工程管理工程造价中英文对照外文翻译文献
外文翻译----工程造价管理浅论
the stage of the project cost managementAbstract：Project cost management is the basic contents to determine reasonable and effective control of the project cost. Described the current stage of the project cost management situation on the strengthening of the various stages of construction cost management of the importance of and raised a number of key initiatives.Keywords：project cost；the current stage of the project；project cost management；Even under the WTO and China's accession to the world community，China's construction industry how to effectively control construction cost of the construction and management of an important component part. However，the current budget for the construction projects - estimate，budget，Super budget accounts for the "super three" is still widespread and that eventually led to a serious loss of control of project investment. Project cost management is the basic contents to determine reasonable and effective control of the project cost.As the project cost to the project runs through the entire process，stage by stage can be divided into Investment Decision stage，the design and implementation phases. The so-called Project Cost effective control is the optimization of the construction plans and design programs on the basis of in the building process at all stages，use of certain methods and measures to reduce the cost of the projects have a reasonable control on the scope and cost of the approved limits.Engineering and cost management work of the current status of project cost management system was formed in the 1950s，1980s perfect together. Performance of the country and directly involved in the management of economic activities. Provisions in the design stage to different estimates or budget preparation as well as government; Nothing relevant departments to formulate a budget，content，methods and approval，the budget will provide the fixed cost of equipment and materials and fixed price of the budget preparation，approval，management authority，and so on.With the historical process，after recovery，reform and development，formed a relatively complete budget estimate of quota management system. However，as the socialist market economic development，the system's many problems have also exposed. Generally speaking，the budget estimate is based on direct participation in the management of national economic activity as a precondition. Enterprise is not the actual economic entities. Due to the characteristics of the planned economy，and，at the time under the conditions of productivity，will inevitably become a shortage in the economy.In severe shortage of commodities under the conditions，as long as a certain level of investment，will be certain outputs. In this environment，the project planning and technical argumentation there can be no economic analysis. State control of the project cost constitute key factors equipment and materials prices，wages and taxes of artificial distribution. In this relatively stable economic environment，the budget estimate for the system approved project cost，help the government to carry out investment plans to play a major role.As the socialist market economic system established，requires us to predict project investment and control. In recent years，international investment project developed to the requirements of prior pre-control and in the middle of control. China，the traditional practice in an objective light onthe cause decision-making，implementation heavy，light the economy and technology，First，the consequences of victimization，Due to the technical personnel of the project technical and economic concepts and a weak awareness of cost control，cost management makes the quality difficult to raise. Project Cost control is difficult to achieve long-term goals.Second，the various stages of the project management view of the above circumstances，My first academia in the 1980s made the whole process of cost management and control concept，building departments will study the feasibility of projects and the budgets and final accounts to two extended at the request of the corresponding regulations put our cost management concepts and methods referred to a new height.Our task now is to be modern and cost management in line with China's national conditions of the market economy system goal，learn from the advanced experience of the developed countries，and establish sound market economic laws of project cost management system，efforts to increase the project cost levels. An investment decision-making phase of the project cost management construction project investment decision-making stage is proposed project proposals; conduct a feasibility study to determine investment estimation and the final preparation of design task. At this stage，the project's technical and economic decision-making，of the construction project cost of the project after the completion of the economic benefits have a decisive influence，The construction cost is an important stage control.China's current stage of the project cost for the project management for the purpose of clearing price，and focusing only on the construction process of cost control，neglected before the start of the project investment decision-making stage of cost control. Investment decision-making phase of investment projects is estimated an important basis for decision-making. Ithas a direct impact on national economic and financial analysis of the results of the reliability and accuracy. Because of this phase is the preliminary work of projects，the information cannot be fully，comparable works more or less that information accumulated relatively small，estimated inadequate and unscientific. Makes project cost management and cost workers is difficult at this stage do something.The various stages of the project cost control in the decision-making phase project cost control. Right project planning phase of the cost，many owners have the wrong understanding that the lower the cost the better. Cost control is not a unilateral issue，and should be a number of factors，a combination of practical，comprehensive consideration. The construction project investment decision-making stage，the project's technical and economic decision-making，Cost of the project after the completion of the project and the economic benefits，with a decisive role in project cost control is an important stage，rationally define and control the direction of the project cost of accurate positioning and building Optimization guiding role.In the decision-making phase of the most important is to do a good job feasibility study，the work is done well，returns on investment and can form a good proportion. Otherwise，invest more，less effective，resulting in loss of control and waste of investment.At present，some of the projects planned the owners of departure from the subjective desires of a feasibility study on the lack of scientific proof. Feasibility Study untrue，false or engineering functions obtaining the approval of their superiors，actually put into the feasibility study will be awarded in the study for the project after the smooth functioning buried a lot of hidden problems，lead to insufficient follow-up funds for the project andhad to extend the time limit so that the project could not have planned the use of cost-effective，even become hopeless completion of the beard works.Therefore，in order to phase in the investment decision-making effectively control construction costs，we must do the following aspects: Implementationof the construction project and corporate accountability，Construction of the project from planning to implementation of the entire process and the use of the funds to repay responsibilities to the people. in addition to establishing a legal system and the project supervision matching mechanism by the departments in charge of the industry and supervision departments for setting up a monitoring group to oversee the use of funds.A realistic approach to market analysis，to avoid the blindness of the project decision-making，reduces and reduces investment risk. Fully consider building projects in the future market competitiveness，design task more scientific and reliability.Capital financing must have a formal commitment document，the parties must do investment funds in place，and funds must have documents to ensure that the project can be approved after the scheduled implementation. To the various loan conditions should be carefully analyzed to minimize the burden of interest and repayment pressure.To strengthen the engineering geology，hydrology，geology and land，water，electricity，transport，environmental projects such as external conditions for the work of depth to make the investment estimate there are sufficient grounds.Taking extensive investigation and research，comparison of similar projects，seriously functional analysis，multi-program comparison and choice. After full technical appraisal and economic evaluation，and the final technologically advanced，functional and reliable. Reasonable economic projects，thus calculate a more accurate and realistic estimation of theamount of investment，so that the project cost from the start positioning in a more reasonable level.The design phase of the project cost control for a long time，China's building control very effective，- investment projects is not uncommon，this will affect owners of investment returns，it adds to the owners and within budget，as well as difficulties in fund owners，the impact on the future management or the owners make payments in arrears，and so on. Hence，the control of the project cost is of great significance，however the project cost is the primary means of control design，Currently most of the property owners in the design stage seldom works on cost control，and they found that the cost of the design will not have a great impact，it is wrong，on the contrary，Design phase of the project cost control is the most important step. Because it determines engineering design，construction methods，materials and equipment types，models of the project cost is of critical significance，design optimization phase of the program or minor changes，project cost will have a significant impact，Design phase of the project cost control of the total project cost of 70%. Following is how to control the project from design to create the Law: As the owners must design，the design selected on the quality level is a direct impact on the quality of product design level，and the design quality products in the level of direct influence on the pricing of the works. Different design units on the same project design are different. the same item of different design institute works between certain aspects of the project cost on the existence of differences between，We assume that with a design from two different design institute to design，Construction plans after the completion of a requested advisory unit cost to do the budget，certainly different design institute the total cost of the project is absolutely not the same，and most of the difference between the two over 10% even more than30%，and not necessarily high cost than the design of low cost，and good design is often low cost，We all know that different people have different design styles and different levels，the design works naturally，therefore chosen to design units is the control on the first step. Through tender to select the design of the units is a good method，the tender documents to elaborate on this particular aspect of the requirements，cost control targets，and so on.Otherwise，in the subsequent design process design units will put an increase in the cost of the design requirements; through tendering the project design into the market，compared to select the best design units.Promoting the design bidding and design optimization campaign mode design units assessed by experts using scientific group France，in accordance with applicable，economic，aesthetic principles and advanced technology，reasonable structure to meet building energy efficiency and environmental requirements，comprehensive assessment of the merits of the program design，selection of the best determination of the successful program.Successful investment program estimated to be close to the general construction project scope of investment. This means two design contracts will help design the program of choice and competition to ensure that the selected design advanced technology，unique novelty，adaptability，as well as to control the cost of the project. Design units should strive to improve their quality of the project design clever idea，contemporary reducing the project cost on to rack their brains to improve design quality，strive to put the design phase of the project cost control approval of the investment ceiling.Strengthening the design stage of the design phase to strengthen supervision of the Commissioner to determine a reasonable design，maturetechnology，reduction in the construction phase major design changes and changes in the program，in the effective control of the project cost will play a role. 1 to the design of the project if the project supervision to get involved，excluding unfavorable factors may generally is excluded from the 80% errors. In the entire process of building cost control，construction began at best to save and invest 20%，the key lies in the construction phase of the identification and control costs. Supervision of the design phase include : Design Institute under the design drawings and notes help owners deal with different design options for the economy，capital expenditure to develop the preliminary estimates，to ensure that the investment can be most effectively utilized. With the owners of the Commissioner include:According to the Design Institute to provide design drawings and notes to help owners deal with different design options for the economy，capital expenditures to develop the preliminary plan to ensure that investment can be most effectively used; with the owners of different design options，the need to calculate their own materials and equipment to conduct a cost analysis and study，to the design staff costs，to assist them in the investment limit within limits designed to save and invest. To seek a one-time small investment and economic good design program made the most rational economic indicators.Design actively promote the so-called cap limit design，even with the approval of the design task and investment estimates，guarantee the functional requirements of the premise. The preliminary design and control budget，according to the preliminary approval of the total budget for the design and construction design control. Limits，and every one professional，each of whom have a design threshold of a target. In the design process，designers should progress to more programs，design optimization，ensuring that the design is technically advanced and reasonable，innovative，stylish，and do not break the limit investment objectives，thus eliminating theengineering design raise the factor of safety and design standards，or only consider the technical feasibility of the program，rather than economic rationality phenomenon，the project cost to ensure effective control.Also known as the value of value engineering analysis，is a modern scientific management technique，is a new techno-economic analysis，is the product of functional analysis to conserve resources and reduce the cost of the purpose of an effective method. It made up for the traditional cost management simply focus on cost reduction and quality management only emphasizes improving the quality deficiencies，construction is conducive to resolving the long-standing long period，a lot of wastage，poor quality，high-cost problems. Value Engineering laws generally divided into three steps: assessment of the design of object technology and economic Score; Calculation of the target group of technical and economic indicators; calculate the geometric design of the object，on average; From comparison choose the best design.Construction phase of the project implementation unit construction cost management to control the cost of the project is reasonable in the project to meet quality standards premise，in the investment decision-making stage，the design phase and construction phase of the project put the project approval occurred in the control limits，strive in various construction projects rational use of human，material and financial resources to achieve good investment returns and social benefits.The project cost control and management is a dynamic process. The dynamic market economy，to make the investment in the identification and control become more complex，this will require the construction units to the management of project cost to the project runs through the entire process，it is necessary to have a comprehensive focus. The implementation phase of the projects. The implementation phase of the project cost management is theimplementation of the entire process of project management. Project implementation phase of the project cost management can be divided into three parts: the tender management，construction management and settlement management.Bidding for the construction phase of the construction units Bidding system control engineering cost effective means，bid organization can improve the cost-effectiveness of construction projects and ensure the quality of construction projects，shortening the construction cycle return on the investment，construction units can take full advantage of bidding for the effective means of cost control.Construction No. 10 on the 7th ministerial decree issued a "contract with the Construction Contract Pricing Management." clearly pointed out in bidding for projects using inventories. This requires the building of units conducting the tender exercise，in the tender document to include not only the usual content，like tender notes before schedule，tender notes，the conditions of the contract，the contract terms of the agreement，contract format，technical specifications，drawings，tender documents and other reference format，it is also necessary to provide the engineering inventory，Bidding as a reference document of the important components.Construction units in the tender document for the project inventory，in accordance with state or local rules promulgated by the calculation that the reunification of the divided projects，unified measurement units and the reunification of the engineering calculation rules，according to design drawings to be calculated and statistical arranged，obtain the list. Quantities to be followed in the preparation of an objective，impartial，scientific，and rational principle. Compilers must have strong manly budget，and should have certain knowledge of the engineering design and construction experience，and the material and mechanical construction technology forcomprehensive scientific knowledge，in order to calculate the volume of the works without heavy missed. The basis of which must be in accordance with state regulations engineering calculation rules，and the sub-projects division engineering units，and in accordance with design drawings，design essential Love tender documentation requirements are calculated.Quantities of the project should have a testing general，the entries must be simple，while not appear Lousing wrong items Pricing should guarantee the correctness of the project. Should the requirements of the different grades separate engineering division，the situation was different; We may have different prices for the items separately. This requires the preparation of the list compilers，seriously study design drawings，Analysis of the tender documents include the elements of the work and the different technical requirements，all familiar with the process，and to the scene of serious investigation，is forecast to make possible the construction of the case，right will have an impact on the Price of projects to be broken down. In addition，because the project inventories to calculate the amount of the project is not complete engineering and consider the interests of the construction units，clearly paying the price for the same overall price，the quantity list by the number of actual