切相关。

线粒体在细胞中起着很多重要作用，它不仅通过氧化磷酸化为细胞提供能量，同时也是凋亡信号的调节器和放大
器。

线粒体途径在细胞凋亡中至关重要，是细胞不
可逆的进入凋亡程序的前兆
Mitochondria, composing of the inner membrane and outer membrane, is not only a crucial place for generating cellular energy by cellular respiration and oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHO), but also involved in the endothelial cells apoptotic progression of atherosclerosis. Mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis is an essential signaling, which is the
precursor of irreversible apoptosis 。

实验表明磷酸肌酸通过线粒体氧化磷酸化信号通路对抗LPS 诱导的HUVECS细胞起到重要的作用。

磷酸肌酸可以通过稳定细胞整体能量代谢、ATP合成酶和线粒体肌酸激酶(CKm)，尤其是对细胞线粒体呼吸链FAD途径的显著影响来对抗LPS诱导的HUVEC细胞凋亡，提示磷酸肌酸可能通
过保护内皮细胞功能对动脉粥样硬化或其他验证相关的心血管疾病起到治疗作用。

Our present study strongly suggests that PCr plays a vital role in LPS-induced HUVECs through mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation signaling pathway. PCr improves creatine shuttle of HUVECs through directly enhanced ATP synthase and mitochondrial creatine kinase, and reactived FADH2pathway in mitochondrial respiration chain. Our work provides newinsight for the noval antiapoptotic effects of PCr in endothelial cells,
which may give a pharmacological basis for the clinical application of PCr for treatment of atherosclerosis or other inflammationrelated cardiovascular diseases which is related to endothelial cell apoptosis.。