市场营销价格策略外文翻译文献
毕业论文市场营销外文文献翻译
Relationship marketing and service marketing: convergence point of Culture Department of value creationABSTRACTUsing the relationship paradigm as a theoretical framework, a management model for cultural services (relationship marketing of cultural organizations) is proposed, what is an unprecedented contribution in the marketing field. By combining two convergent perspectives–as relationship marketing and services marketing–, the model is structured on the basis of two large types of relationships in the management of a cultural organization: instrumental relationships and group relationships. The paper is an in-depth study of relationships regarding performing arts audience. A theoretical/empirical approach was applied, including face to face interviews to 1005 performing arts consumers and telephone interviews to a sample of 2005 individuals in Spain.Keywords: Cultural marketing erforming arts services relationship marketing1. INTRODUCTION:The most recent literature on marketing management is demonstrating a revolutionary change in both form and content, which, undoubtedly, will result in several research projects in the short term aimed at shedding some light on this dilemma. Traditional management models and paradigms do not adapt to the requirements of new products, as there are more and more exceptions and questions on the models developed so far (Lovelock and Gummesson, 2004; Vargo and Lush, 2004). In this complex context, this paper aims to make an in-depth study of the field of cultural services management by using two concurrent perspectives –relationship marketing and services marketing–, in order to contribute to the development of the new marketing domain: cultural marketing (Kotler, 2005). This is a field still in its development phase, but has probably found, with these new trends, the right moment to grow and develop management structuresand models that meet its particular requirements.From the very beginning, contributions made to the cultural sector by the marketing discipline have been very diverse. However, although they seem to have come to a consensus in the scientific world about the idea that the management of cultural identities presents such special characteristics that make it considerably different (Voss and Voss, 2000; Colbert, 2001; Johnson and Garbarino, 2001; Arts Council of England, 2003; Kotler and Scheff, 1997). Contributions from the marketing management area still do not suffice to construct a knowledge base that is solid enough to create a theoretical management framework similar to the one other disciplines with more tradition in marketing research have.In this context, it is stated that the relationship marketing paradigm offers a suitable framework for the implementation of cultural management and this research study has focused on the performing arts services sector, as considering that it is one of the most forgotten sectors by scientific researchers of management. Furthermore, the decreasing consumption of this art form in Europe goes against the trend if taking into account that time and money invested in leisure activities has not stopped growing with countries’ economic development. In view of this situation, questions as following are required: what is the reason for this loss of competitive advantage?, what is being done wrong to be losing impact in a market, which, in theory, is becoming more and more inclined to consume leisure activities, such as the performing arts?, which agents are responsible for the results?, which agents are affected by the results?, what can be done to improve this? These questions are the basis for carrying out this research study.2.RELATIONSHIP MARKETING, SERVICES MARKETING AND CULTURAL MARKETING AS THREE CONVERGENT PERSPECTIVES:Relationship marketing has become one of the most important contributions in the development of modern marketing science (Payne and Holt, 2001), and it has generated a recognised interest in the field of scientific research. What is more, in the opinion of numerous authors, it has even been seen as a new paradigm (Gummesson, 1999; Peck et al., 1999; Webster, 1992; Sheth and Parvatiyar, 2000; Kothandaraman and Wilson, 2000).With the concept by Gummesson (2002) on “relationship marketing is interactions in networks of relationships”as a starting point, the management of a cultural organization is understood as being necessarily determined by a multitude of agents in the market, be included in the organization’s planning process, since the value of the final product is going to depend on them to a large extent. The role of the interest groups in the planning process of the organizations is one of the least cultivated areas of relationship marketing (Henning-Thurau and Hansen, 2000). Payne and Holt (2001) explicitly refer to this defic iency: “understanding long-term relationships with both customers and other stakeholder groups has been neglected in the mainstream marketing literature; managing the organization’s internal and external relationships needs to become a central activity; this central activity is relationship marketing”. We are faced, therefore, with a new scenario in which one-to-one marketing has given way to many-to-many marketing (Gummesson, 2004); in other words, planning relationships with individuals has evolved to planning relationships with collectives, with interaction networks.On the other hand, either when contributions in the field of cultural marketing do not record enough standardization or volume to be grouped in trends or schools, they do share a value: the importance of relationships in their management. Contributions made in this area are very diverse, in most cases focusing on relationships with customers (relationships with the performing arts audience). Garbarino and Johnson (1999) use the stage of an off-Broadway theatre in New York to explore the transaction/relationship continuum proposed by Gronroos (1995) to conclude that the performing arts audience has different behavioural profiles depending on the relationships developed with the organization or, specifically, “in a consumer environment in which customers receive highly similar services [...] there