construction is a practical terms.In the evaluation and review of the tender offer should do the units total individual Price quotations and the comprehensive assessment. Price does not meet the requirements of individual shows Price meets the requirements，and the lowest total Price could not explain the single lowest bidder. Bidders often know the total cost to maintain the same circumstances; the project is likely to change smaller projects to lower the price.Changes may be larger projects price increases to achieve the completion of clearing works will be added for the purpose. We would also do price and the corresponding quantity of comprehensive engineeringassessment of the large volume of projects to focus on the price analysis. Price will do with the contents of the work，construction program，a comprehensive technical evaluation process，thereby preferred choice of a construction unit. Construction of the construction phase of the contract cost control basis. Signed tight construction contract，while strengthening the construction contract management can guarantee that the contract price is reasonable，legitimacy and reduce the performance of the contract A，B in disputes and safeguard the interests of both the contract，effective control of the works investment costs.After the signing of the contract，to do the management contract documentation，contract and the supplementary contract agreement until the regular meeting site in minutes. Work contacts such as a single content of a contract extension and explained that the integrity must be preserved，in addition to establishing a technical files，Implementation of the contract for dynamic analysis，results of the analysis to take proactive measures.Construction phase in the construction phase construction plan is based on the budget or Ken works contract price of the target，Ken control the cost of the project. At this stage of conservation has room for a small，but the possibility of waste is great. Thereby to control the cost of the project to give sufficient attention.Construction program to strengthen the comparative technical and economic construction program is construction design of a re - to the contents of the work，a reasonable construction plan，shorten the construction period and ensure the quality of the project，improving economic efficiency，Construction of the program right from the technical and economic evaluation were compared，through qualitative and quantitative analysis，the quality，time，Cost three technical and economic indicators，be rational，and effective use of manpower，material and financial resources，achieve better economic efficiency，good construction management relations，a comprehensive cost management is an important way.Strictly related changes to the project budget control in the proposed budget. Construction of the changes caused by many reasons，including works poorly designed，so that the engineering contract with the drawings provided inconsistent; The current market supply of materials does not meet the standard specifications of the design requirements. These issues have to leave breadwinner project cost factors. Therefore，in the construction process，we must tighten customs change，through no design changes to expand the scale and improve the design standards; increase the construction and contents，the best implementation of the "grade control，visa quota" system. Right to change the design，particularly as it relates to the cost of the design changes must be approved by the design units，construction units scene representatives，supervision engineers common signature，and should be ahead of this type of change，reduce losses，because it has been completed or partially completed project will entail the demolition of the contents，it is bound to cause major changes to the loss. Therefore，the construction units should be assigned to the project cost management professionals Permanent construction site，to grasp at any time. Control project cost of the changes.Works on the scene visa formalities through strict control of the construction project supervision system，the establishment of specialized departments，Professional use of the professional management of projects and to avoid project management personnel just visas，not economic account of the phenomenon. Investment out of control caused serious consequences. To serious change visa procedures to be taken to the building，Supervisor，the construction site together representatives signed the way toensure that change，visa authenticity，legitimacy，economic and avoid fraud and the resulting phenomena arising from the dispute.In the course of construction，the construction units to enhance on-site construction management，supervision and construction side according to the drawings，and strictly control the change of the negotiations，materials substitution，the scene visas，and various additional extra budgetary labor costs for the necessary changes should be done first afterwards，after money，Change event on the timely change in the calculation of the workload and the cost of change occurred to grasp at any time cost of the project level，things to avoid a backlog of work that the true cost of the project.Construction unit representatives to the scene to supervise doing a good job record，particularly concealed records and visas，reduce clearing the passing phenomenon. Many works visa scene is not as serious，works to bring a very large settlement of the trouble，lead to considerable economic losses，the scene strict visa management of the construction phase of the project cost control key.Of project list rigorous review of the project on the review of inventories，Engineers’ monitor list of measures to control the project. BOQ to provide the list of measures is to complete construction projects，occurred in the pre-construction engineering and construction process technology，life and safety aspects of non-engineering projects entities. At this stage because many projects are in construction plans and the construction site of the imperfections on the tender wait until the construction tender of the project design and actual scene have better access. Management Engineer addresses the gathering first-hand information on the original，itemized checking identification，inconsistent make revisions.Control material consumption，rationally define material prices. Cost of the project control materials price control is the main，the cost of materials in engineering often holds substantial proportion，usually accounts for the estimated costs of 70%，representing the direct costs of 80%. It is necessary in the construction phase in strict accordance with the contract amount of material control; material set reasonable prices，so as to effectively control the cost of the project. Market economy material supply a variety of channels，variety and price range materials，construction unit budget management and field personnel should pay close attention to market rates，with the progress of the scene，the market，hand in the construction of the information and materials for the completion of the accounts provide a strong basis.Technology and economic integration，strengthening investment control. Effective control of the investment，from organizational，technical，economic，contracts，and other measures. Therefore，the construction units must strengthen management，engineering and technical personnel of the "economy" concept，the quality of education，Training pragmatic working style，the construction side to help improve construction design，reasonable security，financial，and material resources. Accelerate the pace of work to improve the quality of the projects. Construction should encounter problems in a timely manner with the designer linked to choose both economic and scientific potential solutions，overcome the waste caused by command，to give due attention to the importance of investment in conservation，is responsible for the engineering technician with the combination of economic officers from the tender，contract negotiations，costing the budget，signed paid to the progress of the completion of the accounts，a cost analysis，the whole process management and strictly control the cost of the project.。
工程造价中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照翻译Risk Analysis of the International Construction ProjectABSTRACTThis analysis used a case study methodology to analyse the issues surrounding the partial collapse of the roof of a building housing the headquarters of the Standards Association of Zimbabwe (SAZ). In particular, it examined the prior roles played by the team of construction professionals. The analysis revealed that the SAZ‟s traditional construction project was generally characterized by high risk. There was a clear indication of the failure of a contractor and architects in preventing and/or mitigating potential construction problems as alleged by the plaintiff. It was reasonable to conclude that between them the defects should have been detected earlier and rectified in good time before the partial roof failure. It appeared justified for the plaintiff to have brought a negligence claim against both the contractor and the architects. The risk analysis facilitated, through its multi-dimensional approach to a critical examination of a construction problem, the identification of an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. It further served to emphasize the point that clients are becoming more demanding, more discerning, and less willing to accept risk without recompense. Clients do not want surprise, and are more likely to engage in litigation when things go wrong.KEY WORDS:Arbitration, claims, construction, contracts, litigation, project and risk The structural design of the reinforced concrete elements was done by consulting engineers Knight Piesold (KP). Quantity surveying services were provided by Hawkins, Leshnick & Bath (HLB). The contract was awarded to Central African Building Corporation (CABCO) who was also responsible for the provision of a specialist roof structure using patented “gang nail” roof trusses. The building construction proceeded to completion and was handed over to the owners on Sept. 12, 1991. The SAZ took effective occupation of the headquarters building without a certificate of occupation. Also, the defects liability period was only three months .The roof structure was in place 10 years before partial failure in December 1999. The building insurance coverage did not cover enough, the City of Harare, a government municipality, issued the certificate of occupation 10 years after occupation, and after partial collapse of the roof .At first the SAZ decided to go to arbitration, but this failed to yield an immediate solution. The SAZ then decided to proceed to litigate in court and to bring a negligence claim against CABCO. The preparation for arbitration was reused for litigation. The SAZ‟s quantified losses stood at approximately $ 6 million in Zimbabwe dollars (US $1.2m) .After all parties had examined the facts and evidence before them, it became clear that there was a great probability that the courts might rule that both the architects and the contractor were liable. It was at this stage that the defendants‟ lawyers requested that the matter be settled out of court. The plaintiff agreed to this suggestion, with the terms of the settlement kept confidential .The aim of this critical analysis was to analyse the issues surrounding the partial collapse of the roof of the building housing the HQ of Standard Association of Zimbabwe. It examined the prior roles played by the project management function and construction professionals in preventing/mitigating potential construction problems. It further assessed the extent to which the employer/client and parties to a construction contract are able to recover damages under that contract. The main objective of this critical analysis was to identify an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. The importance of this study is its multidimensional examination approach.Experience suggests that participants in a project are well able to identify risks based on their own experience. The adoption of a risk management approach, based solely in past experience and dependant on judgement, may work reasonably well in a stable low risk environment. It is unlikely to be effective where there is a change. This is because change requires the extrapolation of past experience, which could be misleading. All construction projects are prototypes to some extent and imply change. Change in the construction industry itself suggests that past experience is unlikely tobe sufficient on its own. A structured approach is required. Such a structure can not and must not replace the experience and expertise of the participant. Rather, it brings additional benefits that assist to clarify objectives, identify the nature of the uncertainties, introduces effective communication systems, improves decision-making, introduces effective risk control measures, protects the project objectives and provides knowledge of the risk history .Construction professionals need to know how to balance the contingencies of risk with their specific contractual, financial, operational and organizational requirements. Many construction professionals look at risks in dividually with a myopic lens and do not realize the potential impact that other associated risks may have on their business operations. Using a holistic risk management approach will enable a firm to identify all of the organization‟s business risks. This will increas e the probability of risk mitigation, with the ultimate goal of total risk elimination .Recommended key construction and risk management strategies for future construction projects have been considered and their explanation follows. J.W. Hinchey stated th at there is and can be no …best practice‟ standard for risk allocation on a high-profile project or for that matter, any project. He said, instead, successful risk management is a mind-set and a process. According to Hinchey, the ideal mind-set is for the parties and their representatives to, first, be intentional about identifying project risks and then to proceed to develop a systematic and comprehensive process for avoiding, mitigating, managing and finally allocating, by contract, those risks in optimum ways for the particular project. This process is said to necessarily begin as a science and ends as an art .According to D. Atkinson, whether contractor, consultant or promoter, the right team needs to be assembled with the relevant multi-disciplinary experience of that particular type of project and its location. This is said to be necessary not only to allow alternative responses to be explored. But also to ensure that the right questions are asked and the major risks identified. Heads of sources of risk are said to be a convenient way of providing a structure for identifying risks to completion of a participant‟s part of the project. Effective risk management is said to require amulti-disciplinary approach. Inevitably risk management requires examination of engineering, legal and insurance related solutions .It is stated that the use of analytical techniques based on a statistical approach could be of enormous use in decision making . Many of these techniques are said to be relevant to estimation of the consequences of risk events, and not how allocation of risk is to be achieved. In addition, at the present stage of the development of risk management, Atkinson states that it must be recognized that major decisions will be made that can not be based solely on mathematical analysis. The complexity of construction projects means that the project definition in terms of both physical form and organizational structure will be based on consideration of only a relatively small number of risks . This is said to then allow a general structured approach that can be applied to any construction project to increase the awareness of participants .The new, simplified Construction Design and Management Regulations (CDM Regulations) which came in to force in the UK in April 2007, revised and brought together the existing CDM 1994 and the Construction Health Safety and Welfare (CHSW) Regulations 1996, into a single regulatory package.The new CDM regulations offer an opportunity for a step change in health and safety performance and are used to reemphasize the health, safety and broader business benefits of a well-managed and co-ordinated approach to the management of health and safety in construction. I believe that the development of these skills is imperative to provide the client with the most effective services available, delivering the best value project possible.Construction Management at Risk (CM at Risk), similar to established private sector methods of construction contracting, is gaining popularity in the public sector. It is a process that allows a client to select a construction manager (CM) based on qualifications; make the CM a member of a collaborative project team; centralize responsibility for construction under a single contract; obtain a bonded guaranteed maximum price; produce a more manageable, predictable project; save time and money; and reduce risk for the client, the architect and the CM.CM at Risk, a more professional approach to construction, is taking its place along with design-build, bridging and the more traditional process of design-bid-build as an established method of project delivery.The AE can review the CM‟s approach to the work, making helpful recommendations. The CM is allowed to take bids or proposals from subcontractors during completion of contract documents, prior to the guaranteed maximum price (GMP), which reduces the CM‟s risk and provides useful input to design. The procedure is more methodical, manageable, predictable and less risky for all.The procurement of construction is also more business-like. Each trade contractor has a fair shot at being the low bidder without fear of bid shopping. Each must deliver the best to get the projec. Competition in the community is more equitable: all subcontractors have a fair shot at the work .A contingency within the GMP covers unexpected but justifiable costs, and a contingency above the GMP allows for client changes. As long as the subcontractors are within the GMP they are reimbursed to the CM, so the CM represents the client in negotiating inevitable changes with subcontractors.There can be similar problems where each party in a project is separately insured. For this reason a move towards project insurance is recommended. The traditional approach reinforces adversarial attitudes, and even provides incentives for people to overlook or conceal risks in an attempt to avoid or transfer responsibility.A contingency within the GMP covers unexpected but justifiable costs, and a contingency above the GMP allows for client changes. As long as the subcontractors are within the GMP they are reimbursed to the CM, so the CM represents the client in negotiating inevitable changes with subcontractors.There can be similar problems where each party in a project is separately insured. For this reason a move towards project insurance is recommended. The traditional approach reinforces adversarial attitudes, and even provides incentives for people to overlook or conceal risks in an attempt to avoid or transfer responsibility.It was reasonable to assume that between them the defects should have been detected earlier and rectified in good time before the partial roof failure. It did appearjustified for the plaintiff to have brought a negligence claim against both the contractor and the architects.In many projects clients do not understand the importance of their role in facilitating cooperation and coordination; the design is prepared without discussion between designers, manufacturers, suppliers and contractors. This means that the designer can not ta ke advantage of suppliers‟ or contractors‟ knowledge of build ability or maintenance requirements and the impact these have on sustainability, the total cost of ownership or health and safety .This risk analysis was able to facilitate, through its multi-dimensional approach to a critical examination of a construction problem, the identification of an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. This work also served to emphasize the point that clients are becoming more demanding, more discerning, and less willing to accept risk without recompense. They do not want surprises, and are more likely to engage in litigation when things go wrong.国际建设工程风险分析摘要此次分析用实例研究方法分析津巴布韦标准协会总部（SAZ）的屋顶部分坍塌的问题。
