戴炜栋《简明英语语言学教程》Chapter_3_Morphology320
戴炜栋简明语言学教程配套笔记
Chapter 1 What is language?[A] The origins of languageSome speculations of the origins of language:①The divine sourceThe basic hypothesis: if infants were allowed to grow up without hearing any language, then they would spontaneously begin using the original god-given language.Actually, children living without access to human speech in their early years grow up with no language at all.②The natural-sound sourceThe bow-wow theory: the suggestion is that primitive words could have been imitations of the natural sounds which early men and women heard around them.The “Yo-heave-ho” theory: the sounds produced by humans when exerting physical effort, especially when co-operating with other humans, may be the origins of speech sounds.Onomatopoeic sounds③The oral-gesture sourceIt is claimed that originally a set of physical gestures was developed as a means of communication.The patterns of movement in articulation would be the same as gestural movement; hence waving tongue would develop from waving hand.④Glossogenetics（言语遗传学）This focuses mainly on the biological basis of the formation and development of human language.Physiological adaptation→develop naming ability→interactions and transactionsPhysical adaptation:Human teeth are upright and roughly even in height.Human lips have intricate muscle interlacing, thus making them very flexible.The human mouth is small and contains a very flexible tongue.The human larynx is lowered, creating a longer cavity called the pharynx, and making it easier for the human to choke on the pieces of food, but making the sound speech possible.The human brain is lateralized. Those analytic functions (tool-using and language) are largely confined to the left hemisphere of the brain for most humans.Two major functions of language:Interactional: a social function of language.Transactional: a function involving the communication of knowledge and information[B] The properties of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.a) System: combined together according to rulesb) Arbitrary: no intrinsic connection between the word “pen” and the thing in the world which it refers toc) Vocal: the primary medium is sound for all languagesd) Human: language is human-specific（交际性与信息性）Communicative vs. Informative:Communicative: intentionally using language to communicate somethingInformative: through/via a number of signals that are not intentionally sentDesign features (unique properties): the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication①Displacement（跨时空性，移位性）Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker (refer to past and future time and to other locations)②Arbitrariness（任意性）There is no logical or natural connection between a linguistic form (either sound or word) and its meaning.While language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary.a) echo of the sounds of objects or activities: onomatopoeic wordsb) some compound words③Productivity（能产性，创造性）Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. (Creativity or open-endedness)④Cultural transition（文化传递性）While human capacity for language has a genetic basis (everyone was born with the ability to acquire a language), the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learnt.⑤Discreteness（可分离性）Each sound in the language is treated as discrete.⑥Duality（双重结构性，两重性或二元性）Language is organized at two levels or layers simultaneously. The lower or basic level is a structure of sounds which are meaningless. The higher level is morpheme or word (double articulation)The above six properties may be taken as the core features of human language.Vocal-auditory channel, reciprocity, specialization, non-directionality, or rapid fade, these properties are best treated as ways of describing human language, but not as a means of distinguishing it from other systems of communication.[C] The development of written language①pictograms & ideograms（象形文字和表意文字）Pictogram: when some of the pictures came to represent particular images in a consistent way, we can begin to describe the product as a form of picture-writing, or pictograms.Ideogram: the picture developed as more abstract and used other than its entity is considered to be part of a system of idea-writing, or ideogram Hieroglyph: 古埃及象形文字②Logograms（语标书写法）When symbols come to be used to represent words in a language, they are described as examples of word-writing, or logograms.“Arbitrariness”—a writing system which was word-based had come into existence.Cuneiform--楔形文字—the Sumerians (5000 and 6000 years ago)Chinese is one example of its modern writing system.Advantages: two different dialects can be based on the same writing system.Disadvantages: vast number of different written forms.③Syllabic writing（音节书写法）When a writing system employs a set of symbols which represent the pronunciations of syllables, it is described as syllabic writing.The Phoenicians: the first human beings that applied the full use of a syllabic writing system (ca 1000 BC)④Alphabetic writing（字母书写法）Semitic languages (Arabic and Hebrew): first applied this ruleThe Greeks: taking the inherently syllabic system from the Phoenicians via the RomansLatin alphabet and Cyrillic alphabet (Slavic languages)⑤Rebus writingRobus writing evolves a process whereby the symbol used for an entity comes to be used for the sound of the spoken word used for that entity.Chapter 2 What is linguistics?[A] The definition of linguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Process of linguistic study:①Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed;②Hypotheses are formulated;③Hypotheses are tested by further observations;④ A linguistic theory is constructed.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.[B] The scope of linguisticsGeneral linguistics: the study of language as a wholePhonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study of the phonic medium of language) (How speech sounds are produced and classified)Phonology: is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. (How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning)Morphology: the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (how morphemes are combined to form words)Syntax: the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences)Semantics: the study of meaning in abstractionPragmatics: the study of meaning in context of useSociolinguistics: the study of language with reference to societyPsycholinguistics: the study of language with reference to the workings of the mindApplied linguistics: the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learningAnthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics; mathematical linguistics; mathematical linguistics; computational linguistics[C] Some important distinctions in linguistics①Prescriptive vs. Descriptive②Synchronic vs. DiachronicThe description of a language at some point in time;The description of a language as it changes through time.③Speech and writingSpoken language is primary, not the written④Langue and paroleProposed by Swiss linguists F. de Sausse (sociological)Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communityParole: refers to the realization of langue in actual use⑤Competence and performanceProposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky (psychological)Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his languageChapter 3 Phonetics and phonology[A] The definition of phoneticsPhonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s language s.Articulatory phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are made, or articulated.Acoustic phonetics: deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air.Auditory (or perceptual) phonetics: deals with the perception, via the ear, of speech sounds.Forensic phonetics: has an application in legal cases involving speaker identification and the analysis of recorded utterances.