are systematic differences in the relationalism of different customer groups”. Rentschler et al. (2001) also considered an empirical approach to relationships with the audience of performing arts organizations in Australia: “what arts organizations need to consider is whether the expense of having high single-ticket sales is sustainable and, if not, what to do about it”.3.THE PRODUCT AND RELATIONSHIPS WITH CUSTOMER’S SUGGESTIONS ON A MODEL FOR THE RELATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT OF CULTURAL SERVICES:Relationships with the audience are the central component in the configuration of the relationship marketing management model for cultural organizations. This central place is shared with the cultural product, whose general marketing model presents special characteristics that differentiate it from the classic structure of marketing, as:1. Marketing process starts in the producer organization, and from this origin (the cultural product) a decision has to be made concerning the part of the market that may be interested in consuming it.2. Once potential consumers have been identified, the company will decide on the remaining relationship policies (instrumental and group, which we will cover below).Therefore, we are faced with a kind of market whose marketing process shows a “product-to-client” type structure. The atypical structure transforms the relationship policy with the cultural customer, as it considers that the core of the product is unalterable (Colbert, 2001).This structure involves the development of a wide variety of relationships, which have to be included in the value creation process forming the marketing of a cultural product. The cultural offering of a country, a region or a district is a source of benefits for a large number of social sectors. It is not for nothing that the recognition of the “need for culture” is well-known in virtually all developed countries (Council of the European Union, 2004), and public organizations, as well as private entities, are involved in satisfying this demand. Based on this situation, it is logical to assume that each and every one of these collectives has to be included in the organization’s planning and a “win-win relationship” needs to be implemented in connection with them.Performing arts organizations will have to manage a multitude of relationships to achieve their objectives. These relationships were formerly classified into two large categories (Quero, 2003):a. Instrumental relationships: this first category groups the marketing mix instruments and incorporates a relationship focus (i.e., product, price, distribution and communication relationships).The differentiation factor characterizing the design of these policies is that they have to be planned taking as a reference the creation of value for customers and for every one of the agents involved in the production processof the cultural services.b. Group relationships: the second of the categories is related to the identification and planning process of relationships with collectives or agents of interest, as the performing arts audience, educational centres, public organizations, competition, suppliers, non-public organizations and internal relationships.From this point of view, group relationships and instrumental relationships are understood as different in nature, but they converge in strategy; in other words, whilst some of them require skills connected with the management of relationships with collectives, others require a different kind of skills, more visible for the customer and connected with decision-making in specific aspects, such as programme designing (product), ticket sales (distribution), show value (price) or conveying the information to the market (communication).However, the management of both groups has to converge in obtained results at the end. In other words, that is to say that every one of the collectives has to have its expectations met in these decisions.4. CONCLUSIONS:The aim of this study was to contribute to the development and implementation of relationship marketing, services marketing and cultural marketing in a specific area: the performing arts sector.The process of selecting and planning the relationships suggested by the relationship marketing paradigm has enabled to develop a theoretical model for organizations of performing arts services, in which two types of relationship groups are identified: instrumental relationships and group relationships. Instrumental relationships include product, price, distribution and communication relationships in the model, with the particular feature of the fact that their design has to be dependent on the analysis of the effects they may have for every one of the interest groups. With regard to group relationships, seven collectives have been identified: performing arts audience, educational centres, public organizations, competition, suppliers, other organizations and internal relationships. Every one of them is capable of creating and receiving value in their relationships and, therefore, they have to be included in organizations’ planning process, in order to implement win-win strategies.In the area of relationship management with the performing arts audience, a classification of the audience has been proposed on the basis of relationship criteria, which has enabled two important phases to be identified in the retention process with cultural customers, the attraction phase and the retention phase, whose primary objective is to foster relations with the customer until the highest possible level of relationship with the organization is obtained.The empirical contribution has served to corroborate the theoretical contribution by implementing a study on the current performing arts audience in Spain and the general public, which demonstrates the importance of managing relations between the cultural organization and its customers and the benefits of implementing an appropriate relationship marketing strategy.This research study could be also considered as a significant contribution to the marketing discipline, due to its important theoretical implications:1. Relationship Marketing is considered as the integrating paradigm, capable of adapting to the requirements of cultural services, in general, and to performing arts services, in particular.2. The marketing-mix paradigm is included into the management model, redefining its main instruments as product, price, distribution and communication relationships.It is also an unprecedented contribution in the field of cultural marketing, at least in Spain, offering a theoretical model for the planning and management of organizations offering performing arts services.This study paves the way for a multitude of future lines of research. For example, the study of every one of the interest groups and their role in the process of creating value, as well as the way in which instrumental relationships have to be implemented emerge as priority actions to be implemented in order to build some foundations in the area of arts marketing that are as solid as those in other sectors.