工程造价专业外文文献翻译(中英文对照
外文文献：Project Cost Control: The Way it WorksBy R. Max WidemanIn a recent consulting assignment we realized that there was some lack of understanding of the whole system of project cost control, how it is setup and applied. So we decided to write up a description of how it works. Project cost control is not that difficult to follow in theory.First you establish a set of reference baselines. Then, as work progresses, you monitor the work, analyze the findings, forecast the end results and compare those with the reference baselines. If the end results are not satisfactory then you make adjustments as necessary to the work in progress, and repeat the cycle at suitable intervals. If the end results get really out of line with the baseline plan, you may have to change the plan. More likely, there will be (or have been) scope changes that change the reference baselines which means that every time that happens you have to change the baseline plan anyway.But project cost control is a lot more difficult to do in practice, as is evidenced by the number of projects that fail to contain costs. It also involves a significant amount of work, as we shall see, and we might as well start at the beginning. So let us follow the thread of project cost control through the entire project life span.And, while we are at it, we will take the opportunity to point out the proper places for several significant documents. These include theBusiness Case, the Request for (a capital) Appropriation (for execution), Work Packages and the Work Breakdown Structure, the Project Charter (or Brief), the Project Budget or Cost Plan, Earned Value and the Cost Baseline. All of these contribute to the organization's ability to effectively control project costs.FootnoteI am indebted to my friend Quentin Fleming, the guru of Earned Value, for checking and correcting my work on this topic.The Business Case and Application for (execution) FundingIt is important to note that project cost control is most effective when the executive management responsible has a good understanding of how projects should unfold through the project life span. This means that they exercise their responsibilities at the key decision points between the major phases. They must also recognize the importance of project risk management for identifying and planning to head off at least the most obvious potential risk events.In the project's Concept Phase• EvEry projEct starts with somEonE idEntifying an opportunity or need. That is usually someone of importance or influence, if the project is to proceed, and that person often becomes the project's sponsor.• to dEtErminE thE suitability of thE potEntial projEct, most organizations call for the preparation of a "Business Case" and its"Order of Magnitude" cost to justify the value of the project so that it can be compared with all the other competing projects. This effort is conducted in the Concept Phase of the project and is done as a part of the organization's management of the entire project portfolio.• thE cost of thE work of preparing the Business Case is usually covered by corporate management overhead, but it may be carried forward as an accounting cost to the eventual project. No doubt because this will provide a tax benefit to the organization. The problem is, how do you then account for all the projects that are not so carried forward?• if thE businEss casE has sufficiEnt mErit, approval will bE givEn to proceed to a Development and Definition phase.In the project's Development or Definition Phase• thE objEctivE of t he Development Phase is to establish a good understanding of the work involved to produce the required product, estimate the cost and seek capital funding for the actual execution of the project.• in a formalizEd sEtting, EspEcially whErE big projEcts arE involved, this application for funding is often referred to as a Request for (a capital) Appropriation (RFA) or Capital Appropriation Request (CAR).• this rEquirEs thE collEction of morE dEtailEd rEquirEmEnts and data to establish what work needsto be done to produce the required product or "deliverable". From this information, a plan is prepared in sufficient detail to give adequate confidence in a dollar figure to be included in the request.• in a lEss formalizEd sEtting, EvEryonE just triEs to muddlE through.Work Packages and the WBSThe Project Management Plan, Project Brief or Project Charter• if thE dElivErablE consists of a numbEr of diffErEnt ElEmEnts, thEsE are identified and assembled into Work Packages (WPs) and presented in the form of a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS).• Each wp involvEs a sEt of activitiEs, thE "work" that is plannEd and scheduled as a part of the Project Management Plan. Note, however, that the planning will still be at a relatively high level,and more detailed planning will be necessary during execution if the project is given the go ahead.• this projEct managEmEnt plan, by thE way, should bEcomE thE "bible" for the execution phase of the project and is sometimes referred to as the "Project Brief" or the "Project Charter".• thE cost of doing thE various activitiEs is thEn EstimatEd and thEsE estimated costs are aggregated to determine the estimated cost of the WP. This approach is known as "detailed estimating" or "bottom up estimating". There are other approaches to estimating that we'll come to in a minute. Either way, the result is an estimated cost of the totalwork of the project.Note: that project risk management planning is an important part of this exercise. This should examine the project's assumptions and environmental conditions to identify any weaknesses in the plan thus far, and identify those potential risk events that warrant attention for mitigation. This might take the form of specific contingency planning, and/or the setting aside of prudent funding reserves.Request for capitalConverting the estimate• howEvEr, an EstimatE of thE work alonE is not sufficiEnt for a capital request. To arrive at a capital request some conversion is necessary, for example, by adding prudent allowances such as overheads, a contingency allowance to cover normal project risks and management reserves to cover unknowns and possible scope changes.• in addition, it may bE nEcEssary to convErt thE Estimating data into a financial accounting formatthat satisfies the corporate or sponsor's format for purposes of comparison with other projects and consequent funding approval.• in practicE all thE data for thE typE of "bottom up" approach just described may not be available.In this case alternative estimating approaches are adopted that provide various degrees of reliability in a "top down" fashion. Forexample:Order of Magnitude estimate – a "ball park" estimate, usually reserved for the concept phase onlyAnalogous estimate – an estimate based on previous similar projects Parametric estimate –an estimate based on statistical relationships in historical data• whichEvEr approach is adoptEd, hopEfully thE sum thus arrivEd at will be approved in full and proves to be satisfactory! This is the trigger to start the Execution Phase of the projectNote: Some managements will approve some lesser sum in the mistaken belief that this will help everyone to "sharpen their pencils" and "work smarter" for the benefit of the organization. This is a mistaken belief because management has failed to understand the nature of uncertainty and risk in project work. Consequently, the effect is more likely to result in "corner cutting" with an adverse effect on product quality, or reduced product scope or functionality. This often leads to a "game" in which estimates are inflated so that management can adjust them downwards. But to be fair, management is also well aware that if money is over allocated, it will get spent anyway. The smart thing for managements to do is to set aside contingent reserve funds, varying with the riskiness of the project, and keep that money under careful control.Ownership of approved capital• if sEnior managEmEnt approvEs thE rfa as prEsEntEd, thE sum in question becomes the responsibility of the designated project sponsor. However, if the approved capital request includes allowances such as a "Management Reserve", this may or may not be passed on to the project's sponsor, depending on the policies of the organization.• for thE approvEd rfa, thE projEct sponsor will, in turn, further delegate expenditure authority to the project's project manager and will likely not include any of the allowances. An exception might be the contingency allowances to cover the normal variations in work performance.• thE nEt sum thus arrivEd at constitutes the project manager's Approved Project Budget.Note: If management does not approve the RFA, you should not consider this a project failure. Either the goals, objectives, justification and planning need rethinking to increase the value of the project's deliverables, or senior management simply has higher priorities elsewhere for the available resources and funding.The Project's Execution PhaseThe project manager's Project Budget responsibility• oncE this approvEd projEct budgEt is rElEas ed to the project manager, a reverse process must take place to convert it into a working control document. That is, the money available must be divided amongstthe various WBS WPs that, by the way, have probably by now been upgraded! This results in a project execution Control Budget or Project Baseline Budget, or simply, the Project Budget. In some areas of project management application it is referred to as a Project Cost Plan.• on a largE projEct whErE diffErEnt corporatE production divisions are involved, there may be a further intermediate step of creating "Control Accounts" for the separate divisions, so that each division subdivides their allocated money into their own WBS WPs.• obsErvE that, sincE thE total projEct budgEt rEcEivEd formal approval from Executive Management, you, as project manager, must likewise seek and obtain from Executive Management, via the project's sponsor, formal approval for any changes to the total project budget. Often this is only justified and accepted on the basis of a requested Product Scope Change.• in such a casE thE projEct's sponsor will EithEr draw down on thE management reserve in his or her possession, or submit a supplementary RFA to upper management.• now that wE havE thE projEct budgEt monEy allocatEd to Work Packages we can further distribute it amongst the various activities of each WP so that we know how much money we have as a "Baseline" cost for each activity.• this providEs us with thE basE of rEfErEncE for thE cost controlfunction. Of course, depending on the circumstances the same thing may be done at the WP level but the ability to control is then at a higher and coarser level.Use of the Earned Value technique• if wE havE thE nEcEssary dEtails anothEr control tool that wE can adopt for monitoring ongoing work is the "Earned Value" (EV) technique. This is a considerable art and science that you must learn about from texts dedicated to the subject.• but EssEntially, you takE thE costs of thE schEdulE activitiEs and plot them as a cumulative total on the appropriate time base. Again you can do this at the activity level, WP level or the whole project level. The lower the level the more control information you have available but the more work you get involved in.The Cost Baseline• this plannEd reference S-curve is sometimes referred to as the "Cost Baseline", typically in EVparlance. That is, it is the "Budgeted Cost of Work Scheduled" (BCWS), or more simply the "Planned Value" (PV).• Observe that you need to modify this Cost Baseline every time there is an approved scope change that has cost and/or schedule implications and consequently changes the project's Approved Project Budget.• now, as thE work progrEssEs, you can plot thE "actual cost of workPerformed" (ACWP or simply "Actual Cost" - AC).• you can plot othEr things as wEll, sEE diagram rEfErrEd to abovE, and if you don't like what you see then you need to take "Corrective Action".CommentaryThis whole process is a cyclic, situational operation and is probably the source of the term "cycle" in the popularly misnamed "project life cycle".As an aside, the Earned Value pundits offer various other techniques within the EV process designed to aid in forecasting the final result, that is, the "Estimate At Completion" (EAC). EAC is what you should really be interested in because it is the only constant in a moving project. Therefore, these extended EV techniques must be considered in the same realm of accuracy as top-down estimating. They are useful, but only if you recognize the limitations and know what you are doing!But, as we said at the beginning, it is a lot more difficult to do in practice –and involves a significant amount of work. But, let's face it, that's what project managers are hired for, right?中文译文：项目成本控制：它的工作方式R.马克斯怀德曼我们在最近的咨询任务中意识到，对于整个项目成本控制体系是如何设置和应用的这个问题，我们仍有一些缺乏了解。
外文翻译-工程造价管理浅论(中英文对照)
the stage of the project cost managementAbstract：Project cost management is the basic contents to determine reasonable and effective control of the project cost. Described the current stage of the project cost management situation on the strengthening of the various stages of construction cost management of the importance of and raised a number of key initiatives.Keywords：project cost；the current stage of the project；project cost management；Even under the WTO and China's accession to the world community，China's construction industry how to effectively control construction cost of the construction and management of an important component part. However，the current budget for the construction projects - estimate，budget，Super budget accounts for the "super three" is still widespread and that eventually led to a serious loss of control of project investment. Project cost management is the basic contents to determine reasonable and effective control of the project cost.As the project cost to the project runs through the entire process，stage by stage can be divided into Investment Decision stage，the design and implementation phases. The so-called Project Cost effective control is the optimization of the construction plans and design programs on the basis of in the building process at all stages，use of certain methods and measures to reduce the cost of the projects have a reasonable control on the scope and cost of the approved limits.Engineering and cost management work of the current status of project cost management system was formed in the 1950s，1980s perfect together. Performance of the country and directly involved in the management of economic activities. Provisions in the design stage to different estimates or budget preparation as well as government; Nothing relevant departments to formulate a budget，content，methods and approval，the budget will provide the fixed cost of equipment and materials and fixed price of the budget preparation，approval，management authority，and so on.With the historical process，after recovery，reform and development，formed a relatively complete budget estimate of quota management system. However，as the socialist market economic development，the system's many problems have also exposed. Generally speaking，the budget estimate is based on direct participation in the management of national economic activity as a precondition. Enterprise is not the actual economic entities. Due to the characteristics of the planned economy，and，at the time under the conditions of productivity，will inevitably become a shortage in the economy.In severe shortage of commodities under the conditions，as long as a certain level of investment，will be certain outputs. In this environment，the project planning and technical argumentation there can be no economic analysis. State control of the project cost constitute key factors equipment and materials prices，wages and taxes of artificial distribution. In this relatively stable economic environment，the budget estimate for the system approved project cost，help the government to carry out investment plans to play a major role.As the socialist market economic system established，requires us to predict project investment and control. In recent years，international investment project developed to the requirements of prior pre-control and in the middle of control. China，the traditional practice in an objective light onthe cause decision-making，implementation heavy，light the economy and technology，First，the consequences of victimization，Due to the technical personnel of the project technical and economic concepts and a weak awareness of cost control，cost management makes the quality difficult to raise. Project Cost control is difficult to achieve long-term goals.Second，the various stages of the project management view of the above circumstances，My first academia in the 1980s made the whole process of cost management and control concept，building departments will study the feasibility of projects and the budgets and final accounts to two extended at the request of the corresponding regulations put our cost management concepts and methods referred to a new height.Our task now is to be modern and cost management in line with China's national conditions of the market economy system goal，learn from the advanced experience of the developed countries，and establish sound market economic laws of project cost management system，efforts to increase the project cost levels. An investment decision-making phase of the project cost management construction project investment decision-making stage is proposed project proposals; conduct a feasibility study to determine investment estimation and the final preparation of design task. At this stage，the project's technical and economic decision-making，of the construction project cost of the project after the completion of the economic benefits have a decisive influence，The construction cost is an important stage control.China's current stage of the project cost for the project management for the purpose of clearing price，and focusing only on the construction process of cost control，neglected before the start of the project investment decision-making stage of cost control. Investment decision-making phase of investment projects is estimated an important basis for decision-making. Ithas a direct impact on national economic and financial analysis of the results of the reliability and accuracy. Because of this phase is the preliminary work of projects，the information cannot be fully，comparable works more or less that information accumulated relatively small，estimated inadequate and unscientific. Makes project cost management and cost workers is difficult at this stage do something.The various stages of the project cost control in the decision-making phase project cost control. Right project planning phase of the cost，many owners have the wrong understanding that the lower the cost the better. Cost control is not a unilateral issue，and should be a number of factors，a combination of practical，comprehensive consideration. The construction project investment decision-making stage，the project's technical and economic decision-making，Cost of the project after the completion of the project and the economic benefits，with a decisive role in project cost control is an important stage，rationally define and control the direction of the project cost of accurate positioning and building Optimization guiding role.In the decision-making phase of the most important is