[B] Organs of speechVoiceless: when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded.Voiced: when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeated pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect.All the English vowels are typically voiced (voicing).The important cavities:The pharyngeal cavityThe oral cavityThe nasal cavityLips, teeth, teeth ridge (alveolus), hard palate, soft palate (velum), uvula, tip of tongue, blade of tongue, back of tongue, vocal cords [C] Orthographic representation of speech soundsBroad and narrow transcriptionsIPA (International Phonetic Alphabet/Association)Broad transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols onlyNarrow transcription: the transcription with diacriticsE.g.:[l]→[li:f]--→ a clear [l] (no diacritic)[l]→[bild]--→a dark [l] (~)[l]→[hel ]--→a dental [l] ( )[p]→[pit]--→an aspirated [p h](h)[p]→[spit]--→an unaspirated [p] (no diacritic)[n]→[ b✈tn]→a syllabic nasal [n] ( )[D] Classification of English consonantsIn terms of manner of articulation (the manner in which obstruction is created)①Stops: the obstruction is total or complete, and then going abruptly[p]/[b], [t]/[d], [k]/[g]②Fricatives: the obstruction is partial, and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the month[f]/[v], [s]/[z], [ ]/[❆], [☞]/[✞], [h] (approximant)③Affricates: the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly as in fricatives[t☞]/[d✞]④Liquids: the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue and the roof of the mouth[l]→a lateral sound; [r]→ retroflex⑤Glides: [w], [j] (semi-vowels)Liquid + glides + [h]→ approximants⑥Nasals: the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate to let air pass through it[m], [⏹], []By place of articulation (the place where obstruction is created)Phonemic contrast: when two phonemes can occur in the same environments in two words and they distinguish meaning, they’re in phonemic contrast.E.g. pin & bin → /p/ vs. /b/ rope & robe → /p/ vs. /b/Complementary distribution: two or more than two allophones of the same phonemes are said to be in complementary distribution because they can not appear at the same time, or occur in different environment, besides they do not distinguish meaning.Minimal pair: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sounds are said to form a minimal pair.When a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then all of these words constitute a minimal sets.[H] Some rules in phonology①sequential rulesSyllableOnset rimeNucleus coda[Consonant] vowel [consonant(s)]Phonotactics of 3Cs occurring in onset:No1:___/s/___voiceless stops: /p/, /t/, /k/___approximants: /r/, /l/, /w/, /j/No2:The affricates [t☞]/[d✞] and the sibilants [s], [z], [☞], [✞] are not to be followed by another sibilants.②assimilation rulesCo-articulation effects: the process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next is called co-articulation.Assimilation & elision effectsAssimilation: two phonemes occur in sequence and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or copied by the otherE.g. nasalize a vowel when it is followed by a nasal sound.③deletion rule-ElisionDefinition: the omission of a sound segment which would be present in deliberate pronunciation of a word in isolationE.g. delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant[I] Suprasegmental features①StressWord stress & sentence stressThe stress of the English compounds always on the first element②ToneDefinition: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like morphemes.Tone language, like Chinese, has four tones.Level, rise, fall-rise, fall③IntonationWhen pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.English: the four basic types of intonation, or the four tonesThe falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rising tone, and the rise-fall toneChapter 4 Morphology[A] The definition of morphologyMorphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Inflectional morphologyDerivational morphology (lexical morphology)Morpheme: the smallest meaningful components of words(A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function)[B] Free morphemes & bound morphemesFree morphemes: can stand by themselves as single words→ Lexical morphemes [ & functional morphemes [Bound morphemes: can not normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to another form→ Derivational morphemes----→affix (suffix, infix, prefix) + root→ Inflectional morphemes → 88 types of inflectional morphemes in EnglishNoun+ -’s, -s [possessive; plural]Verb+ -s, -ing, -ed, -en [3rd person present singular; present participle; past tense, past participle]Adj+ -er, -est [comparative; superlative][C] Derivational vs. inflectionalInflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category of a wordInflectional morphemes influence the whole category;Derivational morphemes are oppositeOrder: root (stem) + derivational + inflectional[D] Morphological RulesN. +ly→ a.; A. +ly→ adv.; guard overgeneralization[E] Morphs and allomorphsMorphs: the actual forms used to realize morphemesAllomorphs: a set of morphs, all of which are versions of one morpheme, we refer to them as allomorphs of that morpheme.[F] Word-formation process①Coinage→the invention of totally new terms②Borrowing→the taking over of words form other languagesLoan-translation (Claque)→ a direct translation of the elements of a word into the borrowing languageStand alone to be the opposite of word-formation③Compounding→ a joining of two separate words to produce a single formFeatures of compoundsa)Orthographically, a compound can be written as one word, with or without a hyphen in between, or as two separate words.b)Syntactically, the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element.c)Semantically, the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total of the meanings of its components.d)Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element,While the second element receives secondary stress.④Blending→ taking over the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of other word⑤Clipping→ a word of more than one syllable reduced to a shorter form⑥Back formation→ a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing wordHypocorisms→clipping or +ie⑦Conversion→ category change, functional shift⑧Acronyms→ new words are formed from the initial letters of a set of other words⑨Derivation→ the new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems, or words ⑩Abbreviation→ a shortened form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form AnalogyChapter 5 Grammar[A] Types of grammarThe study of grammar, or the study of the structure of expressions in a language, has a very long tradition.①Mental grammar: a form of internal linguistic knowledge which operates in the production and recognition of appropriately structured expressions in that language. → Psychologist②Linguistic etiquette: the identification of the proper or best structures to be used in a language. → Sociologist③The study and analysis of the structures found in a language, with the aim of establishing a description of the grammar of English, e.g. as distinct from the grammar of Russia or French. → Linguist[B] The parts of speechNouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions→ the grammatical categories of words in sentences[C] Traditional grammar (Categories and analysis)Other categories: number, person, tense, voice and genderAgreement:English language←natural genderGrammatical gender→ French[D] Types of grammar concerning analysisThe prescriptive approach: The view of grammar as a set of rules for the proper use of a languageThe descriptive approach: analysts collect samples of the language they are interested in and attempt to describe the regular structures of the language at it is used, not according to some view of how it should be used.