关系营销和服务营销：文化部门价值创造的会聚性观点摘要关系理论架构模式，文化服务管理模式(关系营销的文化组织)，在销售领域做出了前所未有的贡献。
市场营销策略外文文献及翻译
市场营销策略外文文献及翻译Marketing StrategyMarket Segmentation and Target StrategyA market consists of people or organizations with wants,money to spend,and the willingness to spend it.However,within most markets the buyer' needs are not identical.Therefore,a single marketing program starts with identifying the differences that exist within a market,a process called market segmentation, and deciding which segments will be pursued ads target markets.Marketing segmentation enables a company to make more efficient use of its marketing resources.Also,it allows a small company to compete effectively by concentrating on one or two segments.The apparent drawback of market segmentation is that it will result in higher production and marketing costs than a one-product,mass-marketstrategy.However, if the market is correctly segmented,the better fit with customers' needs will actually result in greater efficiency.The three alternative strategies for selecting a target market are market aggregation,single segment,and multiplesegment.Market-aggregation strategy involves using one marketing mix to reach a mass,undifferentiated market.With a single-segment strategy, acompany still uses only one marketing mix,but it is directed at only one segment of the total market.A multiple-segment strategy entailsselecting two or more segments and developing a separate marketing mix to reach segment.Positioning the ProductManagement's ability to bring attention to a product and to differentiate it in a favorable way from similar products goes a long way toward determining that product's revenues.Thus management needs to engage in positioning,which means developing the image that a product projects in relation to competitive products and to the firm's other products.Marketing executives can choose from a variety of positioning strategies.Sometimes they decide to use more than one for a particular product.Here are several major positioning strategies:1.Positioning in Relation to a competitorFor some products,the best position is directly against the competition.This strategy is especially suitable for a firm that already has a solid differential advantage or is trying to solidify such an advantage.To fend off rival markers of microprocessors,Intelunched a campaign to convince buyers that its product is superior to competitors.The company even paid computer makers to include the slogan,"Intel Inside" in their ads.As the market leader,Coca-Cola introduces new products and executes its marketing strategies.At the same time,it keeps an eye on Pepsi-Cola,being sure to match anyclever,effective marketing moves made by its primary competitor.2.Positioning in Relation to a Product Class or AttributeSometimes a company's positioning strategy entails associating its product with or distancing it from a product class or attributes.Some companies try to place their products in a desirable class,such as"Madein the USA."In the words of one consultant,"There is a strong emotional appeal when you say,'Made in the USA'".Thus a small sportswear manufacturer,Boston Preparatory Co.is using this positioning strategy to seek an edge over large competitors such as Calvin Klein and Tommy Hilfiger,which don't produce all of their products in the U.S..3.Positioning by Price and QualityCertain producer and retailers are known for their high-quality products and high prices.In the retailing field,Sake Fifth Avenue and Neiman Marcus are positioned at one end of the price-qualitycontinuum.Discount stores such as Target and Kmart are at theother.We're not saying,however,that discounters ignore quality;rather, they stress low prices.Penney's tired―and for the most part succeeded in―repositioning its stores on the price-quality continuum by upgrading apparel lines and stressing designer names.The word brands is comprehensive;it encompasses other narrowerterms.A brand is a name and/or mark intended to identify the product of one seller or group of sellers and differentiate the product from competing products.A brand name consists of words,letters,and/or numbers that can be vocalized.A brand mark is the part of the brand that appears in the form of a symbol, design,or distinctive color or lettering.A brand mark isrecognized buy sight bu cannot be expressed when a person pronounces the brand name.Crest,Coors,and rider for Ralph Lauren's Polo Brand.Green Giant canned and frozen vegetable products and Arm&Hammer baking soda are both brand names and brand marks.A trademark is a brand that has been adopted by a seller and given legal protection.A trademark includes not just the brand mark,as many people believe,but also the brand name.The Lanham Act of 1946 permits firms to register trademarks with the federal government to protect them from use or misuse by other companies.The Trademark Law RevisionAct,which took effect in 1989,is tended to strengthen the the registration system to the benefit of U.S. Firms.For sellers,brands can be promoted.They are easily recognized when displayed in a store or included in advertising.Branding reduces price comparisons.Because brands are another factor that needs to be considered in comparing different products,branding reduces the likelihood of purchase decision based solely on