to do a good job feasibility study，the work is done well，returns on investment and can form a good proportion. Otherwise，invest more，less effective，resulting in loss of control and waste of investment.At present，some of the projects planned the owners of departure from the subjective desires of a feasibility study on the lack of scientific proof. Feasibility Study untrue，false or engineering functions obtaining the approval of their superiors，actually put into the feasibility study will be awarded in the study for the project after the smooth functioning buried a lot of hidden problems，lead to insufficient follow-up funds for the project andhad to extend the time limit so that the project could not have planned the use of cost-effective，even become hopeless completion of the beard works.Therefore，in order to phase in the investment decision-making effectively control construction costs，we must do the following aspects: Implementationof the construction project and corporate accountability，Construction of the project from planning to implementation of the entire process and the use of the funds to repay responsibilities to the people. in addition to establishing a legal system and the project supervision matching mechanism by the departments in charge of the industry and supervision departments for setting up a monitoring group to oversee the use of funds.A realistic approach to market analysis，to avoid the blindness of the project decision-making，reduces and reduces investment risk. Fully consider building projects in the future market competitiveness，design task more scientific and reliability.Capital financing must have a formal commitment document，the parties must do investment funds in place，and funds must have documents to ensure that the project can be approved after the scheduled implementation. To the various loan conditions should be carefully analyzed to minimize the burden of interest and repayment pressure.To strengthen the engineering geology，hydrology，geology and land，water，electricity，transport，environmental projects such as external conditions for the work of depth to make the investment estimate there are sufficient grounds.Taking extensive investigation and research，comparison of similar projects，seriously functional analysis，multi-program comparison and choice. After full technical appraisal and economic evaluation，and the final technologically advanced，functional and reliable. Reasonable economic projects，thus calculate a more accurate and realistic estimation of theamount of investment，so that the project cost from the start positioning in a more reasonable level.The design phase of the project cost control for a long time，China's building control very effective，- investment projects is not uncommon，this will affect owners of investment returns，it adds to the owners and within budget，as well as difficulties in fund owners，the impact on the future management or the owners make payments in arrears，and so on. Hence，the control of the project cost is of great significance，however the project cost is the primary means of control design，Currently most of the property owners in the design stage seldom works on cost control，and they found that the cost of the design will not have a great impact，it is wrong，on the contrary，Design phase of the project cost control is the most important step. Because it determines engineering design，construction methods，materials and equipment types，models of the project cost is of critical significance，design optimization phase of the program or minor changes，project cost will have a significant impact，Design phase of the project cost control of the total project cost of 70%. Following is how to control the project from design to create the Law: As the owners must design，the design selected on the quality level is a direct impact on the quality of product design level，and the design quality products in the level of direct influence on the pricing of the works. Different design units on the same project design are different. the same item of different design institute works between certain aspects of the project cost on the existence of differences between，We assume that with a design from two different design institute to design，Construction plans after the completion of a requested advisory unit cost to do the budget，certainly different design institute the total cost of the project is absolutely not the same，and most of the difference between the two over 10% even more than30%，and not necessarily high cost than the design of low cost，and good design is often low cost，We all know that different people have different design styles and different levels，the design works naturally，therefore chosen to design units is the control on the first step. Through tender to select the design of the units is a good method，the tender documents to elaborate on this particular aspect of the requirements，cost control targets，and so on.Otherwise，in the subsequent design process design units will put an increase in the cost of the design requirements; through tendering the project design into the market，compared to select the best design units.Promoting the design bidding and design optimization campaign mode design units assessed by experts using scientific group France，in accordance with applicable，economic，aesthetic principles and advanced technology，reasonable structure to meet building energy efficiency and environmental requirements，comprehensive assessment of the merits of the program design，selection of the best determination of the successful program.Successful investment program estimated to be close to the general construction project scope of investment. This means two design contracts will help design the program of choice and competition to ensure that the selected design advanced technology，unique novelty，adaptability，as well as to control the cost of the project. Design units should strive to improve their quality of the project design clever idea，contemporary reducing the project cost on to rack their brains to improve design quality，strive to put the design phase of the project cost control approval of the investment ceiling.Strengthening the design stage of the design phase to strengthen supervision of the Commissioner to determine a reasonable design，maturetechnology，reduction in the construction phase major design changes and changes in the program，in the effective control of the project cost will play a role. 1 to the design of the project if the project supervision to get involved，excluding unfavorable factors may generally is excluded from the 80% errors. In the entire process of building cost control，construction began at best to save and invest 20%，the key lies in the construction phase of the identification and control costs. Supervision of the design phase include : Design Institute under the design drawings and notes help owners deal with different design options for the economy，capital expenditure to develop the preliminary estimates，to ensure that the investment can be most effectively utilized. With the owners of the Commissioner include:According to the Design Institute to provide design drawings and notes to help owners deal with different design options for the economy，capital expenditures to develop the preliminary plan to ensure that investment can be most effectively used; with the owners of different design options，the need to calculate their own materials and equipment to conduct a cost analysis and study，to the design staff costs，to assist them in the investment limit within limits designed to save and invest. To seek a one-time small investment and economic good design program made the most rational economic indicators.Design actively promote the so-called cap limit design，even with the approval of the design task and investment estimates，guarantee the functional requirements of the premise. The preliminary design and control budget，according to the preliminary approval of the total budget for the design and construction design control. Limits，and every one professional，each of whom have a design threshold of a target. In the design process，designers should progress to more programs，design optimization，ensuring that the design is technically advanced and reasonable，innovative，stylish，and do not break the limit investment objectives，thus eliminating theengineering design raise the factor of safety and design standards，or only consider the technical feasibility of the program，rather than economic rationality phenomenon，the project cost to ensure effective control.Also known as the value of value engineering analysis，is a modern scientific management technique，is a new techno-economic analysis，is the product of functional analysis to conserve resources and reduce the cost of the purpose of an effective method. It made up for the traditional cost management simply focus on cost reduction and quality management only emphasizes improving the quality deficiencies，construction is conducive to resolving the long-standing long period，a lot of wastage，poor quality，high-cost problems. Value Engineering laws generally divided into three steps: assessment of the design of object technology and economic Score; Calculation of the target group of technical and economic indicators; calculate the geometric design of the object，on average; From comparison choose the best design.Construction phase of the project implementation unit construction cost management to control the cost of the project is reasonable in the project to meet quality standards premise，in the investment decision-making stage，the design phase and construction phase of the project put the project approval occurred in the control limits，strive in various construction projects rational use of human，material and financial resources to achieve good investment returns and social benefits.The project cost control and management is a dynamic process. The dynamic market economy，to make the investment in the identification and control become more complex，this will require the construction units to the management of project cost to the project runs through the entire process，it is necessary to have a comprehensive focus. The implementation phase of the projects. The implementation phase of the project cost management is theimplementation of the entire process of project management. Project implementation phase of the project cost management can be divided into three parts: the tender management，construction management and settlement management.Bidding for the construction phase of the construction units Bidding system control engineering cost effective means，bid organization can improve the cost-effectiveness of construction projects and ensure the quality of construction projects，shortening the construction cycle return on the investment，construction units can take full advantage of bidding for the effective means of cost control.Construction No. 10 on the 7th ministerial decree issued a "contract with the Construction Contract Pricing Management." clearly pointed out in bidding for projects using inventories. This requires the building of units conducting the tender exercise，in the tender document to include not only the usual content，like tender notes before schedule，tender notes，the conditions of the contract，the contract terms of the agreement，contract format，technical specifications，drawings，tender documents and other reference format，it is also necessary to provide the engineering inventory，Bidding as a reference document of the important components.Construction units in the tender document for the project inventory，in accordance with state or local rules promulgated by the calculation that the reunification of the divided projects，unified measurement units and the reunification of the engineering calculation rules，according to design drawings to be calculated and statistical arranged，obtain the list. Quantities to be followed in the preparation of an objective，impartial，scientific，and rational principle. Compilers must have strong manly budget，and should have certain knowledge of the engineering design and construction experience，and the material and mechanical construction technology forcomprehensive scientific knowledge，in order to calculate the volume of the works without heavy missed. The basis of which must be in accordance with state regulations engineering calculation rules，and the sub-projects division engineering units，and in accordance with design drawings，design essential Love tender documentation requirements are calculated.Quantities of the project should have a testing general，the entries must be simple，while not appear Lousing wrong items Pricing should guarantee the correctness of the project. Should the requirements of the different grades separate engineering division，the situation was different; We may have different prices for the items separately. This requires the preparation of the list compilers，seriously study design drawings，Analysis of the tender documents include the elements of the work and the different technical requirements，all familiar with the process，and to the scene of serious investigation，is forecast to make possible the construction of the case，right will have an impact on the Price of projects to be broken down. In addition，because the project inventories to calculate the amount of the project is not complete engineering and consider the interests of the construction units，clearly paying the price for the same overall price，the quantity list by the number of actual construction is a practical terms.In the evaluation and review of the tender offer should do the units total individual Price quotations and the comprehensive assessment. Price does not meet the requirements of individual shows Price meets the requirements，and the lowest total Price could not explain the single lowest bidder. Bidders often know the total cost to maintain the same circumstances; the project is likely to change smaller projects to lower the price.Changes may be larger projects price increases to achieve the completion of clearing works will be added for the purpose. We would also do price and the corresponding quantity of comprehensive engineeringassessment of the large volume of projects to focus on the price analysis. Price will do with the contents of the work，construction program，a comprehensive technical evaluation process，thereby preferred choice of a construction unit. Construction of the construction phase of the contract cost control basis. Signed tight construction contract，while strengthening the construction contract management can guarantee that the contract price is reasonable，legitimacy and reduce the performance of the contract A，B in disputes and safeguard the interests of both the contract，effective control of the works investment costs.After the signing of the contract，to do the management contract documentation，contract and the supplementary contract agreement until the regular meeting site in minutes. Work contacts such as a single content of a contract extension and explained that the integrity must be preserved，in addition to establishing a technical files，Implementation of the contract for dynamic analysis，results of the analysis to take proactive measures.Construction phase in the construction phase construction plan is based on the budget or Ken works contract price of the target，Ken control the cost of the project. At this stage of conservation has room for a small，but the possibility of waste is great. Thereby to control the cost of the project to give sufficient attention.Construction program to strengthen the comparative technical and economic construction program is construction design of a re - to the contents of the work，a reasonable construction plan，shorten the construction period and ensure the quality of the project，improving economic efficiency，Construction of the program right from the technical and economic evaluation were compared，through qualitative and quantitative analysis，the quality，time，Cost three technical and economic indicators，be rational，and effective use of manpower，material and financial resources，achieve better economic efficiency，good construction management relations，a comprehensive cost management is an important way.Strictly related changes to the project budget control in the proposed budget. Construction of the changes caused by many reasons，including works poorly designed，so that the engineering contract with the drawings provided inconsistent; The current market supply of materials does not meet the standard specifications of the design requirements. These issues have to leave breadwinner project cost factors. Therefore，in the construction process，we must tighten customs change，through no design changes to expand the scale and improve the design standards; increase the construction and contents，the best implementation of the "grade control，visa quota" system. Right to change the design，particularly as it relates to the cost of the design changes must be approved by the design units，construction units scene representatives，supervision engineers common signature，and should be ahead of this type of change，reduce losses，because it has been completed or partially completed project will entail the demolition of the contents，it is bound to cause major changes to the loss. Therefore，the construction units should be assigned to the project cost management professionals Permanent construction site，to grasp at any time. Control project cost of the changes.Works on the scene visa formalities through strict control of the construction project supervision system，the establishment of specialized departments，Professional use of the professional management of projects and to avoid project management personnel just visas，not economic account of the phenomenon. Investment out of control caused serious consequences. To serious change visa procedures to be taken to the building，Supervisor，the construction site together representatives signed the way toensure that change，visa authenticity，legitimacy，economic and avoid fraud and the resulting phenomena arising from the dispute.In the course of construction，the construction units to enhance on-site construction management，supervision and construction side according to the drawings，and strictly control the change of the negotiations，materials substitution，the scene visas，and various additional extra budgetary labor costs for the necessary changes should be done first afterwards，after money，Change event on the timely change in the calculation of the workload and the cost of change occurred to grasp at any time cost of the project level，things to avoid a backlog of work that the true cost of the project.Construction unit representatives to the scene to supervise doing a good job record，particularly concealed records and visas，reduce clearing the passing phenomenon. Many works visa scene is not as serious，works to bring a very large settlement of the trouble，lead to considerable economic losses，the scene strict visa management of the construction phase of the project cost control key.Of project list rigorous review of the project on the review of inventories，Engineers’ monitor list of measures to control the project. BOQ to provide the list of measures is to complete construction projects，occurred in the pre-construction engineering and construction process technology，life and safety aspects of non-engineering projects entities. At this stage because many projects are in construction plans and the construction site of the imperfections on the tender wait until the construction tender of the project design and actual scene have better access. Management Engineer addresses the gathering first-hand information on the original，itemized checking identification，inconsistent make revisions.Control material consumption，rationally define material prices. Cost of the project control materials price control is the main，the cost of materials in engineering often holds substantial proportion，usually accounts for the estimated costs of 70%，representing the direct costs of 80%. It is necessary in the construction phase in strict accordance with the contract amount of material control; material set reasonable prices，so as to effectively control the cost of the project. Market economy material supply a variety of channels，variety and price range materials，construction unit budget management and field personnel should pay close attention to market rates，with the progress of the scene，the market，hand in the construction of the information and materials for the completion of the accounts provide a strong basis.Technology and economic integration，strengthening investment control. Effective control of the investment，from organizational，technical，economic，contracts，and other measures. Therefore，the construction units must strengthen management，engineering and technical personnel of the "economy" concept，the quality of education，Training pragmatic working style，the construction side to help improve construction design，reasonable security，financial，and material resources. Accelerate the pace of work to improve the quality of the projects. Construction should encounter problems in a timely manner with the designer linked to choose both economic and scientific potential solutions，overcome the waste caused by command，to give due attention to the importance of investment in conservation，is responsible for the engineering technician with the combination of economic officers from the tender，contract negotiations，costing the budget，signed paid to the progress of the completion of the accounts，a cost analysis，the whole process management and strictly control the cost of the project.。