[E] Structural and immediate constituent analysis (IC Analysis)Structural analysis: to investigate the distinction of forms (e.g. morphemes) in a languageIC Analysis: how small constituents (Components) in sentences go together to form larger constituents[F] Labeled and bracketed sentencesHierarchical organization of the constituents in a sentenceLabel each constituent with grammatical terms such as Art. N. NPChapter 6 Syntax[A] The definition of syntaxA subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language[B] The basic components of a sentenceSentenceSubject PredicateReferring expression comprises finite verb or a verb phrase and says something about the subject[C] Types of sentencesSimple sentence: consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.Coordinate (Compound) sentence: contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunctions, such as “and”, “by”, “or”…Complex sentence: contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the otherEmbedded clause←→ matrix clause①subordinator ②f unctions as a grammatical unit ③may be complete[D] The linear and hierarchical structures of sentencesWhen a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence, which suggests the structure of a sentence is linear.But the superficial arrangement of words in a linear sequence does not entail that sentences are simply linearly-structured; sentences are organized with words of the same syntactic category, such as NP or VP, grouped together.Tree diagram of constituent structureBrackets and subscript labels[E] Some categoriesSyntactic categories: refer to a word or a phrase that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject or the predicate Lexical categories: (parts of speech)Major lexical categories (open categories):N. V. Adj. Adv.Minor lexical categories (closed categories):Det. Aux. Prep. Pron. Conj. Int.Phrasal categories: NP, VP, PP, AP[F] Grammatical RelationsThe structural and logical functional relations of constituentsIt concerns the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verbSubject of and direct object ofStructural subject, structural objectLogical subject (the doer of the action), the logical object (the recipient of the action)These two groups of subjects and objects may have different positions[G] Combinational rulesAre small in number→ Yield all the possible sentencesRule out the impossible ones①phrase structure rules (rewrite rules)S→ NP VP(A sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase)NP→ (Det.) (Adj.) N (PP) (S)An optional determiner….and obligatory noun,VP→ V (NP) (POP) (S)AP→ A (PP) (S)PP→ P NP②the recursiveness of phrase structure rulesSignificantly, the above rules can generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinite length, due to their recursive properties.③X- bar theoryHead→ an obligatory word that givers the phrase its nameXP or X-phraseXP→ (Specifier) X (complement)Formula:X”→Spec X’X-bar theory (X-bar schema)X’→ X complTree diagramX”Specifier X’X complement[H] Syntactic movement and movement rulesSyntactic movement: occurs when a constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new placeTransformational rules①NP-movement and WH-movementNP-movement: active voice → passive voicePostposing, preposingWH-movement: affirmative→ interrogativeLeftward matter to the sentence initial-position②Other types of movementAux-movement: the movement of an auxiliary to the sentence-initial position③D-structure and S-structureTwo levels of syntactic representation of a sentence structure:One that exists before movement takes placeThe other that occurs after movement takes placeFormal linguistic exploration:D-structure: phrase structure rules + lexiconSentence at the level of D-structureThe application of syntactic movement rules transforms a sentence fromD-structure level to S-structure levelTransformational-generative line of analysis④Move α– a general movement ruleMove any constituent to any placeCertain constituents can move to only certain positions[I] Universal Grammar (UG)Principles-and-parameters theory:UG is a system of linguistic knowledge and a human species-specific gift which exits in the mind or brain of a normal human being and which consists of some general principles and parameters about natural languages.①general principles of UGCase condition principle: a noun phrase must have case and case is assigned by V or P to the object position or by Aux to the subject position Adjacency condition or Case assignment: a case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacency to each other.It is strictly observed in English well-formed sentences, not other languages (no other phrasal category can intervene between a verb and its direct object)The Adjacency condition must be subject to parametric variation in order to explain the apparent adjacency violations such as in French.②The parameters of UGParameters are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.[+strict adjacency]Adjacency parameter[-strict adjacency][Rightward directionality]The Directionality Parameter → involves word order[Leftward directionality]En: VP word order VP→ V NPJp: VP word order VP→ NP VNatural languages are viewed to vary according to parameters set on UG principles to particular values.Chapter 7 Semantics[A] The definition of semanticsDefinition: the study of meaning from the linguistic point of view[B] Some views concerning the study of meaning①the naming theory: The linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for; words are just names or labels for things.②the conceptualist view: There’s no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between language and t he real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.Thought/reference → conceptSymbol/Form (words) Referent →(real object)Proposed by Ogden & Richards③contextualism: John FirthThe situational context: in a particular spatiotemporal situationLinguistic context (co-text): the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another word④behaviorism→ Bloomfield based on contextualist viewBehaviorists define meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer S: stimulus r: responseJill JackS---------r………s---------R(the small letters r, s→speech)(the capitalized letter R, S→practical events)[C] Sense and referenceSense: is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form, abstract and de-contextualized.Reference: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experienceMoving star I once was bitten by a dog.Morning star Mind you. There is a dog over there.[D] Major sense relations①synonymy→ the sameness or close similarity of meaninga. dialectal synonyms——synonyms used in different regional dialectsb. stylistic synonyms——synonyms differing in stylec. synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaningd. collocational synonymse. semantically different synonyms②polysemy——one word that has more than one related meaning③homonymyHomophones: when two words are identical in soundHomographs: when two words are identical in spellingComplete homonyms: when two words are identical both in spelling and inSoundEtymology④hyponymy—— inclusivenessThe word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinator.The word which is more specific in meaning is called hyponym.Co-hyponym⑤antonymy——oppositenessGradable antonymsComplementary antonymsRelational opposites: pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between items⑥metonymyMeaning based on a close connection in everyday experience, of which can be based on a container-contents relation, a whole-part relation, or a representative-symbol relationship⑦collocationOrganize the knowledge of words in terms of frequently occurring together⑧prototypesThe concept of a prototype helps explain the meaning of certain words, not in terms of component features, but in terms of resemblance to the clearest exemplar.[E] Sense relations between sentences①X is synonymous with Y②X is inconsistent with Y③X entails Y (Y is an entailment of X)④X presupposes Y (Y is a prerequisite of X)⑤X is a contradiction⑥X is semantically anomalous[F] Componential analysis→a way to analyze lexical meaningSemantic features: the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, or semantic featuresPhoneme→ distinctive featuresShow how those words are related in meaning[G] Predication analysis→a way to analyze sentence meaning proposed by British linguist G. Leech①the meaning of a sentence is not the sum total (of the meanings of all its components)②Grammatical meaning and semantic meaningGrammaticality selectional restrictionsSemantic analysis:Predication (basic unit)→ the abstract meaning of the sentenceArgument(s) 论元predicate（谓词）Logical participant(s) Sth said about an argument or states the logical relation linking the argument(s) in a sentenceThe predicate can be regarded as the main element.Tom smokes.→ TOM (SMOKE)→ one-place predicationKids like apples.→ KID, APPLE (LIKE)→ two-place predicationIt’s raining.→ (RAIN)→ no-place predication。
新编简明英语语言学教程戴炜栋第1-3章课后练习题答案