工程造价与管理论文英文文献中英对照
英文文献Engineering cost managementProject cost control emphasis should be transferred to the project construction early days, is transferred to the project decision and design stage. Project cost control in construction projects throughout the entire process, the key lies in the pre construction investment decision-making with design phase, whereas in the investment decision is made, the key lies in designing. According to expert analysis: architectural design, in the preliminary design stage, design stage, construction design stage to the engineering effect were 75% ~ 95%, 35% ~ 75%, 5% ~ 35%; while in the construction phase, through the optimization of construction organization design, construction cost saving the possibility of only 5% to 10%. We should put the focus shifted to the design stage, in order to get twice the result with half the effort.Pay attention to the technical and economic optimization combination. The combination of technology with economy is most effective way to control engineering cost. China engineering fields for a long time did not do this. The lack of technical personnel economy idea, design thought is conservative, the design of the outcome of the economy are not fully reflect. Therefore, we should solve the problem is to improve economic efficiency as the goal, in the construction process, organization, technology and economy organic ground union rises. Through the economic analysis, comparative study and effect evaluation, correct processing of advanced technology and reasonable in economy between the relation of unity of opposites, strive to advanced technology under the conditions of economic rational, reasonable in economy based on advanced technology.Carry out "limitation is designed" method. To be consciously put the application of value engineering to the specific design, actively promote quota design in engineering design contract, by way of bidding. This has been proven in practice is an effective way, it is not only an economic problem, more precisely a technical and economic problems. This "limitation is designed" to effectively control the project cost. In order to make the "limitation is designed" to achieve the desired objectives, should be involved in the design personnel must be experienced skilled economic designer. Their design results must be practical, advanced and reasonable cost. Control of engineering cost on the other hand is the need for comparison, because the outcome is a process of gradual improvement, and not to decide, so the comparison is a measure of its practical, advanced and economical means.Do good project cost control in the process. ( 1) compilation of economic and feasible construction scheme. Before construction, construction enterprises should be combined with the construction drawings and the actual situation at the scene, their mechanical equipment, construction experience, the management level and technical specification acceptance criteria, a set of practical and feasible construction scheme. The construction scheme is engineering implementation of the programme of action. ( 2) to technical personnel, materials, machinery and personnel staff communicationand coordination. In the process of construction, construction technology, materials and mechanical personnel should cooperate closely, understand each other, to management as the core, to reduce costs for the purpose of. ( 3) to the project completion settlement. Strict supervision system. Control project cost effectively, in the early phase of the project shall be subject to supervision (including cost management ) system. Through analyzing the design process of supervision, make the design more reasonable, cost control to limit the scope of, accomplish truly with the smallest investment maximize output.Strict supervision system. Control project cost effectively, in the early phase of the project shall be subject to supervision (including cost management ) system. Through analyzing the design process of supervision, make the design more reasonable, cost control to limit the scope of, accomplish truly with the smallest investment maximize output.To establish and perfect the independent project cost advisory body, cultivate a Zhi De have both engineering team. To establish a real sense of independent engineering cost consulting agencies. Through improving the laws and regulations, normative behavior, separate government functions from enterprise management, the establishment of independent business partnership, share-holding system, the limited responsibility system and other forms of organization, an industry-based, diversified services integrated project consulting company, build and development and reform the engineering cost intermediary service institutions, make construction project management of a gradual transition by an independent specialized agency in charge of project cost whole process tracking management, truly between owner and contractor plays an intermediary role. To strengthen engineering cost consulting industry association construction, establish project cost consulting industry self-discipline mechanism, and constantly improve the Engineering Cost Association in engineering cost consulting industry status, to be truly representative of the interests of the majority of the industry practitioners, government and enterprises to become connection link and the bridge. At the same time to strengthen the project cost specialty in higher education and in service education. As a result of project cost management in construction projects and various economic interests are closely related, and the whole social economic activities play a very important role, it requires the cost engineering technical personnel should have different levels of knowledge, in addition to their professional knowledge and have a deep understanding, also deal with the design content, design process, construction technology, project management, economic laws and regulations have a comprehensive understanding of. Therefore, the project cost management, project cost per unit of society groups, has already obtained a cost engineer qualification personnel, in order to carry out plan, has the goal, multiple levels of continuing education and training, to understand and master Chinese bilateral agreements with countries project cost technology, regulations, management system and its development trend, to expand domestic and foreign exchanges, and actively participate in international or regional engineering activities, improve their professional quality, so that the current practitioners in intelligentstructure, theory and working experience three aspects can meet the needs of engineering cost management. Cost engineering professionals need to strengthen their own learning, in addition to the professional knowledge to upgrade, should also work in combination with a broad understanding and master the relevant engineering and technical expertise, educational organizations and industry regulatory bodies constitute a complete education system, so as to the field of engineering senior talent development to create good conditions.中文译文：工程造价与管理工程造价控制重点应转移到项目建设的前期，即转移到项目决策和设计阶段。
工程管理专业外文文献及翻译
本科毕业设计外文文献及译文文献、资料题目：Changiｎｇroｌes ｏｆｔhｅｃl ｉentsＡrchiteｃtｓand contrａctoｒsThrouｇｈＢIＭ文献、资料来源：Ｅngiｎeerｉng, Cｏnｓtructioｎ，Arch ｉ-ｔectｕal Manageｍent文献、资料发表（出版)日期:２01０．2院(部）:专业:班级：姓名：学号:指导教师：翻译日期:外文文献：Changing ｒoles oｆtｈe clｉｅnts,arcｈiｔｅcts and contrａcｔorｓthrougｈBIMRiｚａl ＳebastianTNO Bｕｉlt Environmentａnd Ｇeｏｓｃiences，Dｅｌfｔ，ThｅNeｔherlａnds AbstｒacｔPuｒpｏｓe–This pａpｅｒａiｍsｔｏpreseｎt a general reｖｉewｏf tｈe prａｃtiｃal iｍｐlｉcatioｎs of building inforｍatiｏn mｏｄelｌing(BIＭ) bａsｅd oｎliｔe ｒature ａｎd case studiｅs. It sｅeks to ａddｒeｓs tｈe necｅｓｓitｙforａｐｐlyｉnｇBIM and rｅ－ｏrganiｓiｎg the ｐｒocｅsseｓaｎd roleｓiｎｈosｐital building ｐrojects. Thｉｓtｙｐｅof proｊect isｃomｐlｅｘdｕe tｏｃｏmplｉｃated funcｔi ｏｎal and tｅｃhnｉｃal requiｒｅmentｓ，ｄeｃiｓion mａkｉng invoｌvｉｎg a large ｎuｍbｅr oｆｓtakｅholdｅrs，aｎd loｎg-teｒm develoｐｍeｎt pｒoｃｅsｓes.Dｅｓign/methodｏlogｙ/ａpproacｈ–Throuｇh deｓkｒesearch aｎｄｒｅferriｎg ｔｏthｅonｇoinｇEuropeaｎreseaｒｃh project InPro, tｈｅframework for ｉnteｇratｅｄcoｌlａｂoratioｎanｄthe usｅof ＢIM are analysed. Ｔhrough severalｒe ａｌcａｓeｓ, ｔｈeｃhanging ｒoles oｆｃlｉeｎts, arcｈitecｔｓ,and cｏnｔracto ｒｓthrough ＢIM applicatｉon ａrｅinveｓtigatｅd.Ｆｉｎｄiｎgs–Ｏne oｆｔｈe mａｉn findingｓis the ｉｄenｔifｉcａｔiｏn ｏｆthe maiｎｆａctorｓfｏr a ｓuccessful collaboration using BIM, whiｃh caｎbｅreｃｏｇｎiseｄａs“POＷER”: pｒoduｃｔinformation sｈａring (Ｐ),orｇaniｓational roleｓsyｎｅrｇｙ(O），ｗork proｃeｓｓes cooｒdinatｉon (W）, eｎviｒｏnmｅｎt foｒｔeamwｏrｋ（Ｅ), ａnd rｅfeｒenｃe datａcｏnsｏliｄation (R)．Ｆurthermｏre, it ｉs alｓｏfoundｔhat tｈe ｉｍｐlｅmentａｔｉｏn of BＩM iｎhｏspｉｔal builｄing projeｃts isｓtill limitｅｄduｅto ｃertaｉn comｍeｒcial anｄlegal baｒrｉers, ａｓｗell as the fａct ｔｈaｔintegｒateｄｃoｌlaboｒatiｏn haｓnot yｅｔbeen embedded inｔhe reａl ｅstａte ｓtrａteｇiｅs of ｈealthcａre institutiｏns. Originａlity/valuｅ–Tｈiｓpaｐｅr contribuｔes to thｅactuaｌdiｓcusｓiｏn inｓcience anｄpractiｃe oｎthe ｃｈaｎging rolｅｓand prｏｃesses that are rｅｑuireｄto deｖｅlop aｎd oｐｅrate sustａinaｂle bｕｉldinｇｓwith the ｓｕｐport of intｅgrａｔｅd ＩCＴfraｍeworks aｎdｔoｏｌs. Iｔpreseｎts the staｔe-ｏf－the－arｔｏf E ｕrｏｐean ｒｅsｅarｃh projeｃtsａnd ｓｏme ｏf theｆiｒｓｔｒeaｌcases of BIM ａｐplｉｃａｔioｎin hospitalｂuilｄing projｅcts．KeywoｒdｓEuｒope, Hoｓpiｔals，Tｈe Netheｒlａnds, Ｃｏｎstrｕctiｏn ｗoｒks，Ｒｅsponsｅｆlexiｂｉlｉty，PrｏjｅcｔplａnｎinｇPaper type Genｅral reｖiew1. IｎtroduｃtｉonHosｐitaｌbuilｄｉng ｐroｊects, aｒｅｏf kｅｙimｐortanｃｅ,and involｖe ｓignifｉcａnt invｅstment, ａnd usuaｌlｙｔake a lonｇ-ｔerm ｄeｖeｌoｐmentｐｅriｏｄ. Ｈoｓpital ｂuildｉng pｒｏｊｅｃts are alsｏvｅry complｅx ｄue to the comｐlicated rｅquiremenｔｓｒegardiｎｇhｙgienｅ,safetｙ, spｅcial equiｐments，and handlｉｎg ｏf ａlａrｇｅaｍount of dａta.Theｂuilding proｃess ｉsｖｅｒy dynaｍic aｎd ｃoｍｐrisｅs iterative phaｓeｓanｄintermediａｔe ｃｈａnｇes．Mａny actｏrs wiｔh shiｆtiｎg ａgendaｓ, roｌes aｎd rｅｓponsｉbilitiｅs ａre actively i ｎvoｌvｅd, sｕｃhａｓ: ｔｈe healｔhｃaｒe inｓtiｔutｉons, nationａl andｌocal ｇoｖernmｅｎts，prｏject develoｐers,fiｎanciａl instｉtutiｏns，arcｈitecｔs，contr ａｃtors,advisoｒs, facｉliｔy mａnagers, and ｅquiｐｍent manuｆactureｒs aｎｄｓuppｌiｅrs. Such bｕiｌding projｅctｓaｒｅveｒy much inｆluencｅｄ, by the ｈe ａｌｔhcarｅpoｌｉcy, whｉｃｈｃhanges rapｉdly in rｅsｐonse to the medical,soｃietal and tｅchnoｌｏgical ｄevelopｍents, aｎd ｖａrieｓｇrｅatly betweｅn countries （World Health Orgａnizatｉon,2０00）．IｎThｅＮeｔｈerlanｄs, for exａmｐlｅ, the way a buildiｎg projｅcｔin the ｈｅaltｈｃare sector iｓｏrganisedｉs undergｏing a major rｅform due to ａfunｄameｎtaｌcｈangｅin the Duｔchｈｅalth ｐoliｃy that waｓinｔrｏｄuced ｉn 2０08．The ｒapidly chanｇing conｔeｘt posts a need for ａbｕilｄiｎg withｆlexibilitｙoveｒits lifｅｃｙcｌe.In ordｅr tｏincorpｏrateｌｉｆe-cycleｃｏnsiderationｓin tｈe builｄing desｉgｎ，consｔrucｔion technique，ａnｄfacｉlｉty ｍanagemeｎｔsｔrateｇｙ, a muｌtｉdiscｉｐlinａry collaｂｏration iｓｒeqｕired. Dｅｓpiｔe the a ｔｔempt for eｓtaｂlｉｓhing inｔegrated colｌａboration, healtｈcａre buｉlｄing projectsｓｔilｌfaces serioｕs proｂlems in pｒaｃｔｉcｅ, such ａs:buｄgｅt oｖerrun, delａy,anｄsｕb－ｏｐtimaｌquality in ｔerms of ｆlｅxｉｂiliｔy,end-usｅr’ｓdissａtisｆactｉｏn，and enｅrｇｙinｅfficｉenｃy.It iｓevidｅnt tｈat tｈe laｃk ｏf communicａtion ａndｃoordinａtion betwｅｅn tｈe aｃtorｓinｖoｌved in the differｅnt phases of ａbuilｄiｎg prｏject is aｍonｇtｈe ｍosｔimｐorｔant reａsoｎs behind tｈese ｐrobｌｅmｓ. The coｍｍｕnicatｉｏn ｂetｗeen ｄiｆｆereｎｔstaｋeｈｏｌderｓbｅcomeｓｃｒitical, as each sｔakｅholder possesses dｉffｅrent ｓeｔoｆskilｌs. Ａｓa result,theｐrocｅssｅｓｆｏr exｔractｉon, iｎｔeｒpretａtiｏn, an ｄcｏmmｕｎicationｏf comｐlex design inｆoｒmatｉｏn fｒoｍdrawings aｎd doｃｕmｅｎts arｅｏｆten time－consumｉｎg and dｉffiｃult. Aｄvanced ｖｉsuaｌisation ｔｅchnologiｅs, like 4Ｄｐlannｉng have tｒemendｏus potentｉal to increasｅthｅcommｕnicatｉon efｆiciency anｄinterpretａtiｏｎａbiliｔy ｏｆthe ｐrｏjecｔtｅam mｅmbers. Hｏwever, tｈｅir use aｓaｎeｆfeｃtive communicatｉon tool is sｔill li ｍｉted and ｎｏt fuｌly explored(Dａwoｏd and Sikka, 2008). There are ａlｓo ｏthe ｒbａｒriers in the informatioｎｔｒａｎsfer anｄｉnteｇratioｎ,ｆor insｔａnce: ｍa ｎｙeｘisｔｉnｇＩCT syｓtｅms do noｔsuppｏrt thｅｏpenness of ｔhe ｄata aｎd ｓtructure tｈat isｐrｅrｅqｕisitｅforａｎefｆective collaｂoｒａtioｎbeｔween differｅnt builｄing aｃtorｓｏr disｃipｌｉnes.Ｂuildinｇinformａtion modｅlliｎg (ＢIM) ｏｆfｅrｓan integｒaｔeｄsolution tｏｔhe prｅviousｌy ｍｅnｔioneｄpｒoｂlｅms. Tｈereｆoｒe，ＢIＭis increasｉnｇlｙuｓｅｄas an ICT support iｎcｏmｐlex buildinｇprojecｔｓ.An effec ｔive multｉdisｃipｌiｎary cｏｌlabｏration sｕpporｔeｄby an optimaｌuse oｆＢIM reｑuire chaｎｇing roｌes ofｔhe cｌients, ａrchitects,anｄcｏntrａcｔoｒs；new coｎtｒactual reｌaｔionships；anｄrｅ-orｇanisedｃollａbｏrａtｉｖe procｅｓses．Uｎfortunaｔely, theｒｅareｓtill gaｐs in ｔｈe practｉcaｌknowleｄｇe on how to manage tｈｅbuｉldｉng acｔｏrs to collaｂoｒate effeｃtｉvｅlｙin tｈeir cｈangｉｎg roles，and tｏｄｅveｌｏｐａnｄutiｌise ＢIMａｓａｎoptimal ICＴsupｐort ofｔhe collaboratｉｏｎ.Thｉs ｐapｅr prｅｓenｔs a geｎeral ｒeviｅw oｆthｅｐｒacticａl ｉmｐlications of buiｌdiｎgｉｎformation modelling (BIＭ) basｅd on literature reｖieｗａｎd ｃase ｓｔuｄｉeｓ. In the ｎｅxt ｓeｃtｉｏnｓ, based on lｉterａtuｒe and recenｔfindingｓfrｏm European reseaｒch pｒojeｃt IｎPｒo，thｅframework for integｒated cｏllabｏration and the usｅｏf ＢIM aｒe analyｓed. Sｕbsequｅnｔlｙ, ｔｈｒougｈth ｅobservaｔｉon of twｏoｎｇoｉnｇpiloｔprojects ｉｎＴhｅＮetherｌａnds，the changing roｌes oｆcｌients, aｒcｈitｅcts, and coｎtrａcｔoｒs throｕgh ＢIM apｐlicatｉon aｒｅinｖｅstigaｔｅd．Iｎｃｏncｌusiｏn, ｔhｅcrｉticａl sucｃess ｆａcｔors as ｗelｌａs the main barriers of a succesｓｆul ｉｎtegratｅd colｌabo ｒation usｉng BＩＭａre ｉdenｔiｆｉｅd.2．Chaｎｇｉng roｌes ｔhrouｇh iｎteｇrａteｄcollabｏration ａnｄliｆe-cｙｃlｅｄesign apｐｒoachesA hospital ｂuilｄiｎg prｏjeｃｔinvolves ｖarious actors, roles, and ｋnoｗledge ｄomａｉns.In Ｔｈe Nethｅrlands, theｃhangiｎg rolｅs of clients, architectｓ, andｃｏntｒactors iｎhospitａｌｂuiｌdinｇpｒojｅcｔs aｒe inｅvｉｔablｅｄｕｅtｈe n ｅw heａlthcaｒe policy.Ｐｒｅvioｕsｌy under ｔhe HealｔｈcaｒｅInstｉtｕtions Act(WTZi), healthcare ｉnｓtitutionｓｗｅre reｑuirｅd to ｏｂtain boｔh a liｃｅｎｓｅａnｄａｂuiｌｄing peｒmit ｆor new coｎstｒuctｉon projecｔs andｍa ｊｏｒrenovａtiｏns. Tｈe permｉt waｓｉｓsuｅｄｂｙｔｈe Dutch Minｉsｔry of Hｅalth. Ｔｈe healthｃare institutｉonｓwere then elｉgibｌe to receｉve financiａｌsupｐort ｆrｏm the govｅｒnmeｎｔ．Sｉnce 200８，neｗlegislaｔion oｎｔｈe managｅmeｎt of hｏｓｐiｔａl buildiｎg proｊects and real estatｅｈａｓcome ｉnto forｃe．In thiｓｎｅｗlｅgｉsｌａtｉon,ａpｅrmit fｏr ｈospital builｄinｇp ｒojｅctｕｎｄｅr the WTZi is nｏlongｅr obｌigatory, ｎｏr obtainaｂlｅ(Ｄutch Mｉｎisｔｒｙof Health, Ｗelfare and Ｓpoｒt, 2008)．Ｔhiｓchangｅaｌlows more ｆｒｅedom froｍｔheｓｔatｅ-directed poliｃy,ａｎd reｓｐｅctｉvely, ａllocates morｅｒespoｎsibilitｉes to the heaｌthｃaｒeｏｒganisatioｎs ｔo dｅal wiｔｈｔhｅfｉnancinｇand ｍanaｇeｍeｎｔof ｔheir reaｌestatｅ．Thｅnew poliｃy implies tｈat the healtｈcaｒe ｉｎsｔiｔutions arｅｆuｌly rｅｓｐonｓibｌe to manａge and fｉnaｎce thｅｉr bｕilｄingｐrｏjectｓａnｄrｅal ｅstａtｅ. Tｈｅgovｅrn ｍent’s suｐport ｆor ｔhｅcｏstsｏｆheａlthcａrｅｆaｃｉlｉｔiｅｓwill no lｏｎgeｒbe given separateｌy, ｂut ｗiｌl be included in thｅfｅeｆor hｅalthcare seｒｖices.This means that healthcａｒe iｎsｔiｔutｉons muｓt eａｒn back thｅir inveｓt ｍｅnt on rｅal estａｔe throｕgh tｈeir serｖiceｓ. Tｈis new policy ｉntends tｏstiｍulate suｓｔaｉnaｂlｅinnｏｖaｔｉons ｉn the design,pｒoｃuremeｎt ａnd man ａgement ｏf hｅalｔhｃａre ｂuildings, which wｉll coｎｔributｅｔｏefｆeｃtive and efｆicｉentｐriｍarｙｈealｔhcare serｖices．Thｅneｗstrateｇy for building ｐrojectｓａnd real ｅstate ｍanagemｅnt endｏrses ａn integrateｄcoｌｌabｏｒatｉon ａpprｏａch. In order to aｓsuｒe tｈe ｓusｔaｉnabiliｔｙｄurinｇconstrucｔioｎ,use，and mainｔeｎancｅ, tｈe end－ｕsｅrｓ, facilit ｙmａｎagers, contｒactors ａｎｄspeｃｉalisｔcoｎｔraｃtoｒｓneｅｄtｏbe in ｖoｌvｅd iｎtｈe plａｎnｉng and desｉgｎprocesses. Ｔhｅimplｉcａtioｎs of the neｗstrateｇｙａre rｅflecteｄin thｅｃhanｇing ｒoｌeｓoｆthe building aｃtors anｄiｎthｅneｗｐｒoｃuｒｅment method．In tｈe tradｉtional prｏcuremｅnｔmｅthod, ｔhe ｄesign, ａnd ｉtｓdetaｉlｓ, a ｒｅdevｅｌoped by the architeｃｔ，and ｄｅsign eｎgineｅrs. Theｎ,the ｃliｅnt (the healthcare ｉｎstituｔｉｏｎ) sｅｎds ａn ａｐplicatiｏn to thｅＭiｎistry ｏf Hea ｌth tｏｏｂtain an appｒovaｌoｎthｅbuildｉｎg pｅrmit aｎd the fiｎanciａl ｓu ｐporｔfroｍtｈe ｇovernment.Ｆolｌoｗing tｈis, a contｒacｔｏr ｉs selected tｈrough a ｔeｎｄｅr pｒｏcesｓtｈat emｐhａsiseｓtｈe ｓｅaｒｃh for the loｗest－pricｅｂidder．Dｕrｉｎg tｈe consｔｒｕｃtion ｐeriod,changes often tａke ｐlace du ｅto cｏnsｔructａbiliｔｙprｏblems ｏｆｔhe design anｄnｅw ｒequirｅmeｎtｓｆｒomｔhe cliｅｎt．Beｃａusｅｏf thｅhigh lｅvel of technical comｐlexiｔy,aｎd ｍoreoｖer，deｃｉsion－maｋinｇcompｌexitｉes，the whoｌe proｃesｓfroｍin ｉtｉatiｏｎｕntil delｉvery of a hospiｔal building pｒoject can take uｐto tｅn yeａrs timｅ. After the ｄelｉvery, the healtｈcａre iｎstitｕｔｉoｎiｓfully in charｇe ｏf the operation ｏf thｅfaciｌｉtieｓ.Rｅdeｓigns and chanｇes ａlso take pｌaｃe in the ｕｓe phase toｃope with ｎewｆunｃtionｓand develｏpmｅnts in tｈｅmｅｄical wｏｒｌd (van RｅｅｄｔDｏrｔland, 20０9)．Ｔhe inteｇrated procuremｅnt ｐｉcturｅsａnewｃonｔｒacｔual relatioｎship bｅtｗeｅn the paｒｔｉes invｏlveｄiｎa buｉldｉng prｏject. Inｓtead ｏｆa ｒeｌationｓhｉｐbｅtｗeen thｅｃlｉｅnt and architecｔfor desｉgn, aｎd tｈｅｃｌienｔaｎｄcｏnｔracｔｏr ｆoｒｃonstｒuction,in an integｒateｄpｒｏｃｕreｍeｎt the clienｔoｎly hｏｌds a ｃoｎtrａcｔuａl ｒｅｌatioｎｓhiｐｗith theｍａin ｐartｙthaｔis ｒｅspｏnsiｂｌe fｏr bｏth deｓiｇn and ｃoｎstruｃｔｉｏｎ( Joint Contｒacts Trｉbuｎaｌ,２007). Thｅtrａditionａl boｒdｅrs between tａskｓaｎd ｏccｕp ａtiｏnal grｏｕpｓｂeｃome blurｒｅd since aｒchiｔeｃｔs, ｃonsulｔｉng firmｓ, contrａcｔｏｒs, suｂｃonｔｒａctoｒs, ａnd suppliｅrs aｌｌstand on thｅsｕpply ｓidｅin the ｂuildiｎg prｏｃｅｓs ｗhile ｔhe cｌient oｎtheｄemaｎd sｉde．S ｕcｈｃonｆiguｒａtｉon ｐｕts tｈe archｉtect, ｅnｇｉｎeｅr and ｃontraｃｔoｒi ｎ a vｅry dｉffereｎt pｏsitioｎｔhａt inflｕenｃes ｎot only tｈeir roleｓ, bｕt also theｉｒresponsｉbiｌitiｅs, tasksａnd cｏmｍunicａtioｎwitｈthe clｉeｎt，the users，the tｅaｍandｏｔheｒstakeholdｅrs.The tranｓitioｎfroｍtraditｉonal to inｔegｒated procｕｒｅment meｔhod rｅquires a ｓhifｔｏｆmｉｎdset ｏｆtheｐaｒties ｏn boｔｈthｅdｅｍand and supply s ｉdｅs. Iｔis esseｎtiaｌｆor the cliｅnt anｄcｏntｒactoｒtｏhavｅaｆair ａｎd opeｎcｏlｌaboratｉon iｎwhｉch boｔh caｎopｔimalｌｙuse thｅｉｒcomｐe ｔencies．The ｅffectivenessｏf ｉntegrated collaborａｔion ｉs aｌso deteｒmineｄb ｙthe cｌｉent’s ｃapacｉty and ｓtrategy ｔo organizｅiｎnovative tenderiｎgｐｒｏcedures (Ｓeｂastian ｅｔａl.,2009).A neｗchallenge emerges in caｓe ｏｆpoｓitionｉｎg an ａrchitｅcｔｉn a pａｒｔnership with tｈe contractｏr ｉnｓｔead of ｗiｔｈｔhe cｌient.In ｃａｓｅｏｆthe ａｒchｉｔeｃｔeｎtｅrs ａpartnership ｗith thｅconｔｒactｏr, ａn imｐortant ｉｓsues is hｏw to ensuｒｅthe realｉsaｔion oｆtheａrｃhitecｔｕral vａluｅs as wel ｌaｓinnｏvative enｇinｅeｒｉng tｈrough an effiｃient construｃｔｉon proceｓs．Iｎanother ｃasｅ, thｅａrchitｅct can stａnd at the clienｔ’s side iｎa sｔraｔegic aｄvisoｒy role insteａd ｏf bｅing the dｅsｉgｎｅr. Iｎｔhis ｃase,thｅarchitect’s responｓibility is tranｓlating clienｔ’s reｑuirementｓanｄwishes intｏthｅarｃhiteｃtｕrａl vａｌuｅｓto bｅiｎcluｄeｄin the desigｎspecificatｉon, and eｖａluatｉng tｈe ｃontｒactｏr’s proｐosal agaiｎst this. Inａny of ｔhis nｅw roｌｅ,ｔhe ａrchiｔecｔｈolds tｈe resｐonsｉbiｌｉties aｓstaｋeholdeｒinｔerｅｓt facil ｉtatｏr, cｕstodiａn of customeｒvａlｕe and cuｓtodian of deｓigｎmoｄels.Tｈｅｔransition frｏm ｔｒaditioｎal to integｒatｅd prｏcurement mｅthod ａlso brings coｎseｑuｅｎces inｔhｅpayｍent scｈemeｓ．In ｔhe tｒadiｔiｏnal ｂuiｌdi ｎg procｅｓｓ, the hoｎｏrａriｕｍｆoｒthe archiｔeｃt iｓusuaｌly baseｄon ａpｅrcenｔage of the pｒoject cｏsts;this may siｍｐlｙmean ｔhat ｔhｅmorｅeｘpenｓiｖｅthe buｉlding is, the hｉgｈｅｒthe hｏｎoraｒｉｕm ｗiｌl ｂe. Thｅengiｎeer rｅceivｅs thｅhonorarｉum based on ｔhe complexiｔｙof ｔｈe design and the inteｎｓity of tｈe assignｍeｎｔ. A hｉgｈｌy complex buiｌding, which takｅｓ a nu ｍbeｒｏｆredｅsigns，is usｕally fａvourａｂleｆor tｈe eｎgineeｒs in terｍs ｏｆhonorａｒｉuｍ. Ａtradｉtiｏnaｌcontractoｒｕsually reｃeｉvｅs ｔhe comｍｉsｓion bａｓｅd ｏn tｈｅtender to coｎstrucｔtｈe bｕilding ａt tｈe lowesｔprice by ｍeｅtinｇthｅmiｎｉmum sｐecｉficａtionｓgiｖen by the clieｎt. Eｘtra worｋdue to modｉficatioｎs is chargｅd seｐaratｅly ｔo ｔhe client. After the deliveｒy, the c ｏｎtｒａｃtoｒis ｎo longer responｓiblｅｆｏr the long-term use of tｈｅbｕildiｎg. In the ｔraditｉonaｌpｒocurｅｍent ｍethod,aｌl rｉsks ａre pｌaced witｈthe c ｌiｅnt．In inｔegrated pｒoｃurｅｍeｎt method,thｅpａymenｔis ｂased ｏn thｅａｃhieved bｕildiｎｇperｆormａnce；thus, the pａyment ｉs non-aｄvｅｒsａrial. Since ｔh ｅaｒchitect，engiｎeerａnｄｃontracｔor haｖe a wideｒresponsibilitｙoｎｔhｅquａｌityｏf tｈe dｅsign ａnｄｔhe bｕilｄing，ｔhｅpaymｅｎｔis ｌinked to ａmeaｓurｅmｅnt syｓｔｅmｏｆtｈe fｕnctioｎａl aｎd techniｃａl pｅrfoｒmance ｏf thｅｂｕilding over a cｅrtain perｉod ｏf time.The ｈｏnorarium becomes an i ｎｃｅntiｖe tｏacｈiｅｖe the optｉmal qｕaliｔｙ. Iｆthe buildｉｎg actors suｃceｅd tｏｄeliver a higｈer added-vａluｅthat exｃeed ｔhｅｍｉnimum ｃｌient’s rｅquｉreｍenｔs, thｅy wｉｌl ｒeceive a bonuｓiｎaccoｒdａnce to the clｉent’s extra g ａin. Ｔhe level of trａnsparencyｉs aｌso iｍｐroｖｅd. Open book accouｎｔinｇiｓａｎexcellenｔinsｔruｍｅnt ｐroviｄed thatｔhe stakeholdｅrs agｒee oｎthe i ｎformatｉｏn ｔｏbｅshａred and to iｔｓlevel of dｅtaｉｌ(InPro，２00９)．Nexｔｔo ｔhe adoptｉon of integrated procurement method,thｅnewｒｅaｌｅstate strateｇy for hoｓｐｉｔａl bｕilding ｐrojｅcts adｄrｅsses aｎinnoｖative ｐro ｄuｃｔdevelｏpment ａｎｄlｉfｅ-cｙclｅｄesigｎａpｐroａｃhes. A suｓtａｉnaｂlｅbusiｎess case for the inｖeｓtment and eｘploitation of hoｓpital bｕildings relies on ｄｙnamic life-cyｃle maｎaｇeｍenｔthat includes cｏnｓiｄerations aｎd analysｉs of ｔhe market dｅvｅloｐｍent over time nexｔto thｅbuilｄing ｌife－cyｃle coｓts (iｎv ｅｓtment/inｉtial coｓt, operationaｌcoｓt，ａnｄｌｏgiｓtiｃｃｏst）. Ｃompared ｔｏtｈｅcoｎventiｏnａl liｆe-cycｌe ｃosting methｏｄ, the dynaｍiｃｌife-cycｌe maｎａｇemｅnt eｎcompaｓses a shifｔfｒom fｏｃusｉng oｎlｙｏｎminｉmｉzing the costs tｏfocｕsinｇon maximiｚｉｎg ｔhｅtotal benｅfit that can be gained. On ｅof tｈe ｄeｔerｍininｇfａctorｓfor a sucｃｅｓsｆul iｍｐlementａtioｎｏf ｄｙnａmｉｃlｉfｅ－ｃycｌｅmaｎagemenｔｉs tｈｅsｕstainabｌeｄesｉｇn oｆｔhe bｕilｄing andｂuildinｇcｏmpｏnents，ｗhich ｍeａｎｓthaｔthe dｅsign carｒi ｅs sufｆiciｅnt flexibility to ａccoｍｍｏdaｔeｐossible ｃhａngｅs in tｈｅloｎg ｔeｒm （Prinｓ,1９９2).Ｄｅsｉgｎｉng based on thｅprinciples of liｆe-cycle manaｇemenｔafｆeｃts th ｅrｏｌe ｏf thｅａｒchｉteｃt, as he needs tｏbe ｗell ｉnforｍed abｏut the uｓａge sｃenarioｓaｎd relatｅd fｉｎaｎcｉal arraｎgｅｍｅnts, the chａngiｎg ｓocial ａnd phyｓicaｌenｖirｏnmｅnts, and new technolｏgieｓ. Deｓｉgｎnｅeｄs tｏｉntegrate pｅｏｐle ａctiｖitｉes and bｕsｉｎeｓｓsｔｒategies ｏｖeｒtimｅ. In this cｏnｔeｘｔ, the ａｒｃhｉtect is ｒeｑuｉred ｔｏalign thｅdesign straｔeｇｉe ｓwｉtｈthe organisatiｏnal, local and global polｉcies ｏn fiｎａｎce, busineｓs opｅrations, healｔh and safｅtｙ, ｅnｖironment, etc.(Sebasｔiａｎet al., ２00９)．The cｏmｂinatioｎof procesｓand prｏｄucｔｉnnovatiｏn, aｎd the changinｇrｏlｅsｏf thｅbuｉldｉng actors can be accommodatｅd by integｒated proｊｅcｔdｅliv ｅry or ＩPD (ＡIA Cａlifornia Councｉl, 2０07)．IPD ｉs ａn approach tｈat iｎｔｅgrａtes pｅople，syｓtems, bｕsineｓs structurｅs and ｐracｔiceｓinto a pｒocess ｔhat ｃｏlｌaboraｔively ｈarnesses ｔｈe talｅntｓanｄiｎｓｉghts of ａll participａnｔs tｏrｅduce waste aｎｄｏpｔimizｅeffiｃiｅｎcy ｔhroｕｇｈall phases of ｄesign，ｆａｂｒｉｃation anｄｃonstrucｔion．IPＤpｒiｎcｉpleｓcan be ａpｐｌied ｔｏa vａriety oｆｃoｎtｒactualａrｒangemenｔs. IPD teａｍｓwill uｓually include ｍemｂｅｒｓｗell ｂeｙond the baｓiｃtrｉad of client, ａrchitect，and cｏnｔractｏr.At a minimum,ｔhｏｕgh, an ＩnteｇｒateｄPrｏject shoｕｌd incｌｕde a tｉｇｈt cｏllaboｒａｔion betweeｎtｈe ｃlient，the ａｒchitecｔ, aｎd thｅmａin cｏntra ｃtor uｌtｉmaｔely ｒesｐoｎsiblｅfor coｎstrucｔｉon of the proｊeｃt, from the early dｅｓignｕntil the pｒojeｃt handover．The key tｏa successｆul ＩＰD iｓassembl ｉｎｇａtｅam tｈaｔis commiｔteｄto ｃｏlｌａｂoratｉvｅpｒocesｓes and iｓcａpａbｌe of workiｎg toｇeｔheｒeｆfectiveｌy. IPD is built ｏn collａｂｏratiｏｎ. As a rｅｓｕlt, it can only ｂe ｓuccessful if thｅｐarｔiciｐantｓｓharｅａｎd apply comｍon ｖalueｓａnd goａls.3. Ｃhangiｎgｒｏles tｈrough BIM apｐlicatｉonBuｉlｄiｎg infoｒmation ｍodｅｌ(BIM) cｏmpriseｓＩCT frameworｋs aｎd toolｓthat caｎsupｐort the integraｔed colｌaboｒation ｂaｓed ｏｎlife-cycｌe ｄesiｇｎapproach. BIM iｓ a digｉtaｌrepresenｔａｔiｏn of physｉcａl ａnｄfunctｉoｎal characterisｔics of a faciliｔy.As sucｈiｔservｅs aｓ a shared knｏwledge rｅsouｒcｅfor information ａbout ａfacｉｌity ｆorｍing a rｅlｉaｂlｅbasis for dｅciｓｉｏns duringｉts lｉfｅｃyclｅfrｏm ｉnceｐtion ｏnwaｒd (Ｎatｉoｎal Institｕte of Building Scieｎces NIBS，20０7）. BIMｆacilitatｅｓtiｍe and ｐlａcｅiｎｄｅpenｄent collabｏｒａｔive ｗoｒking. A bａsｉｃｐｒemise of BIM iｓcollaborａtion by dｉffereｎt stakehoｌdｅrs at ｄiffeｒenｔphａｓes of the life cyｃle oｆa faci ｌｉty tｏiｎｓert, exｔｒact, upｄaｔe or modify ｉnfｏrmaｔion in ｔhｅBIM to ｓuｐport anｄreflect tｈe rｏｌeｓof that stakeholder．BIM ｉn iｔｓｕｌtｉmａte form, ａs ａsｈarｅd diｇｉｔａl rｅｐrｅｓentａｔion fouｎded on opｅｎsｔandaｒｄs foｒｉntｅｒoｐｅｒability，can becoｍe a virtualｉnfoｒｍation modｅl to be h ａnded from the ｄｅsigｎteam to thｅｃｏnｔrａcｔor and suｂcontｒactｏrs ａnd t ｈen to the clｉent (Sebaｓtiａｎet ａl., ２0０９)．BIＭis ｎot the ｓame ａs the earlier knoｗｎcｏmpｕter aided dｅｓｉｇn(CAD）. BIM goes furtｈer than an aｐplicａtiｏn to gｅｎerate digiｔal (2D or３Ｄ）ｄrawiｎgs (Brattｏn,２00９). BＩM ｉs ａn integrａted model ｉｎｗｈich all pｒｏcess and pｒｏduｃt inｆormation is combｉned，stored，eｌaｂoｒatｅｄ, and interacｔively disｔｒi ｂuted tｏall relｅvａｎt buiｌdinｇacｔors．As a centｒａl model ｆｏr alｌｉnvolveｄａcｔors thｒoughouｔthｅprojｅｃt ｌifecyclｅ,BIM deｖelｏps and evolves as the projeｃt prｏgressｅs．Using BIＭ,ｔｈe propｏsed deｓｉgn ａｎdｅngiｎeeｒiｎg solｕtiｏnｓｃan be mｅasｕred against ｔhｅｃlｉent’s rｅｑｕiｒｅmentsａｎdｅxpectｅｄbuilｄing perｆoｒmaｎce．Ｔhe ｆｕｎｃtｉonalｉtiｅs of BIＭto supｐort thｅdesiｇn process exteｎd to mulｔｉdｉmensiｏnal (nD), incluｄing: ｔhｒee-diｍeｎsional visuａlisatioｎandｄeｔailiｎg,cｌａsh detection,ｍa ｔerｉal schedule,planning, cost esｔimate，prodｕction aｎｄlｏgistic ｉnfｏrｍation, aｎd ａs-ｂｕilt documｅnｔｓ.Ｄuｒing tｈe construction procｅｓs, BIM can support the coｍmunication between thｅbuilｄiｎｇsiｔe，the facｔorｙaｎd the ｄeｓign office–whicｈis crucｉaｌfｏｒan effｅctive aｎd efｆiｃient ｐreｆabricaｔion and aｓsemｂｌy procｅsseｓas well ａｓto ｐrｅｖeｎt oｒｓolｖe prｏblｅms rｅlａted ｔｏｕnfｏｒesｅen eｒｒors or modｉｆicaｔｉons. When tｈｅbuilding is in use, BIＭcan bｅｕsed in cｏｍbinａtｉoｎwitｈthe intｅlｌigent bｕildiｎg sysｔemｓto ｐｒｏvide aｎd maｉｎtaｉn up－to-ｄａｔe inｆｏrmａｔiｏnｏｆｔhe b ｕiｌｄing performancｅ, ｉｎcｌｕdinｇtｈｅｌife-cyｃlｅcｏｓt.Ｔo unleashｔhe full potｅnｔiaｌof mｏreｅffｉcienｔinformａｔion exchan ｇeｉn the ＡＥC/FM iｎdustｒy in collaｂoｒａtivｅworking uｓｉｎｇＢIＭ, both highｑuａlity oｐeｎｉnternａｔiｏnal ｓtandards anｄhｉgh quａlitｙimｐleｍeｎtations of theｓe standardｓmｕst ｂｅin ｐｌace. The IFC openｓtaｎｄarｄiｓgen ｅrally ａgreed to be oｆhigh quａlｉty and is widｅly ｉmｐｌemeｎtｅd ｉn softwaｒe. Unfortｕnａtely,the ｃeｒtificaｔiｏｎprｏcess alｌoｗs pｏor qｕａlityｉmplemeｎｔatiｏns tｏbｅcｅrｔifiedａｎd ｅsｓｅntially rｅnｄｅrs theｃertified softwarｅｕsｅlｅss ｆor anｙpraｃtiｃａl ｕｓａge witｈIFC. IＦCｃompliant BIＭis actuaｌｌｙused ｌess than ｍａnｕal ｄraｆtinｇfoｒａrchitecｔｓand contｒａctorｓ, aｎd show aｂout the sａme ｕｓagｅfｏr eｎgineeｒｓ. Ａｒecent surｖey shｏws thaｔCＡD(as a closｅd-systeｍ）ｉｓstill the mａjｏr forｍoｆｔechniｑｕe ｕsed in desｉgn worｋ(over 6０ｐeｒcenｔ）whｉle ＢＩM ｉs uｓeｄiｎarｏｕｎd 20 ｐercenｔoｆｐｒoｊectｓfor arｃｈｉｔｅcts aｎｄiｎarounｄ10 ｐer cent ｏｆprojecｔｓfor engｉneeｒs anｄｃｏntracｔｏrs (Ｋｉviniemi et al．，2００8）.The aｐｐlicaｔｉoｎof ＢＩＭto sｕppoｒt an oｐｔimal cross－ｄiｓciｐｌｉnary aｎｄcrｏss－phａse coｌlabｏratｉon oｐensａneｗdimenｓion in the roles ａnｄｒelatｉoｎshｉｐs between tｈｅｂｕilding actorｓ. Several mｏst rｅlevanｔiｓsueｓａre：the new role oｆａｍｏdel mａｎager；ｔhe ａｇreｅment ｏn ｔｈe ａcc ｅss rｉght and Intellecｔual Property Right（IPR）；the liabiｌity anｄpaymeｎt a ｒｒangeｍenｔaccorｄing tｏthｅtype ｏf contraｃt and ｉn reｌatｉon tｏthe integｒateｄprocｕrement; anｄtｈeｕse oｆopen ｉnｔernatiｏnａl standaｒds．Colｌaboraｔive workｉng using BＩM deｍands a new expｅｒt roｌe oｆa mｏd ｅl ｍanaｇer ｗｈo ｐossesｓes ICT ａs wｅll ａs coｎsｔruｃtion pｒocesｓknｏw-how （IｎPro,2009). Ｔhe mｏｄel manager dealsｗith tｈｅsystem as ｗelｌas withｔhe aｃtorｓ. He ｐrｏviｄes and ｍainｔaiｎs technｏlogｉcal solutｉons rｅqｕiｒｅd for BＩMｆｕｎｃtionalities, mａｎageｓｔｈｅinｆormａｔionｆlow, ａnｄimｐｒovｅs the ICＴｓkｉlls of tｈe stａｋｅhoｌders．Ｔｈe modeｌmａnａger doeｓnｏt takｅｄecisionｓoｎｄｅsign ａnｄeｎgineeｒing sｏluｔｉｏns, nor ｔhｅorganｉsaｔional procesｓes, but his rｏles in the ｃｈaｉn ｏｆdｅcisｉon ｍaking are focuｓed oｎ:●thｅdｅvelopment ofＢIＭ,theｄefinitｉon oｆthｅstructｕrｅand detailｌｅvel ofｔhｅmｏdel, and tｈｅdeｐloymenｔof relevant BＩM toｏｌs, ｓｕch as forｍｏｄｅｌs cｈecking，meｒgiｎｇ, ａnd clash dｅteｃtｉｏｎs;●ｔhe contriｂution tｏｃollａboｒａtion meｔhodｓ, esｐecially decision ｍakｉngand commｕnication pｒｏtoｃolｓ, taｓｋplaｎning, ａnd rｉsk managｅｍent;●anｄthe manageｍｅｎt of iｎforｍatiｏｎ, in ｔeｒms of ｄata fｌｏw anｄstｏｒａｇe, identｉｆicatiｏn of commｕnicatｉoｎerrors, anｄdｅcisｉon oｒproｃess (re－）trackｉnｇ.Regaｒdｉng tｈe lｅgal and organｉsatｉonal iｓsues, oｎｅof the aｃtuaｌquesｔｉons iｓ: “In whａt waｙdoes the inｔellｅctual proｐerty right (IＰＲ）ｉn cｏllab ｏｒaｔive ｗｏrｋingｕsing BIM ｄiffer ｆrom tｈe IＰR inａｔｒａｄitioｎａl ｔeａｍｗｏrk?”. Ｉn tｅrms ｏf combiｎed ｗork, the IＰRｏf eachｅlemｅnt iｓattａcheｄto ｉts ｃｒeatoｒ.Ａltｈougｈｉt sｅemｓｔｏbe a fulｌy inｔeｇrat ｅd design,BIM aｃtuａllyｒesulted frｏm a coｍｂinatiｏｎof woｒks/eｌeｍｅｎts; ｆor ｉnstaｎcｅ:the oｕｔliｎｅof the builｄing dｅsｉgn，ｉs creaｔｅｄby the arｃhitect, the design forｔhe eleｃｔｒicａl sysｔeｍ, is creatｅｄby the electricaｌcｏｎtractoｒ, ｅｔc.Thｕs, iｎcasｅｏf BＩＭａｓa combinｅd wｏrｋ, the ＩPR is similａｒｔo ｔraｄitiｏnal teamworｋ．Workｉng witｈBIM with aｕthorｓｈｉｐregistｒaｔioｎfunctionａlｉtiesｍay actuaｌly make it eaｓier to kｅｅp track o ｆtｈe ＩPR(Chａo-Ｄuｉｖｉs,200９）.Ｈｏw ｄoes colｌａborative ｗｏrｋinｇ,using ＢIM, effect tｈe cｏntractuaｌrelatｉonｓhip? Ｏn the one hand，collaｂoratｉve wｏrking uｓingＢIM dｏes noｔｎｅcｅssaｒｉly chaｎgeｔｈe liａbilｉtyｐositｉoｎiｎtｈe ｃonｔract nor does ｉt obligate aｎallｉaｎcｅcontｒact. The GenerａｌＰriｎciｐles of BIM Ａdｄendum con ｆirｍs: ‘Ｔhis ｄoes not effeｃtuaｔe or rｅquire ａrestrucｔurｉｎg of cｏntrａｃｔual relaｔｉonships or shiftｉnｇof riｓks between ｏr aｍｏng ｔhe ProjecｔＰaｒｔi ｃipants other than as spｅｃificａｌly required per tｈe ProtocｏlＡddendum aｎd itｓＡttａchmenｔs’(ConseｎsusＤOCS, ２00８). On the oｔhｅｒhand, ｃhanges iｎtｅrms of paymeｎｔscｈemes cａn ｂe antｉcipated. Colｌaｂorativｅprocesｓes uｓiｎg ＢIM ｗilｌlead to the shifting of ａｃｔivitiｅｓｆｒom to ｔｈｅｅarｌy dｅsｉgn phaｓe. Much，ｉf ｎot all,actiｖiｔiｅs iｎtｈe ｄetaileｄengineｅrｉｎg and s ｐecification phasｅｗill ｂe ｄoｎe ｉｎthe earlｉｅｒｐhaｓes. It mｅaｎs ｔhat ｓignificａnt paｙmｅnt ｆｏｒｔhe engineeriｎg phａｓe，whicｈmay cｏunｔup ｔo ４０per ｃeｎt oｆtｈe deｓｉgn cｏst,ｃａｎnｏlonger be eｘpｅcｔed. As engｉneｅring woｒk is done concｕrｒｅntly with the ｄesign, a new ｐroportioｎof the ｐayment in the earlｙｄesｉgn phase is nｅcessary（Cｈao-Dｕiｖｉs, ２009).４.Ｒeviｅw ｏｆoｎgｏiｎg ｈospitａｌbｕilding projｅcｔs usｉng BＩM IｎTｈeＮetｈerlands,tｈe cｈangｉng ｒoles ｉnｈospital buiｌdｉng proj ｅcts are ｐart of tｈｅstrateｇy,which ａims at acｈieving ａsustaｉnable real ｅstate in ｒｅsｐｏnｓｅｔo ｔｈe ｃhanｇing hｅalthcａre policｙ.Reｆｅrring tｏｌiterａｔure aｎd prevｉouｓreｓeａrch, tｈe maｉn ｆaｃtors tｈａtｉｎflueｎｃｅthe suｃcess of tｈe chaｎｇing roｌeｓcan be ｃｏｎclｕｄｅd ａs: the iｍplemｅnｔat ｉｏn oｆａｎiｎtegrateｄprocuｒeｍenｔmetｈｏｄand a ｌｉｆｅ-cｙcle desｉgn apprｏach fｏr a sustａinable cｏlｌaboｒative pｒoｃess; ｔｈe aｇrｅｅmenｔon the BIＭsｔｒｕｃｔure and ｔｈe iｎｔｅlleｃtｕal rigｈts;and the inｔegratiｏn of tｈe ｒole oｆa modeｌmanａｇer. The ｐreｃedｉng seｃｔｉons haveｄisｃussｅd the coｎceptual tｈinｋing on how tｏdｅal wｉｔh these factors effｅｃtiveｌy．This cｕrrenｔｓecｔion obｓerｖes twｏactual projｅctｓａｎｄcoｍpares tｈe actual pｒactice wｉｔh tｈe ｃｏｎcｅptual viｅｗrｅsｐecｔively．Thｅｍａiｎissues,ｗhiｃh ａre oｂｓｅrved in the case studies,ａre:●the seleｃtｅｄprocurｅmenｔmetｈｏd and the rolｅｓof the iｎvolveｄpａrties ｗithｉn ｔhisｍeｔhod；●thｅimｐlemｅnｔatｉｏn of theｌife-cｙｃｌe design ａpｐrｏacｈ;●the type,struｃture, and fｕnctｉonaｌitiｅs of BIM uｓeｄiｎthe pｒoject；●tｈe opｅｎnｅｓｓiｎdata sharing and traｎsferｏf thｅmoｄｅｌ,and the ｉntenｄed ｕsｅof BIＭin thｅfｕｔuｒe; ａnd●thｅｒoles aｎd tａsks oｆthe mｏdel manageｒ.The pilot expeｒienｃｅoｆｈoｓpiｔaｌｂuilｄｉng projecｔs ｕsiｎg BIＭｉn the Netherlands cａn be oｂｓeｒved aｔUniverｓity Mｅdical Cｅnｔｒe St Rａd ｂoud （ｆurtｈeｒrefｅrrｅd ａs UMＣ) and MａｘｉmａMediｃalＣeｎtre (ｆｕrtｈer rｅferred ａs MMC). At UＭC, the new buildｉng proｊecｔｆｏｒthe Faｃultｙof Dｅntiｓtryｉn the cｉty of Nijmeｇen has bｅen dedｉcateｄas a BIＭpilot prｏjｅｃt. At MMC，BIM is uｓed in designiｎｇnew bｕｉlｄings for Ｍedｉcal Siｍuｌａt ｉｏn and Moｔhｅｒ-and-ChｉlｄCenｔre ｉn ｔhｅcｉtyｏf Vｅｌdhoveｎ.The fiｒｓt case is a prｏjecｔａt thｅＵniversiｔy Medicａl Cｅntrｅ(UＭC) ＳｔRadｂoud. UMC iｓmore tｈａｎｊｕsｔ a hospital. UMC comｂineｓmediｃａｌsｅｒvicｅs,educaｔionａｎd resｅａrch. Ｍｏre tｈan85０0 staｆf ａnd30０0 sｔｕdents ｗoｒk at UMC. Aｓ a pａｒｔof the iｎnovａtive real estate ｓtrａtegｙ, ＵMC ｈaｓｃｏnsiｄered to ｕse ＢIM foｒits bｕiｌding proｊects. The ｎｅw ｄevelｏｐmｅnt oｆthe Ｆacuｌｔy ｏf Deｎtistｒy and the surrｏundｉng buildin ｇs on thｅKapitｔelweg in Nｉjmeｇen has beｅn chｏsｅn ａs a pilotｐｒoject tｏｇathｅr practiｃａl knowleｄge and experieｎｃe oｎcollaborａｔiｖe ｐrocesses with BIM ｓuｐport.The ｍaiｎaｍbition ｔo ｂe achieved ｔhrough the use oｆBIＭin ｔhe buildingｐrojects at UMC can be summａrised as ｆollows：●using 3D vｉsualisatioｎto eｎhance theｃoｏrdｉｎａtｉon ａｎd cｏmmunｉｃaｔion aｍongｔhe bｕiｌdiｎｇactoｒs，and tｈe ｕsｅr ｐarticｉpatｉoｎiｎdeｓiｇｎ;●ｆacilitａｔｉｎg optimal inｆｏｒmaｔion accessibｉlity and eｘｃｈangｅfor ahigh●conｓistｅｎｃyｏｆｔｈｅdrawingｓａnｄdｏｃumｅnts aｃross disciｐｌines and pｈases;●iｎtｅgrating thｅａrcｈiｔeｃtuｒal deｓｉgn wiｔｈsｔruｃｔｕral anaｌyｓiｓ,enｅrgy analysis，cost esｔｉmation,anｄpｌanninｇ;●inteｒaｃtively eｖａｌuaｔinｇｔhe desigｎｓolutiｏnsａgａinst tｈe prｏgramｍe of requiremｅntｓａnd specificatiｏns；●reducinｇrｅｄｅsign／rｅmakｅcosts ｔhrouｇｈclaｓh ｄetection dｕring ｔhedeｓｉgn prｏcess; and●optimｉsｉｎg thｅｍaｎａgement oｆthe faciｌiｔy throuｇh thｅregiｓｔrａtion of meｄical iｎsｔallatioｎs ａnd equiｐｍents, fｉxedａnｄfｌｅｘibｌe furniture, ｐｒoｄuct ａｎｄouｔput spｅｃｉfications,andｏpｅrational ｄata.Ｔhｅsｅcｏnd ｃａse iｓ a pｒoject ａt tｈe Mａxiｍa Mｅdical Ceｎtre (MMC).ＭＭC is ａｌａrgｅhｏspiｔal resｕｌtｅd from a ｍeｒgeｒbｅtｗeen the Ｄｉａconｅｓsenｈuis ｉｎEindhoven and Ｓt ＪｏsepｈHospｉtａl in Veｌｄhoven. Ａｎnuaｌlｙthe3,４0０staｆｆof MMC provides meｄiｃaｌsｅrｖiｃesｔo mｏrｅthan 4５0,000 vｉsitorｓaｎｄｐatients. A ｌaｒge-scaled extenｓｉon projｅct of ｔhe hｏｓpｉtal iｎＶelｄhoｖeｎis a ｐaｒt oｆｉts real estaｔe ｓｔratｅgy. A ｍedi ｃal siｍulation ｃｅntｒe anｄ a womeｎ-and-childｒeｎmedicaｌｃeｎtre aｒe ａmong the mｏst imｐortantｎew facilities ｗｉthiｎｔhis eｘtensｉon pｒojeｃt.Th ｅｄesign hａｓbeen deveｌoped uｓｉng３Ｄmodelling wiｔh sｅｖeｒal fｕnctionａｌitieｓofＢIM.The fｉｎdｉngs from boｔh ｃａｓｅs ａｎｄthe aｎａlysｉs are ａs folｌows. Ｂoth ＵMC aｎd MMC opted fｏr a traｄiｔｉonal pｒｏcuｒeｍent meｔhod ｉn which th ｅclieｎt dｉrecｔlyｃontｒactｅd an architｅct, aｓtrｕctural engineer, ａndａmecｈanicaｌ, elecｔriｃａｌａnd plumbing (MＥP）consultant in ｔhｅdesｉgn team. Oncｅthe desｉgn ａnd detａileｄspecifiｃaｔｉons ａre finisｈｅｄ, a teｎdｅr ｐrｏcedｕrｅwill ｆｏllow ｔo ｓeｌecｔａcｏntrａｃtｏr. Ｄeｓｐitｅthe cｈｏice foｒtｈis tｒaditionalｍethoｄ, mａnｙａｔtｅmpts have ｂeeｎmade for a clｏsｅｒa ｎd ｍoｒe effectｉve mｕltｉｄisciｐlinary colｌaｂｏratｉon. ＵＭC dedicated a relaｔivel ｙlｏng prｅpａｒaｔion ｐhａse ｗith the architect，stｒuctural enginｅｅr and MEＰcｏｎsultant bｅfore tｈe deｓigｎcommeｎｃｅd. This preparation ｐhaｓｅwａs aimeｄat creaｔing a ｃoｍmon viｓion on tｈe optimａl way for ｃollaboratｉｏn us ｉng ＢＩM as aｎICT sｕppｏrt．Some resｕｌts of thｉs prｅparaｔion phａse ａr ｅ：ａdｏcumeｎt ｔhａtｄefinｅs the common ambitiｏn for the pｒｏjｅｃｔaｎｄthe coｌlaborａtiｖｅworｋiｎg pｒｏｃess anｄ a sｅmｉ-forｍａl agrｅｅｍent ｔhat stａtes thｅcommitmｅnt of the bｕilｄing ａctｏrsｆor ｃｏｌlabｏｒatｉｏn. Othｅr ｔhan UMC，MＭＣsｅlecｔedａn ａrｃhitｅcｔuｒe ｆｉrm ｗith an i ｎ-hｏuse ｅｎgineeｒing dｅｐａrtment. Thus，ｔhe collabｏration betｗeeｎｔhe ａrchiｔｅcｔaｎd strｕcｔｕral ｅnginｅer cａn ｔakeｐlace wｉthｉn the sａmｅfｉr ｍuｓｉng thｅsａmｅsoftware ａｐplicatｉoｎ.Regａrding the liｆe-ｃycle desiｇn aｐproａch, thｅｍaiｎatｔｅntｉoｎｉｓgiven on life-cyｃle coｓｔs, mａinｔｅnanｃe needs，and facilｉtｙmanagemen ｔ．Usiｎg BIM,boｔｈhospitａls inｔend to ｇｅt a mｕcｈbｅtｔｅrｉnｓighｔin thｅsｅaspeｃｔs over the ｌife-cyｃle ｐｅｒiｏd. Ｔhe lifｅ-cｙcle ｓusｔaiｎａb ｉliｔy cｒiｔeｒｉa are ｉｎｃluｄｅｄin tｈｅａssiｇnmｅｎts fｏr the dｅsiｇn teams. Multidｉsciplinaryｄeｓｉgｎｅrｓａｎd ｅnginｅｅｒs are aｓｋｅｄto collａbｏｒate moｒe closｅly ａnd to interact ｗith tｈe ｅｎd-uｓｅrs to addｒess ｌife-cycle reqｕiremｅnts. Hｏwever,ｅnｓuｒｉng tｈe ｂｕiｌdinｇａcｔｏrs to engagｅiｎａｎintegrａtｅｄｃollaboration toｇeneｒate sustainａｂｌｅdesiｇn ｓolutiｏns thaｔmｅet tｈｅliｆe-cyｃle ｐeｒfｏｒｍａncｅexpeｃｔatioｎs is sｔill d ｉffiｃult. Ｔhesｅａｃｔoｒｓａｒe ｃontractｅd thrｏｕｇh a traditionａl prｏcurｅｍeｎｔmeｔhod. Ｔｈeir tａsｋs ａre specific，their inｖolvｅment is rather sｈort－term iｎ a cerｔａin prｏｊecｔphase,thｅｉr reｓpoｎsｉbilities and ｌiabilitieｓaｒｅlimited，aｎd there is no ｔanｇible inceｎｔive for ｉｎｔeｇratｅd collａbｏration.Frｏｍthe ｃｕrｒeｎｔprogrｅss oｆｂoth projects, ｉt ｃan be obsｅrved thａt ｔhe typｅand structurｅof ＢＩＭrｅlies heａｖilｙon the choice for BIM software ａpplicａｔｉons．RevｉｔArｃhitecture aｎd RevｉｔStructure by Autoｄesk。
工程管理中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)中英文对照外文翻译The Internet is Applicated in Real EstateThe Real Estate Industry and the World Wide Web: Changing Technology, Changing Location.The Internet, in its Web based graphics version, has captured the imagination of both consumers and businesses. Itsconvenience, speed, low cost and versatility are being exploited on a daily basis in ever-changing ways. Together with its capacity to transform existing businesses, promote new businesses and facilitate exchange of information and data, its other striking attribute has been the speed with which this new technology has spread throughout the global economy.Keywords:The internet;Real Estate;ApplicatedThe number of computer hosts grew by more than ten-fold between 1995 and early 1999. The number of Web sites increased almost 100-fold, to over two million, between 1995 and 1998.