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版 第1-3章练习题 参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction P13 1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language ？答：答： Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe observe language language language facts facts facts first, first, first, which which which are are are found found found to to to display display display some some some similarities, similarities, similarities, and and and generalizations generalizations generalizations are are are made made made about about about them; them; them; then then then he he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed observed facts facts facts to to to fully fully fully prove prove prove their their their validity. validity. validity. In In In linguistics, linguistics, linguistics, as as as in in in any any any other other other discipline, discipline, discipline, data data data and and and theory theory theory stand stand stand in in in a a a dialectical dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things. 2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? 答：答： The major branches of linguistics are: (1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication; (2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication; (3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words; (4) (4) syntax: syntax: syntax: it it it studies studies studies the the the rules rules rules which which which govern govern govern how how how words words words are are are combined combined combined to to to form form form grammatically grammatically grammatically permissible permissible permissible sentences sentences sentences in in languages; (5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language; (6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use. 3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar? 答：答： The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “t raditional gramma grammar.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional g r.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways. Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence. Then, Then, modem modem modem linguistics linguistics linguistics differs differs differs from from from traditional traditional traditional grammar grammar grammar also also also in in in that that that it it it does does does not not not force force force languages languages languages into into into a a a Latin-based Latin-based framework. 4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why? 答：答： In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development. 5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing? 答：答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any langu age is always “invented” by its users to reco rd speech when the need arises. arises. Even Even Even in in in today's today's today's world world world there there there are are are still still still many many many languages languages languages that that that can can can only only only be be be spoken spoken spoken but but but not not not written. written. written. Then Then Then in in in everyday everyday communication, communication, speech speech speech plays plays plays a a a greater greater greater role role role than than than writing writing writing in in in terms terms terms of of of the the the amount of amount of information information conveyed. conveyed. conveyed. And And And also, also, also, speech speech speech is is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of spe ech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from from everyday speech, everyday speech, which they regard as authentic. 6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence andperformance?答：答： Saussure's Saussure's distinction distinction distinction and and and Chomsky's Chomsky's Chomsky's are are are very very very similar, similar, similar, they they they differ differ differ at at at least least least in in in that that that Saussure Saussure Saussure took took took a a a sociological sociological sociological view view view of of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual. 7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答：答： First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess. 8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system? （2．2语言的识别性特征）美国语言学家 C. Hockett 提出了人类语言的 12种识别性特征，其中最重要的识别性特种有5种：即语言的任意性、创造性、二重性、移位性和文化传递性。
戴炜栋英语语言学概论Chapter
戴炜栋英语语言学概论ChapterChapter 1: Introduction to English Linguistics1.1 The Scope of English LinguisticsEnglish linguistics, as a branch of linguistics, focuses on the study of the English language. It encompasses various aspects of the language, including its phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Through the examination of these linguistic components, linguists aim to understand how English is structured, how it functions, and how it is used for communication.1.2 The Historical Development of EnglishEnglish has a rich history that can be traced back to the Germanic languages spoken by the Anglo-Saxons in England during the 5th and 6th centuries. Over time, it evolved and absorbed influences from other languages, such as Latin, French, and Norse, due to political, cultural, and social interactions. This resulted in the Old English, Middle English, and Modern English periods, each characterized by distinct linguistic features and changes.1.3 English Phonetics and PhonologyPhonetics is concerned with the physical aspects of speech sounds, while phonology examines the patterns and rules governing the organization of these sounds in a particular language. In English phonetics, the sounds are classified into vowels and consonants and further divided into various articulatory features, such as place and manner of articulation. Englishphonology, on the other hand, investigates sound patterns, such as stress, intonation, and phonotactics, which affect the pronunciation of words and sentences.1.4 English MorphologyMorphology is the study of word formation and structure. In English morphology, linguists analyze the internal structure of words and identify morphemes, which are the smallest meaningful units. English words can be divided into free morphemes, which can stand alone as single words, and bound morphemes, which can only be attached to other morphemes. Moreover, word formation processes, such as affixation, compounding, and derivation, are examined to understand how new words are created in English.1.5 English SyntaxSyntax investigates the rules and principles governing the arrangementof words to form grammatically correct sentences. In English syntax, linguists analyze sentence structures, constituents, and grammatical relationships, such as subject-verb agreement, word order, and sentence types (declarative, interrogative, imperative, etc.). The analysis of syntactic structures allows us to comprehend how sentences are constructed and how different meanings are conveyed through sentence formation.1.6 English SemanticsSemantics studies the meaning of linguistic expressions, including words, phrases, and sentences. In English semantics, linguists explore how meaning is conveyed through lexical and grammatical devices, such as synonyms,antonyms, hyponyms, and collocations. Additionally, pragmatic aspects, such as implicature, speech acts, and context, play a crucial role in understanding the intended meaning of utterances in different communicative situations.1.7 English PragmaticsPragmatics involves the study of how context influences the interpretation and use of language. In English pragmatics, linguists examine various pragmatic phenomena, such as politeness strategies, discourse analysis, speech acts, and conversational implicature. Understanding pragmatics helps us interpret utterances and understand the intended meanings beyond the literal level, as well as navigate the social and cultural aspects of communication.1.8 ConclusionEnglish linguistics provides us with a comprehensive understanding of the English language's structure, function, and usage. Through the examination of its phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics, linguists gain valuable insights into the complexities of English and its role as a global language. By continuing to explore and analyze these linguistic aspects, we can further enhance our knowledge and proficiency in English communication.。