Ｂy the year 2000, there will be approximately 400-500 million Internet users in the world, and the total number of Web sites will exceed five million.This new technology has the potential for affecting the real estate industry directly and indirectly. Directly, it may become a tool that allows a real estate business to expand its information and sales network. Indirectly, it may change the location equation where and how firms do business which in turn will affect the role of firms involved in real estate development, investment and transactions.Measuring the Spread of the WebThere are few reliable published statistics on Internet or Web use, and statistics reported by different analysts are often inconsistent. Our discussion of the Web and real estate is based on limited information from surveys and on examination of Web sites rather than on more comprehensive data. We have built our overview of the role of the World Wide Web and real estate by examining a variety of sources(including trade publications, existing Web sites, and our own survey of selected real estate firms)From E-mail to E-commerceBefore the advent of the World Wide Web, the Internet existed mostlyfor the purposes of e-mail, data transfers, newsgroups and bulletin boards, and its reach was limited primarily to the academic and the defense community. The technology itself was not particularly user-friendly, the network speed was not very high, the medium was limited to text and data, and accessing information was cumbersome and time-consuming. The browser technology greatly simplified usage, enabled multimedia information, and created interactive possibilities. The technology brought together TV entertainment, library information, news bulletins, communication and data in one desktop machine.Although initially the greatest patrons of the Internet were the academic community, the commercial sector quickly caught on to the potential of the Web. The private sector saw in the Web an opportunity to widen its marketing reach, lower costs of information dissemination, improve customer relations, and ultimately to conduct sales. Existing private sector Web sites can be roughly categorized into three types, as summarized. The most basic level is for simple information dissemination. The firm registers a Web site and develops a page giving basic company information. The second stage is an expansion of information, marketing goods and services or providing other customer information. The third stage is the addition of transactions to the activities possible on the Web site.Most business sites at present are in Stage 2. The use of the World Wide Web for detailed information dissemination, and marketing has had several advantages. For the firm, marketing, information dissemination and customer services on the Web can be monitored and analyzed with some details unavailable from conventional methods of marketing using other media. Internet tools can now provide a firm with data on who accessed the site, which pages were visited most, heavily, from where and for how long. This information contributes to improved measures of the results of promotionalefforts. The promotional costs associated with the Internet have also been very low. For example, in direct mail marketing, to send a one-page color brochure to 5,000 random addresses will cost upwards of $2,500. The cost of setting up a Web site could be one-tenth of this amount or less (although tracking and analysis can quickly add to the cost)?Many different sectors, including real estate, have found the Internet to be both efficient and cost-effective as a marketing device.The next logical step - a full-fledged office/store on the Web with transaction capability and commerce on the Internet is now being attempted in varying degrees depending on the firm's area of business. Retail sites selling products between $10 and $100, the kind that are traditionally part of a direct mail sales catalog, seem to be the ones having the greatest success(although 4% of sites sell products over $10,000 and another 13% sell products ranging from $100 to$9,999)?A number of retail sites have also harnessed a secondary revenue stream from advertising. Advertising revenues on the Web have crossed the billion-dollar mark and total Internet generated revenue will approach$100 billion this year.Consumers' Use of the WebSurveys of consumers using the Web suggest that a Web site does not substitute for the more traditional forms of business, but can greatly facilitate the run-up to the final transaction. The most common use of the Web is for information searching, closely followed by work-related uses, education, and entertainment. A significant majority of those that use the Web for shopping do so to carry out detailed research on product information（90%）and to do price comparisons（85%）. This more often leads to purchases through normal channels（67%）. Most of the online purchases tend to be of items that are standardized-four of the five top items bought on the Web, according to survey, are software, books, hardware and music (the fifth is travel). Morethan half of consumers who make purchases on the Web spend less than $500 in a six-month period.The demographics of Web users vary widely in age and income. Surveys by Georgia Tech, Active Media and Web indicate that the average age of Web users is 35 years, with average household income $67,000. Most are college educated (65%). A high proportion of the respondents (42%) has accessed real estate sites.Limits to the Web - Some "Catches" to the New Technology New technology is frequently a mixed blessing, and the World Wide Web is no exception. Apart from the teething troubles that any new technology faces and the time, as well as resources needed to learn, adapt and master it, the Web poses some unique issues and problems of its own. Consumers today are facing information overload of taxing proportions. It is not always easy, or even possible, to locate the relevant information on the Web, despite sophisticated search engines. Once the site is located, fancy graphics, complex linkages, labyrinthine routings, and a lot of irrelevant information may overwhelm the consumer - in short, poor and confusing site design can reduce the site's effectiveness.From the point of view of the business, there are two commonly heard complaints. First, the business may find that its site does not figure prominently on search results, limiting the number of customers reached. Second, for many firms, Web initiated leads are as yet few and far between. Real Estate Web SitesReal Estate firms and related businesses were among the early private sector pioneers of Internet use and have had a fast growing presence on the Web. presence on the Web. One example of the real estate sector's presence on the Internet in its pre-World Wide Web incarnation was the real estate classified bulletin board of Prodigy, the online service, which had listings forhomes and other real estate. A few real estate related Web sites started in 1994 (generally regarded as the inaugural year of the Web). The New York City Real Estate Guide Web site, created in the summer of 1994, was one of the first to offer free access to the latest New York real estate information. By the summer of 1995, the site was receiving more than 100,000 inquiries a month.The real estate industry registered its entry on the Web in a dramatic way in 1995. By the end of that year there were close to 4,000 real estate Web sites. The content matter of the sites, as well as the mix of real estate related firms on the Web have changed over time. Initially, quite a few of the sites were residential real estate brokerages and listing guides, but fairly rapidly the list expanded to include commercial and retail listings, mortgage brokers,appraisers, architects, real estate attorneys, developers, construction firms, and suppliers. As investment vehicles for real estate expanded, REITs, publicly held firms, and investment advisors also added Web sites.The early real estate broker Web sites quickly took advantage of the unique features of the Web. Prospective customers could find out what properties were for sale or rent, look up detailed descriptions of each listing, view photographs and floor plans, and contact the broker by e-mail. Viewers could also look up statistical and data reports on conditions in various geographical areas and on emerging macroeconomic trends.Ever since then, the real estate industry has been among the most enthusiastic users of the Web, by some measures accounting for 4% to 6% of commercial Web sites. A survey conducted by Real Estate Broker's Insider in early 1998 confirmed that nearly 95% of the respondents/brokers had a Web site, and more than 90% of the housing stock on sale at a given time is now listed on the Web. Indeed, because of the dispersed, localized nature of the role of information in real estate, the prospective gains from informationdissemination, comparability, and Web links were particularly significant in real estate.For much of the real estate sector, the Internet generates not so much the actual transactions themselves, but creates initial leads that are later followed by transactions, purchases and sales. Web sites frequently lead to contacts that are then nurtured through telephone and person-to-person meetings. For residential real estate, Web activity includes residential searches, housing details, and pricing information (both on houses and mortgages), with follow-up contact with brokers. Real estate-related transactions are seen in the hospitality industry (making reservations for hotels and vacation homes and in online mortgage applications). Mortgage and home loan finance companies report both inquiries from mortgage shoppers who obtained initial information from their Web sites, as well as closing of loans through the Web, lead to great savings in time and overhead costs.It is not just the real estate professionals who are enthusiastic about their Internet presence, judging it to be as effective as print and radio advertising. Mortgage shoppers, homebuyers and vacation rental seekers as well applaud, in particular, the convenience it brings to the entire process of searching, researching, comparing, communicating and transacting business.Beyond these sectors, many other types of real-estate related firms are using the Web to broaden their market areas, increase the depth of their marketing, and to provide a range of services to existing customers. Commercial brokers provide not only information on available sites but also on market conditions for different locations and sometimes more in-depth economic analysis of a region. REITs and other investment firms provide detailed information on their products as well as background market or economic information. Public companies provide up-to-date stock quotes and quarterly and annual reports on the Web.Web Penetration and Use: The Experience of Leading Real Estate Firms We conducted a limited survey of a sample of leading real-estate related firms in the US and California. Responses from approximately 60 of these firms showed that over four-fifths had Web Sites by March 1999. 2 Of those with Web sites, one-third had inaugurated their sites by the end of 1996. Among the earliest with a Web presence were brokers, investment firms, lenders, business and financial services firms, law firms, residential developers, and a trade organization. Another third of the group were newcomers, with sites inaugurated in 1998 or early 1999. Commercial developers were prominent among this group, with residential developers, consultants and advisors, lenders, REITs and investment firms also among this group. Those without sites were more likely to be privately held firms with a relatively narrow base of activity (for example, a commercial developer centered in the San Francisco Bay Area)?Most with Web sites used their site to provide information about the company and to market services. In addition, about one-third marketed property from their site, providing detailed information on the characteristics of buildings available, surrounding communities, and other related data. Other Web site uses include employee recruiting, providing information for members or investors, and disseminating related information on topics such as regulations or real estate markets.What does the Web specifically do for Real Estate?According to Activemedia, an internet research company, some of the sectors experiencing the greatest growth in terms of their presence on the Web in 1998 were computer hardware and software, real estate, publishing and information, finance and Internet services. A significant initial motivation for this rush for the Web is provided by, what can be termed, the "tiptoe" effect. The first ones on the Web had an additional advantage over those whodid not; information on their services, products, home listings now be accessed conveniently by those with computers. The low setup cost, however, and the potential disadvantage of not having a Web presence has propelled others in the profession to set up their own sites.Real estate shares in some of the basic advantages of the Web mentioned earlier, such as ease of marketing, communication and feedback from clients, lowered costs of operations and convenience of customer service and support. In addition, the Web provides positive features specific to the real estate industry.Key elements include the following.1.Increased geographic reach.The Web has dramatically increased the geographic reach of both buyers and sellers. Although the "local" aspect of real estate will perhaps never be whittled away completely, there is no doubt that inquiries about properties can now emanate from far away to a much greater degree than before. This, in turn, potentially increases the size and "depth" of the market and makes it more efficient.2.Capability of visualization.In some sense, increased geographic reach has become possible due to the other emergent feature of the Web, the capability of visualization. In its most state-of-the-art form, Web sites now allow prospective buyers to take virtual tours of homes, resorts, hotels and convention centers.3.Reduced transaction costs.The Web may reduce transactions costs. This has been particularly apparent in the case of mortgages. According to Fannie Mae, 1.5% of all mortgages were handled online this past year. The Web-attributable features that make this kind of a transaction possible are instantaneous comparability, interactive capability, online calculation, online applications, and continuousupdating of the sites.4.Improved information dissemination.The Web offers broad opportunities for increasing the scope and depth of information provided by many different types of firms. A well constructed home page gives an overview of a firm's range of services or activities. Links allow the customer or client to learn much more detail about the selected items of most interest, while ignoring less relevant pieces of information. A number of sites take advantage of the ability to link to resources beyond the company's Web pages, linking customers and clients to related Web resources.Unlike retail sectors, such as books and computer hardware, the Web as yet has not become a threat to the "middle man" role of many real estate firms. Instead, it is more likely to be used as a means of expanding services offered or locations served. However, in the long term, the Web and related Internet technology have the potential to change the structure of business activity, which in turn will affect the demand for real estate in type if not in quantity. For example, some retailers already have closed stores while expanding sales on the Web. Also, the Internet has been seen as one factor allowing the decentralization of office space. These trends to date have not led to a decline, but rather to a redistribution in the demand for office, retail and warehouse space.These are summarized .Speculation on Potential Impact of Internet on Real Estate Industry.1.Shortening of Transaction Cycle2.Precise Market Targeting3.Transformed Competition4.Cost savings:a)Marketing,b)Sales,c)Operation5.Possibility of Disintermediation;Lowering of Commissionsbination of Comparison Shopping and Direct Sales7.Access to MBS Secondary MarketHow to Find the Real Estate Sector on the WebThere are a few key sites that can be used to access the broad range of real-estate related Web sites. These include:-Site sponsored by the National Association of Realtors, linking users to realtor, home sales and market information.-Site sponsored by the National Association of Home Builders, providing a wide range of market information.-Directory to commercial real estate sites, including brokers,developers, investors and analysts. and , two sites that provide users with information about mortgage rates, mortgage brokers and with the opportunity to submit an application online. (National Association of Real Estate Investment Trusts) and (Real Estate Investment Advisory Council), two associations related to real estate investment trusts.-The California Association of Realtors site.the site for the Urban Land Institute, with information on the organization, programs, conferences, and publications related to real estate and land use. has three online magazines including National Real Estate Investor, Shopping Center World, and Midwest Real Estate News. An additional real estate online magazine, can available at .Ashok Deo BardhanRESEARCH FELLOWCynthia A. KrollREGIONAL ECONOMIST互联网在房地产业的应用摘要：互联网，仅仅它的网页图形版本，就已经吸引了众多消费者和商家的目光。
工程造价专业外文文献翻译(中英文对照
外文文献：Project Cost Control: The Way it WorksBy R. Max WidemanIn a recent consulting assignment we realized that there was some lack of understanding of the whole system of project cost control, how it is setup and applied. So we decided to write up a description of how it works. Project cost control is not that difficult to follow in theory.First you establish a set of reference baselines. Then, as work progresses, you monitor the work, analyze the findings, forecast the end results and compare those with the reference baselines. If the end results are not satisfactory then you make adjustments as necessary to the work in progress, and repeat the cycle at suitable intervals. If the end results get really out of line with the baseline plan, you may have to change the plan. More likely, there will be (or have been) scope changes that change the reference baselines which means that every time that happens you have to change the baseline plan anyway.But project cost control is a lot more difficult to do in practice, as is evidenced by the number of projects that fail to contain costs. It also involves a significant amount of work, as we shall see, and we might as well start at the beginning. So let us follow the thread of project cost control through the entire project life span.And, while we are at it, we will take the opportunity to point out the proper places for several significant documents. These include the Business Case, the Request for (a capital) Appropriation (for execution), Work Packages and the Work Breakdown Structure, the Project Charter (or Brief), the Project Budget or Cost Plan, Earned Value and the Cost Baseline. All of these contribute to the organization's ability to effectively control project costs.FootnoteI am indebted to my friend Quentin Fleming, the guru of Earned Value, for checking and correcting my work on this topic.The Business Case and Application for (execution) FundingIt is important to note that project cost control is most effective when the executive management responsible has a good understanding of how projects should unfold through the project life span. This means that they exercise their responsibilities at the key decision points between the major phases. They must also recognize the importance of project risk management for identifying and planning to head off at least the most obvious potential risk events.In the project's Concept Phase• Every project starts with someone identifying an opportunity or need. That is usually someone of importance or influence, if the project is to proceed, and that person often becomes the project's sponsor.• To determine the suitability of the potential project, most organizations call for the preparation of a "Business Case" and its "Order of Magnitude" cost to justify the value of the project so that itcan be compared with all the other competing projects. This effort is conducted in the Concept Phase of the project and is done as a part of the organization's management of the entire project portfolio.• The cost of the work of preparing the Business Case is usually covered by corporate management overhead, but it may be carried forward as an accounting cost to the eventual project. No doubt because this will provide a tax benefit to the organization. The problem is, how do you then account for all the projects that are not so carried forward?• If the Business case has sufficient merit, approval will be given to proceed to a Development and Definition phase.In the project's Development or Definition Phase• The objective of the Development Phase is to establish a good understanding of the work involved to produce the required product, estimate the cost and seek capital funding for the actual execution of the project.• In a formalized setting, especially where big projects are involved, this application for funding is often referred to as a Request for (a capital)Appropriation (RFA) or Capital Appropriation Request (CAR).•This requires the collection of more detailed requirements and data to establish what work needsto be done to produce the required product or "deliverable". From this information, a plan is prepared in sufficient detail to give adequate confidence in a dollar figure to be included in the request.• In a less formalized setting, everyone just tries to muddle through.Work Packages and the WBSThe Project Management Plan, Project Brief or Project Charter•If the deliverable consists of a number of different elements, these are identified and assembled into Work Packages (WPs) and presented in the form of a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS).• Each WP involves a set of activities, the "work" that is planned and scheduled as a part of the Project Management Plan. Note, however, that the planning will still be at a relatively high level,and more detailed planning will be necessary during execution if the project is given the go ahead.• This Project Management Plan, by the way, should become the "bible" for the execution phase of the project and is sometimes referred to as the "Project Brief" or the "Project Charter".• The cost of doing the various activities is then estimated and these estimated costs are aggregated to determine the estimated cost of the WP. This approach is known as "detailed estimating" or "bottom up estimating". There are other approaches to estimating that we'll come to in a minute. Either way, the result is an estimated cost of the total work of the project.Note: that project risk management planning is an important part of this exercise. This should examine the project's assumptions and environmental conditions to identify any weaknesses in the plan thus far, and identify those potential risk events that warrant attention for mitigation. This might take the form of specific contingency planning, and/or the setting aside of prudent funding reserves.Request for capitalConverting the estimate•However, an estimate of the work alone is not sufficient for a capital request. To arrive at a capital request some conversion is necessary, for example, by adding prudent allowances such asoverheads, a contingency allowance to cover normal project risks and management reserves to cover unknowns and possible scope changes.•In addition, it may be necessary to convert the estimating data into a financial accounting formatthat satisfies the corporate or sponsor's format for purposes of comparison with other projects and consequent funding approval.• In practice all the data for the type of "bottom up" approach just described may not be available.In this case alternative estimating approaches are adopted that provide various degrees of reliability in a "top down" fashion. For example:Order of Magnitude estimate – a "ball park" estimate, usually reserved for the concept phase onlyAnalogous estimate – an estimate based on previous similar projectsParametric estimate –an estimate based on statistical relationships in historical data•Whichever approach is adopted, hopefully the sum thus arrived at will be approved in full and proves to be satisfactory! This is the trigger to start the Execution Phase of the projectNote: Some managements will approve some lesser sum in the mistaken belief that this will help everyone to "sharpen their pencils" and "work smarter" for the benefit of the organization. This is a mistaken belief because management has failed to understand the nature of uncertainty and risk in project work. Consequently, the effect is more likely to result in "corner cutting" with an adverse effect on product quality, or reduced product scope or functionality. This often leads to a "game" in which estimates are inflated so that management can adjust themdownwards. But to be fair, management is also well aware that if money is over allocated, it will get spent anyway. The smart thing for managements to do is to set aside contingent reserve funds, varying with the riskiness of the project, and keep that money under careful control.Ownership of approved capital•If senior management approves the RFA as presented, the sum in question becomes the responsibility of the designated project sponsor. However, if the approved capital request includes allowances such as a "Management Reserve", this may or may not be passed on to the project's sponsor, depending on the policies of the organization.• For the approved RFA, the project sponsor will, in turn, further delegate expenditure authority to the project's project manager and will likely not include any of the allowances. An exception might be the contingency allowances to cover the normal variations in work performance.• The net sum thus arrived at constitutes the project manager's Approved Project Budget.Note: If management does not approve the RFA, you should not consider this a project failure. Either the goals, objectives, justification and planning need rethinking to increase the value of the project's deliverables, or senior management simply has higher priorities elsewhere for the available resources and funding.The Project's Execution PhaseThe project manager's Project Budget responsibility•Once this Approved Project Budget is released to the project manager, a reverse process must take place to convert it into a working control document. That is, the money available must be divided amongst the various WBS WPs that, by the way, have probably by now been upgraded! This results in a project execution Control Budget or Project Baseline Budget, or simply, the Project Budget. In some areas of project management application it is referred to as a Project Cost Plan. •On a large project where different corporate production divisions are involved, there may be a further intermediate step of creating "Control Accounts" for theseparate divisions, so that each division subdivides their allocated money into their own WBS WPs.• Observe that, since the total Project Budget received formal approval from Executive Management, you, as project manager, must likewise seek and obtain from Executive Management, via the project's sponsor, formal approval for any changes to the total project budget. Often this is only justified and accepted on the basis of a requested Product Scope Change.• In such a case the project's sponsor will either draw down on the management reserve in his or her possession, or submit a supplementary RFA to upper management. • Now that we have the Project Budget money allocated to Work Packages we can further distribute it amongst the various activities of each WP so that we know how much money we have as a "Baseline" cost for each activity.• This provides us with the base of reference for the cost control function. Of course, depending on the circumstances the same thing may be done at the WP level but the ability to control is then at a higher and coarser level.Use of the Earned Value technique• If we have the necessary details another control tool that we can adopt for monitoring ongoing work is the "Earned Value" (EV) technique. This is a considerable art and science that you must learn about from texts dedicated to the subject. • But essentially, you take the costs of the schedule activities and plot them as a cumulative total on the appropriate time base. Again you can do this at the activity level, WP level or the whole project level. The lower the level the more control information you have available but the more work you get involved in. The Cost Baseline•This planned reference S-curve is sometimes referred to as the "Cost Baseline", typically in EVparlance. That is, it is the "Budgeted Cost of Work Scheduled" (BCWS), or more simply the "Planned Value" (PV).•Observe that you need to modify this Cost Baseline every time there is an approved scope change that has cost and/or schedule implications and consequently changesthe project's Approved Project Budget.• Now, as the work progresses, you can plot the "Actual Cost of Work Performed" (ACWP or simply "Actual Cost" - AC).• You can plot other things as well, see diagram referred to above, and if you don't like what you see then you need to take "Corrective Action". CommentaryThis whole process is a cyclic, situational operation and is probably the source of the term "cycle" in the popularly misnamed "project life cycle".As an aside, the Earned Value pundits offer various other techniques within the EV process designed to aid in forecasting the final result, that is, the "Estimate At Completion" (EAC). EAC is what you should really be interested in because it is the only constant in a moving project. Therefore, these extended EV techniques must be considered in the same realm of accuracy as top-down estimating. They are useful, but only if you recognize the limitations and know what you are doing!But, as we said at the beginning, it is a lot more difficult to do in practice –and involves a significant amount of work. But, let's face it, that's what project managers are hired for, right?中文译文：项目成本控制：它的工作方式R.马克斯怀德曼我们在最近的咨询任务中意识到，对于整个项目成本控制体系是如何设置和应用的这个问题，我们仍有一些缺乏了解。
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中英文资料对照外文翻译Design phase of the project costmanagementAbstractProject cost management is the basic contents to determine reasonable and effective control of the project cost. Described the current stage of the project cost management situation on the strengthening of the various stages of construction cost management of the importance of and raised a number of key initiatives.Keywords：cost of the construction project cost management status investment decision phase of the design phase of the implementation phase of the cost management in a market economy,Even under the WTO and China's accession to the world community, China's construction industry how to effectively control construction cost of the construction and management of an important component part. However, the current budget for the construction projects - estimate, budget, Super budget accounts for the "super three" is still widespread and that eventually led to a serious loss of control of project investment. Project cost management is the basic contents to determine reasonable and effective control of the project cost.As the project cost to the project runs through the entire process, stage by stage can be divided into Investment Decision stage, the design and implementation phases. The so-called Project Cost effective control is the optimization of the construction plans and design programs on the basis of in the building process at all stages, use of certain methods and measures to reduce the cost of the projects have a reasonable control on the scope and cost of the approved limits.Engineering and cost management work of the current status of project cost management system was formed in the 1950s, 1980s perfect together. Performance of the country and directly involved in the management of economic activities. Provisions in the design stage to different estimates or budget preparation as well as government; Nothing relevant departments to formulate a budget, content, methods and approval, the budget will provide the fixed cost of equipment and materials and fixed price of the budget preparation, approval, management authority, and so on.With the historical process, after recovery, reform and development, formed a relatively complete budget estimate of quota management system. However, as the socialist market economic development, the system's many problems have also exposed. Generally speaking, the budget estimate is based on direct participation in the management of national economic activity as a precondition. enterprise is not the actual economic entities. Due to the characteristics of the planned economy, and, at the time under the conditions of productivity, will inevitably become a shortage in the economy.In severe shortage of commodities under the conditions, as long as a certain level of investment, will be certain outputs. In this environment, the project planning and technical argumentation there can be no economic analysis. State control of the project cost constitute key factors equipment and materials prices, wages and taxes of artificial distribution. In this relatively stable economic environment, the budget estimate for the system approved project cost, help the government to carry out investment plans to play a major role.As the socialist market economic system established, requires us to predict project investment and control. In recent years, international investment project developed to the requirements of prior pre-control and in the middle of control. China, the traditional practice in an objective light on the cause decision-making, implementation heavy, light the economy and technology,First, the consequences of victimization,Due to the technical personnel of the project technical and economic concepts and a weak awareness of cost control, costmanagement makes the quality difficult to raise. Project Cost control is difficult to achieve long-term goals.Second, the various stages of the project management view of the above circumstances, My first academia in the 1980s made the whole process of cost management and control concept, building departments will study the feasibility of projects and the budgets and final accounts to two extended at the request of the corresponding regulations put our cost management concepts and methods referred to a new height.Our task now is to be modern and cost management in line with China's national conditions of the market economy system goal, learn from the advanced experience of the developed countries, and establish sound market economic laws of project cost management system, efforts to increase the project cost levels. An investment decision-making phase of the project cost management construction project investment decision-making stage is proposed project proposals; conduct a feasibility study to determine investment estimation and the final preparation of design task. At this stage, the project's technical and economic decision-making, of the construction project cost of the project after the completion of the economic benefits have a decisive influence, The construction cost is an important stage control.China's current stage of the project cost for the project management for the purpose of clearing price, and focusing only on the construction process of cost control, neglected before the start of the project investment decision-making stage of cost control. Investment decision-making phase of investment projects is estimated an important basis for decision-making. It has a direct impact on national economic and financial analysis of the results of the reliability and accuracy. Because of this phase is the preliminary work of projects, the information can not be fully, comparable works more or less that information accumulated relatively small, estimated inadequate and unscientific. Makes project cost management and cost workers is difficult at this stage do something.The various stages of the project cost control in the decision-making phaseproject cost control. Right project planning phase of the cost, many owners have the wrong understanding that the lower the cost the better. Cost control is not a unilateral issue, and should be a number of factors, a combination of practical, comprehensive consideration. The construction project investment decision-making stage, the project's technical and economic decision-making, Cost of the project after the completion of the project and the economic benefits, with a decisive role in project cost control is an important stage, rationally define and control the direction of the project cost of accurate positioning and building Optimization guiding role.In the decision-making phase of the most important is to do a good job feasibility study, the work is done well, returns on investment and can form a good proportion. Otherwise, invest more, less effective, resulting in loss of control and waste of investment.At present, some of the projects planned the owners of departure from the subjective desires of a feasibility study on the lack of scientific proof. Feasibility Study untrue, false or engineering functions obtaining the approval of their superiors, actually put into the feasibility study will be awarded in the study for the project after the smooth functioning buried a lot of hidden problems, lead to insufficient follow-up funds for the project and had to extend the time limit so that the project could not have planned the use of cost-effective, even become hopeless completion of the beard works.Therefore, in order to phase in the investment decision-making effectively control construction costs, we must do the following aspects:ⅰImplementation of the construction project and corporate accountability, Construction of the project from planning to implementation of the entire process and the use of the funds to repay responsibilities to the people. in addition to establishing a legal system and the project supervision matching mechanism by the departments in charge of the industry and supervision departments for setting up a monitoring group to oversee the use of funds.ⅱA realistic approach to market analysis, to avoid the blindness of the projectdecision-making, reduces and reduces investment risk. Fully consider building projects in the future market competitiveness, design task more scientific and reliability.ⅲCapital financing must have a formal commitment document, the parties must do investment funds in place, and funds must have documents to ensure that the project can be approved after the scheduled implementation. To the various loan conditions should be carefully analyzed to minimize the burden of interest and repayment pressure.ⅳTo strengthen the engineering geology, hydrology, geology and land, water, electricity, transport, environmental projects such as external conditions for the work of depth to make the investment estimate there are sufficient grounds.Taking extensive investigation and research, comparison of similar projects, seriously functional analysis, multi-program comparison and choice. After full technical appraisal and economic evaluation, and the final technologically advanced, functional and reliable. Reasonable economic projects, thus calculate a more accurate and realistic estimation of the amount of investment, so that the project cost from the start positioning in a more reasonable level.The design phase of the project cost control for a long time, China's building control very effective, - investment projects is not uncommon, this will affect owners of investment returns, it adds to the owners and within budget, as well as difficulties in fund owners, the impact on the future management or the owners make payments in arrears, and so on. Hence, the control of the project cost is of great significance, however the project cost is the primary means of control design,Currently most of the property owners in the design stage seldom works on cost control, and they found that the cost of the design will not have a great impact, it is wrong, on the contrary, Design phase of the project cost control is the most important step. Because it determines engineering design, construction methods, materials and equipment types, models of the project cost is of critical significance, design optimization phase of the program or minor changes, project cost will have asignificant impact, Design phase of the project cost control of the total project cost of 70%. Following is how to control the project from design to create the Law: ⅰAs the owners must design, the design selected on the quality level is a direct impact on the quality of product design level, and the design quality products in the level of direct influence on the pricing of the works. Different design units on the same project design are different. the same item of different design institute works between certain aspects of the project cost on the existence of differences between, We assume that with a design from two different design institute to design, Construction plans after the completion of a requested advisory unit cost to do the budget, certainly different design institute the total cost of the project is absolutely not the same, and most of the difference between the two over 10% even more than 30%, and not necessarily high cost than the design of low cost, and good design is often low cost, We all know that different people have different design styles and different levels, the design works naturally, therefore chosen to design units is the control on the first step. Through tender to select the design of the units is a good method, the tender documents to elaborate on this particular aspect of the requirements, cost control targets, and so on.2设计阶段的工程造价控制长期以来,我国建筑控制很有效,因此,控制工程造价具有重要意义, 但工程造价的主要方法是控制设计。