戴炜栋《简明语言学教程》配套笔记-自己整理版(DOC)
Chapter 1 IntroductionWhat is linguistics? 什么是语言学[A] The definition of linguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language (对语言进行的科学研究)Process of linguistic study:① Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed;② Hypotheses are formulated;③ Hypotheses are tested by further observations;④ A linguistic theory is constructed.[B] The scope of linguistics General linguistics普通语言学: the study of language as a whole从整体研究1.Phonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study of the phonic medium of language) (How speech sounds are produced and classified)2.Phonology: is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.(How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning)3.Morphology: the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (how morphemes are combined to form words)4.Syntax: the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences)5.Semantics: the study of meaning in abstraction6.Pragmatics: the study of meaning in context of useSociolinguistics: the study of language with reference to societyPsycholinguistics: the study of language with reference to the workings of the mindApplied linguistics: the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learning Anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics; mathematical linguistics; mathematical linguistics; computational linguistics[C] Some important distinctions in linguistics① Prescriptive vs. Descriptive 规定性与描写性② Synchronic vs. Diachronic 共时性与历时性（现代英语多研究共时性）The description of a language at some point in time;The description of a language as it changes through time.③ Speech and writing 言语与文字Spoken language is primary, not the written④ Langue and parole 语言和言语Proposed by Swiss linguists F. de Sausse (sociological)。
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解-第3~5章【圣才出品】
派生和曲折诧素 5. Morphological rules of word formation
词诧构成的形态觃则 6. Derivation
派生 7. Compounds
合成词
本章考点： 词法的定义；封闭词不开放词；曲折词不派生词；构词法(合成不派生)；词素的定义；
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圣才电子书 十万种考研考证电子书、题库规频学习平台
IV. Analyzing Word Structure（分析词汇结构） 1. Roots: constitute the core of the word and carries the major component of its
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圣才电子书 十万种考研考证电子书、题库规频学习平台
形态学研究词的内部结构以及构词觃则，包括屈折变化和构词法两个领域。
II. Open class and closed class（开放类和封闭类） 1. Open class words: in English, nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs make up the largest part of the vocabulary. They are the content words of a language. 开放性词类：在英诧中，名词、动词、形容词和副词占词汇的绝大部分。它们是一门诧 言中的实义词，经常有新词产生。 2. Closed class words: The other syntactic categories include “grammatical” or “functional” words. Conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns consist of relatively few words and new words are not usually added to them. 封闭性词类：其他的句法范畴包括“诧法性的”戒者“功能性的”词。连词、介词、冠 词和代词相对较少，通常丌会增加新词。
戴炜栋语言学教程必背考点
《新编简明英语语言学教程》必背考点Chapter 1 IntroductionChapter 2 PhonologyChapter 3 MorphologyChapter 4 SyntaxChapter 5 SemanticsChapter 6 PragmaticsChapter 7 Language ChangeChapter 8 Language and SocietyChapter 9 Language and CultureChapter 10 Language AcquisitionChapter 11 Second Language AcquisitionChapter 12 Language And The Brain《新编简明英语语言学教程》Chapter 1 Introduction考点1 Distinguish beween prescriptive and descriptive study(1)Prescriptive（规定性）: The linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say.(2)Descriptive (描写性）: The linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language peopleactually use.(3)Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive. It differs from earlier studies of language normallyknown as “grammar” in that the latter is based on “high” (religious, literary) written language.It aims to set models forlanguage users to follow. On the other hand, modern linguistics is supposed to be scientific and objective and its task is to describe the language people actually use, be it “correct” or not. Modern linguists believe that whatever occurs in the languagepeople use should be described and analyzed in their investigations.考点2 Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?(1)Synchronic (共时性）——the description of a language at some point of time in history.(2)Diachronic (历时性）——the description of a language as it change through time. It is ahistorical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.(3)In modern linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one.Because it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development. Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of a language in its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of this type.考点3 Why speech is prior to writing?Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language.a. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writingsystem of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world, there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written.b. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than wiring in terms of the amount of information conveyed.c. Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school.d. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.考点4：How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?(1)Langue (语言) vs Parole (言语)The distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure (索绪尔) in the early 20th century.Langue is the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community. It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by.It is abstract and is not the language people actually use. It is relatively stable and systematic, does not change frequently.Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. It is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules. It is concrete and it refers to the naturally occurring language events. It varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.In Saussure's opinion,parole is simply a mass of linguistic facts, too varied and confusing for systematic investigation, and what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, i.e. to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of linguistic study.Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.(2)Competence (语言能力)VS Performance (语言运用)The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by American linguist N.Chomsky（乔姆斯基）in the late 1950sCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language and it is a set of rules internalized in the brain. According to Chomsky, a speaker has internalized a set of rules about his language, which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous.Performance refers to the actual realization of his knowledge in linguistic communication. Despite one’s perfect knowledge of his own language, a speaker can still make mistakes in actual use, e.g. slips of the tongue and unnecessary pauses. This imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors such as stress, anxiety and embarrassment.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks that linguists should study the ideal speaker's competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied. Although a speaker possesses an internalized set of rules and applies them in actual use, he cannot tell exactly what these rules are. So the task of the linguists is to discover and specify these rules.Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.考点5 What are the main features of human language that have been specified byC. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.(1) Arbitrariness 任意性:①there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds, that is, the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning②A good example is that different sounds in different languages are used to refer to the same object.e.g. “汽车” in Chinese, “der Wagen” in German and “car” in English;③The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of complexity, which makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.④While language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. The first example isonomatopoeic words (拟声词) which imitate natural sound, such as rumble, crash, bang in English, putong(扑通）shasha(沙沙）in Chinese.The second example is compound words because the meaning of the compound words are determined by the combination of two words, such as type-writer, shoe-maker.⑤Non-arbitrary words account for only a small percentage of the vocabulary of a language. Therefore, it doesn’t negate the fact that language is arbitrary.（2）Productivity/Creativity创造性①Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This explains why people can produce and understand an infinitely la rge number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard or used before.②Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive. For example, bee dancing is used only to indicate food sources, which is the only kind of message that can be sent through the dancing.(3) Duality/ Double articulation 二重性①Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels.②At the lower level, there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless themselves. e.g. the three separate sounds /k/ /æ/ /t/ are meaningless.③But the sounds of language can be grouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes(词素) and words according to certain rules, which are found at the higher level of the system. Then the units at the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. e.g. The combination of the three sounds /k/ /æ/ /t/ can produce a meaningful words [kæt] (cat).④This duality of structure or double articulation(双重分节）of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it.(4) Displacement 移位性①Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far away places. That is, Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.②This property provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place. In contrast, no animal communication possesses this feature. For example, animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation, i.e. in contact of food, in presence of danger, or in pain. Once the danger or pain is gone, calls stops.(5) Cultural transmission 文化传递性①While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e. we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.②Language is culturally transmitted in that it is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct like animal call system. In contrast, animal call systems are genetically transmitted, namely, animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.考点6 What are the major functions of language identified by Jakobson?Jakobson (雅克布逊)identified six elements of a speech event and relates each one of them to one specific language function.Addresser说话者---EmotiveThe addresser expresses his attitude to the topic or situation of communication, i.e. to express attitudes, feelings and requests. e.g. I hate those who are always lying.Addressee受话者---Conative 意动功能The addresser aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways of thinking, i.e. to persuade and influence others through commands and requestse.g. Why not go with us to have a picnic? Why not go and see another doctorContext语境---Referential 所指功能The addresser conveys a message or information 传达信息e.g. Currently, we live in an information age when the Internet plays a significant role.Message 信息----Poetic 诗学功能The addresser uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself.e.g. poetryContact 接触--Phatic communication寒暄功能The addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationships with theaddressee. e.g Hi, How are you this morning?Code 语码---Metalinguistic 元语言功能The addresser uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself.e.g. Let me tell you what the word “ EST” means.考点7 What are Halliday’s metafunctions?Halliday proposed a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has ideational, interpersonal and textual functions.①The ideational function (is to organize the speaker or writer’s experience of the real or imaginary world. It corresponds closely to the descriptive function, but it is broader because it also includes the expression of the speaker’s attitude, evaluation, feelings and emotions.②The interpersonal function is to indicate, establish or maintain social relationships between people. It expresses the speaker’s role in the speech situation, his personal commitment and assessment of the social relationship between the addressee and himself.③The textual function is to organize written or spoken texts in such a manner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particular situation in which they are used.Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学考点1 What is phonetics?Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.There are three branches of phonetics :①articulatory phonetics 发音语音学——It studies the sounds from the speaker's point ofview, i.e. how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.②auditory phonetics 听觉语音学——It looks at the sounds from the hearer's point ofview, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.③acoustic phonetics 声学语音学——It studies the way sounds travel by looking at thesound waves, the physical means by which sounds transmitted through the air from one person to another. It tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues. To describe these properties, they record the sound waves on machines called spectrographs.考点2 Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ? Broad transcription宽式标音：The transcription with letter-symbols only is the broad transcription and it is used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes.Narrow transcription严式标音：The transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics (变音符号) is the narrow transcription and it is needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.考点3 How are the English consonants classified?Manner of articulation:发音方式①stop闭塞音：[p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g] 6When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction suddenly released and the air passing out again is called a stop or plosive. （气流在声道中完全受阻，然后被突然释放, 受阻气流冲出而形成的音叫爆破音）②fricative 摩擦音：[f] [v] [θ] [ð] [s] [z] [ʃ] [ʒ] [h] 9When the obstruction is partial and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the mouth so as to cause definite local friction at the point, the speech sound thus produced is a fricative.（气流部分受阻，被迫在狭窄缝隙间通过，在某一点引起摩擦而形成的音被称为摩擦音）③affricate 破擦音： a stop+a fricative [tʃ] [dʒ] 2When the obstruction is complete at first and then is released slowly with the friction resultingfrom partial obstruction (as in fricatives), the sounds thus produced are affricates.(前半部分发音，气流完全受阻，与爆破音相似；后半部分发音，气流部分受阻，逐渐释放，产生摩擦，与发摩擦音相似)④liquids 流音: [l] [r] 2When the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue( the tip or the side) and the roof of the mouth, the sounds thus produced are called liquids.(气流在口腔中受阻，但还不至于引起摩擦，气流可以从舌尖、两侧或口腔上部逸出而形成的音，被成为流音)⑤nasals 鼻音: [m] [n] [ŋ] 3When the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate at the back of the mouth and air is allowed to pass through it, the sounds thus produced are called nasals.(如果将软腭降低至口腔后部，完全阻塞口腔，从而使鼻腔通道张开让气流经过，这样发出的音称为鼻音)⑥glides 滑音: [j] [w] 2Sometimes are called ‘semi-vowels”. It is produced with a narrow passage between the lips or between the tongue and the hard palate to cause some slight noise from the local obstruction.(有时也称为半元音，双唇或舌与硬腭间对流形成的局部阻碍而引起一些轻微的噪音而形成)Place of articulation发音部位①bilabial 双唇音: [p] [b] [m] [w] 4the upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstruction. And then the obstruction is suddenly released and the airstream pass out again.（上下唇合拢形成完全阻碍，再突然打开，释放气流而形成的音）②labiodental 唇齿音：[f] [v] 2the lower lip is brought into contact with the upper teeth, thus creating the obstruction.（通过下唇和下齿的接触，迫使气流从唇齿间挤出而形成的音）③dental 齿音：[θ] [ð] 2the obstruction is created between the tip of the tongue and the upper teeth.（舌尖抵住上齿，气流被阻碍）④alveolar 齿龈音：[t] [d] [n] [s] [z] [l] [r] 7the obstruction is brought into contact with the upper teeth-ridge/ alveolus to create the obstruction. （舌尖抵住上齿龈，气流形成阻碍所发出的音）⑤palatal 腭音：[ʃ] [ʒ] [tʃ] [dʒ] [j] 5The obstruction is between the back of the tongue and the hard palate. （气流阻碍发生在舌后和硬腭之间）⑥velar软腭音:[k] [g] [ŋ] 3the back of the tongue is brought into contact with the soft palate. （舌后部向上抬起，接触软腭，形成气流）⑦glottal 声门音：[h] 1the vocal cords are brought momentarily together to create the obstruction.（声带暂时性闭合，形成气流阻碍）考点4 Classification of English vowels①the position of the tongue in the mouth(舌位）：front, central and back 前元音中元音后元音②the openness of the mouth（开口程度）：close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels闭元音半闭元音半开元音开元音③the shape of the lips（唇形）rounded 圆唇：all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are roundedunrounded 非圆唇：all front vowels+the central vowels④the length of the vowels（元音的长度）：long and short vowels长元音短元音⑤The tenseness of the sound: tense and lax vowels 紧元音松元音⑥monophthongs 单元音diphthongs 双元音：Sounds are produced by moving one vowel position to another through intervening positions. [eɪ] [aɪ] [ɔɪ] [aʊ] [əʊ][ɪə] [eə] [ʊə]考点5 phonology and phoneticsphonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ form each other, what phonetic features theypossess, how they can be classfied.For example:①The [l] sound in the two English word leap and peel is pronounced differently. The first is what we call a clear [l] and the second one a dark [ɫ].②The difference between the two sounds, is what the phoneticians are interested in.③But phonologically these sounds are regarded to be two versions of the same basic entity. These two sounds are fundamentally the same, since they have one and the same function in communication---in distinguishing between words and meanings despite their difference in pronunciation. If someone should pronounce the dark [ɫ] in the word peel incorrectly as a clear [l], an English speaker would not for this reason fail to understand him, he would only find his pronunciation a little bit strange.考点6 phone, phoneme, and allophone(1)phone音素is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones are to be written with square brackets [ ].e.g [t] [d] [f] [v][i:] [i] [e] [t h]But a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don't. For example, [s] and [t] do, as [si:m] and [ti:m] are two words with totally different meanings. [t h] and [t] don’t as [stɒp] and [st hɒp] mean the same to a speaker of English.(2)phoneme音位is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, written in slashes / /. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.For example, when we pronounce the two words peak and we are aware that the sound [p] is pronounced differently. In the word peak, the [p] sound is pronounced with a strong puff of air stream; but the same stop sound is pronounced slightly differently in the word speak, the puff of air being withheld a little. The [p] sound in peak is called an aspirated [ p ], and the [p] sound in speak is an unaspirated [p]. The relation between aspirated [p ] and unaspirated [p] corresponds to that between clear [l ] and dark [l ]: there is a slight difference in the way they are pronounced, but such a difference does not give rise to difference in meaning. So /p/ is a phoneme in the Englishsound system, and it can be realized differently as aspirated or unaspirated in different contexts.(3)allophones音位变体: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones. Allophones are to be written with square brackets [ ].But the choice of an allophone is not random or haphazard; it is rule-governed.e.g. the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as a dark [ɫ] 模糊舌边音in tell and a clear [l]清晰舌边音in lead, which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.考点7 Phonemic contrast ,complementary distribution, and minimal pair(1)Phonemic contrast音位对立: If they are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form aphonemic contrast, e.g. /p/ and /b/ in [pit] and [bit].(2)Complementary distribution互补分布: If they are allophones of the same phoneme, thenthey do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution, i.e. they occur in different phonetic environments. Allophones are said to be in complementary distribution.e.g. the clear [l] always occurs before a vowel while the dark [ɫ] always occurs between a vowel and a consonan or at the end ofa word, so they are in complementary distribution.(3)Minimal pairs 最小对立对: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same position in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair. e.g. pill and bill bet and batSignificance: Minimal pairs make it easy to know what the English phonemes are. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another result in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes. An easy way to do this is to find the minimal pairs. Accordingly, it is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language.minimal set 最小对立对集：Under the same condition, when a minimal pair is extended to two, three or even more, then all these sound combinations constitute a minimal set.e.g. “pill and bill”“pill and till”“till and dill”“till and kill”“kill and gill”考点8 Phonological rules 音系学规则①Sequential rules 序列规则——There are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. These rules are called sequential rules.rule 1: If a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. This explains why [lbik] is impossible combinations in English. Because it has violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.rule 2: if three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules：The first phoneme must be /s/;(it shows that/s/ is the most easiest sound for human being to pronounce; linguistics should serve people, which means it is descriptive)The second phoneme must be /p,t,k/ ---stops(爆破音）(Why not /b,d,g/: because they are not easy for human to pronounce)The third phoneme must be /l,r, w/---/1//r/ 流音，/w/ 滑音eg: spring[sprɪŋ], scream[skri:m], square [skwer], splendid [ˈsplendɪd] , strict[strɪkt]②Assimilation rule 同化规则A.Definition: The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of asequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. One sound will affect the neighbouring sound so that sounds become sounds around them. This process is called assimilation. The rules which will be followed during the assimilation is called assimilation rules.B.Reason: Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory orphysiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” tendency may become regularized as rules of language. This is primarily due to the our desire for convenience and efficiency.C.ClassificationRegressive assimilation 逆同化: If a preceding sound is influenced by a following sound, making the two sounds similar, it is called regressive assimilation.a.Nasalization 鼻音化in the case of “can” [kæn], the preceding sound [æ] is nasalized dueto the influence of the following nasal sound [n].b.Dentalization 齿音化：in the case of [n] in the word “tenth”[tenθ], the preceding sound[e]is dentalized due to the influence of the following dental fricative sound [θ].c.Velarization软腭化: in the case ‘sink’ [sɪŋk], the preceding sound[ŋ] is velarized due to the influence of the following velar sound [k].Progressive assimilation 顺同化: It is the converse process of regressive assimilation, in which a following sound is influenced by a preceding sound, making the two sounds similar.e.g. in the case of ‘map”[mæp], the following sound [æ] is nasalized because of the influence of the preceding nasal consonant [p].③Deletion rule 省略规则Another phonological rule is the deletion rule. It tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.e.g. The letter“g”is sometimes pronounced and sometimes mute(不发音的).The rule: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonantsign[saɪn] ----signature [ˈsɪgnətʃə(r)] 签名; 署名;考点9 What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone.(1) Stress 重音: The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. The noun has the stress on the first syllable and the corresponding verb has the stress on the second syllable. e.g.重音在前是名词n 'progress 重音在后是动词v pro'gress(2)Tone 声调: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phonemes; therefore, the tone is a suprasegmental feature. The meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in what we call tone languages.Our mother tongue Chinese is a typical tone language.E.g.mã 妈má 麻mǎ 马mà 骂(3)Intonation 语调When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English.Four tones：①The falling tone— what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement②The rising tone—make a question of what is said③The fall-rise tone—there is an implied message in what is said④The rise-fall tonee.g.1.' That’s 'not the 'book he `wants.---Spoken in the falling tone, it simply states a fact, i.e. the book in question is not the one he wants.2.' That’s 'not the 'book he ̗wants.---Spoken in the rising tone, it indicates uncertainty on the part of the speaker: he is asking the question: It that not the book he wants?3.' That’s ˌnot the ˌbook he ̗wants.---Spoken in the fall-rise tone, it indicates that apart from what it said literally, there is an implied message, i.e. besides telling the listener that the book in question is not the one he wants, the speaker implies that there is some other book he wants.Chapter 3 Morphology考点1 Open class and closed classOpen class words开放类词: They are the content words of a language, which are sometimes called open class words, since new words can be added to these classes regularly.Closed class words封闭类词: Conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns consist of the “grammatical” or “ functional” words. The number of such words is small and stable since new words are added.考点2 Morphemes词素(1)Morpheme is the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.It is important to note that a morpheme is neither a meaning nor a stretch of sound, but a meaning and a stretch of sound joined together.Also morphemes are usually arbitrary: there is no natural connection between their sound and their meaning.e.g. reader consists of two morphemes: read and –er (to form nouns which refer to a person, animal or thing that does the action described by the verb), here “reader” is someone who reads.考点3 Morph语素形式Morph: when people wish to distinguish the sound of a morpheme from the entire morpheme, they may use the term morph.e.g. the English plural and possessive morphemes may be said to share a single morph, the suffix/-s/.考点4 Free and bound morphemes 自由词素和黏着词素A free morpheme: A morpheme which can be a word by itselfe.g. dog, man, desire. They are free because they can used as a word on its own.A bound morpheme: A morpheme that must be attached to another onee.g. -ist, -ful, un-, en-考点5 Allomorph 词素变体In some cases, morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. An allomorph is one of two or more complementary morphs which manifest a morpheme in its different phonological or morphological environments.E.g 1. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map – maps, mouse – mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.eg: in the same plural morphemewritten form spoken formmap- maps [s] dog--dogs [z]watch--watches [iz] mouse--mice [ai]。
圣才教育：戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》
内容摘要
实用性：这本书不仅注重理论知识的学习，还强调实际应用能力的培养。每一章节都附有大量实 例和案例分析，帮助学生更好地理解和掌握语言学知识。书中的关键词和思考题也为学生提供了 实际应用的指导。 时代性：这本书的内容紧跟时代步伐，反映了当今语言学研究的前沿。它不仅介绍了最新的语言 学理论和研究成果，还涉及了语言与文化、社会、认知等领域的交叉研究，有助于学生拓宽视野， 了解学科前沿。 内容丰富：这本书涵盖了语言学的各个方面，包括语音、词汇、语法、语义、语用等基础理论知 识和应用。同时，它还涉及了二语习得和语言习得的理论和实践，使得学生能够全面了解语言学 及应用。
该章节介绍了计算机与语言的、计算机与自然语言处理的关系以及自然语言处 理的基本任务和应用领域。
该章节介绍了认知科学的定义、认知科学的学科交叉性、语言与认知的关系以 及认知语言学的定义和基本原理。
该章节介绍了隐喻和转喻的定义、隐喻和转喻的认知功能以及隐喻和转喻在英 语词汇和表达中的应用。
该章节介绍了文化的定义、文化与语言的关系以及文化适应和文化休克的概念。 同时，还介绍了跨文化交际能力和跨文化意识的培养方法。
精彩摘录
语言是人类最重要的交际工具，是音义结合的符号系统。
语言的音和义、语素和词汇的意义是约定俗成的，语言的音义之间没有必然的 关系。
语言的底层是一套音位和音位的组合规则；上层是音义结合的语言符号。
语言具有创造性，它能够产生并理解无限量的语句。
语言具有创造性，它能够产生并理解无限量的语句。
该章节介绍了形态学的定义、词素和词根、词干和词缀、屈折变化和派生变化、 复合词和短语以及形态学在自然语言处理中的应用。
该章节介绍了句法学的定义、语法和句法的关系、短语、句子和句法结构、句 法规则的类型和应用、转换语法和句法分析的基本原则以及句法学在自然语言 处理中的应用。
戴炜栋《简明英语语言学教程》Chapter_3_Morphology320
3.2 Morphemes 1. word: a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.
3.2 Morphemes Discussion: Try to study the internal structures of the following words to find out the smaller meaningful components. internationalization blackboard worked tourists
2) Bound morphemes Free root: (free morpheme) a root which has a clear and definite meaning and which can be used as a word; All the root words are free roots.
3.1 Introduction Morphology: a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. predict: pre: before dict: speak Can pre- and dict be structurally and semantically further analyzed?
Alter the meaning or derivational affixes: grammatical category of the base
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2) Bound morphemes Free root: (free morpheme) a root which has a clear and definite meaning and which can be used as a word; All the root words are free roots.
2) Bound morphemes Discussion: Can you list some of the affixes which, when added to another morpheme, can create a new word? When the affix –s is added to the morpheme walk, do you think a new word is created? What are the functions of the following affixes: -(e)s, -(e)d, -ing, -er, -est, -’s ?
3.2 Morphemes 3. Types of morphemes 2) Bound morphemes the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes to form a word recollection: re + collect + ion idealistic: ideal + ist + ic ex-prisoner: ex + prison + er
2) Bound morphemes affixes: the forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. affixes attached to the end of words to Inflectional affixes: indicate grammatical relationships affixes added to other derivational affixes: morphemes to create new words
3.1 Introduction Discussion: A further look at the following words will show you how to convert some of the adjectives or nouns to verbs. What is the rule? simple (adj.) --- simplify (v.) false (adj.) --- falsify (v.) quality (n.) --- qualify (v.) identity (n.) --- identify (v.)
2) Bound morphemes affixes: the forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. Indicate number, Inflectional affixes: tense, degree, case, etc.
3.2 Morphemes 1. word: a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.
3.2 Morphemes Discussion: Try to study the internal structures of the following words to find out the smaller meaningful components. internationalization blackboard worked tourists
3.2 Morphemes 2. morpheme a minimal/smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function
3.2 Morphemes 3. Types of morphemes Discussion: Observe the following examples. quicken---quick-en frightening---fright-en-ing students---student-s warmer---warm-er Can you find the differences between the morphemes quick and warm and the morphemes –en and –er?
any concrete realization of a morpheme in a given utterance e.g. cat, door, -ing, -s, -er
3.3 Morph, Allomorph 2. Allomorph
Categories of Morphemes free morpheme =free bound root prefix morpheme root derivational bound suffix affix affix morpheme inflectional suffix affix
3.3 Morph, Allomorph 1. Morph
2) Bound morphemes Discussion: Try to remove the prefixes and suffixes until you get the elements which cannot be further analyzed. unlimited: un + limit + ed prediction: pre + dict + ion Is there any difference between limit and dict?
3.2 Morphemes 3. Types of morphemes 1) Free morphemes (free roots) the minimal independent units of meaning; can be used freely all by themselves as words e.g. man, earth, wind, car, anger
3.1 Introduction Morphology: a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. predict: pre: before dict: speak Can pre- and dict be structurally and semantically further analyzed?
Chapter 3
Morphology
3.1 Introduction Discussion:
If we look at the following words simplify, falsify, justify, diversify, qualify, identify and beautify, we feel that they bear sth. similar in their internal structures. What is it?
2) Bound morphemes Bound root: part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free foot; a root which must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word e.g. –dict- a Latin root: say/speak contradict: speak against predict: tell beforehand contradiction, contradictor, predictor, dictate, dictionrphemes
tourists tour: a journey or route all the way around a particular place or area ist: person who does something s: indicating plural people who travel for pleasure
Alter the meaning or derivational affixes: grammatical category of the base
2) Bound morphemes affixes: the forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. e.g. radios, goes, Children’s Day, Inflectional affixes: happiest, worked, doing prefixes derivational affixes: suffixes
3.2 Morphemes e.g. internationalization inter: between, among (a group) nation: a large group of people living in one area and usu. having an independent government al: of or concerning ize: cause to be more…, make … tion: the act, state, or result of … the act of bringing something under international control