price.The reputation of a brand alsoinfluences customer loyalty among buyers of services as well as customer goods.Finally,branding can differentiate commodities Sunkist oranges,Morton salt,and Domino sugar,for example .PricingPricing is a dynamic process,Companies design a pricing structure that covers all their products.They change this structure over time and adjust it to account for different customers and situations.Pricing strategies usually change as a product passes through itslife cycle.Marketers face important choice when they select new product pricing strategies.The company can decide on one of several price-quality strategies for introducing an imitative product.In pricing innovative products,it can practice market-skimming pricing by initially setting high prices to"skim"the imum amount of revenue from various segments of the market.Or it can use market penetration pricing by setting a low initial price to win a large market share.Companies apply a variety of price-adjustment strategies to account for differences in consumer segments and situations.One is discount and allowance pricing,whereby the company decides on quantity,functional,or seasonal discounts,or varying types of allowances. A second strategy is segmented pricing, where the company sellers a product at two or more prices to allow for differences in customers, products, or locations. Sometimes companies consider more than economics in their pricing decisions,and use psychological pricing to communicate about the product's quality or value.In promotional pricing,companies temporarily sell their product bellow list price as a special-event to draw more customers,sometimes even selling below cost.With value pricing, the company offers just the night combination of quality and good service at a fair price. Another approach is geographical pricing, whereby the company decides how to price distant customers, choosing fromalternative as FOB pricing,uniform delivered pricing, zone pricing, basing-point pricing, and freight-absorption pricing. Finally,international pricing means that the company adjusts its price to meet different world markets.Distribution ChannelsMost producers use intermediaries to bring their products to market.They try to forge a distribution channel―a set of interdependent organizations involved in the process of marking a product or service available for use or consumption by the consumers or business user.Why do producers give some of the selling job tointermediaries?After all,doing so means giving up some control over how and to whom the products are sold.The use of intermediaries results from their greater efficiency in marking goods available to targetmarkets.Through their contacts, experience, specialization, and scales of operation,intermediaries usually offer the firm move value than it can achieve on its own efforts.A distribution channel moves goods from producers to customers.Itovercomes the major time, place, and possession gaps that separate goods and services from those who would use them. Members of the marketing channel perform many functions. Some help to complete transactions:rmation.2.Promotion.3.Contact:finding and communicating with prospective buyers.4.Matching:fitting the offer to the buyer's needs, including such activities as manufacturing and packaging.5.Negotiation:reaching an agreement on price and other terms of the offer so that ownership or possession can be transferred.Other help to fulfill the completed transferred.1.Transporting and storing goods.2.Financing.3.Risk taking:assuming the risk of carrying out the channel work.The question is not whether these functions need to be performed, but rather who is to perform them. All the functions have three things in common:They use up scarce resource, they often can be performed better through specialization, and they can be shifted among channel members.To the extent that the manufacturer performs these functions, its costs go up and its prices have to be higher. At the same time, when some of these functions are shifted to intermediaries, the producer's costs and prices may be lower, but the intermediaries must charge more to cover the costsof their work. In dividing the work of the channel, the various functions should be assigned to the channel members who can perform them most efficiently and effectively to provide satisfactory assortments of goods to target consumers.Distribution channels can be described by the number of channellevels involved. Each layer of marketing intermediaries that performs some work in brining the product and its ownership closer to the final buyer is a channel level. Because the producer and the final consumer both perform some work, they are part of every channel.When selecting intermediaries, the company should determine what characteristics distinguish the better ones. It will want to evaluate the the channel member's years in business, other lines carried, growth and profit record, co-operativeness, and reputation. If the intermediaries are sales agents, the company will want to evaluate the number and character of the other lines carried, and the size andquality of the sales force. If the intermediary is a retail store that wants exclusive or selective distribution, the company will want to evaluate the store's customers, location, and future growth potential.Understanding the nature of distribution channels is important, as choosing among distribution channels is one of the most challenging decisions facing the firm. Marketing intermediaries are used because they provide greater efficiency in marking goods available to target markets.The key distribution channel function is moving goods from producers to consumers by helping to complete transactions and fulfill the completed transaction. Distribution channels can be described by the number of channel levels, which can include no intermediaries in adirect channel, or one to several intermediaries in indirect channels.PromotionPromotion is one of the four major elements of the company's marketing mix. The main promotion tools――advertising, sales promotion, public relations, and personal selling――work together to achieve the company'scommunications objectives.People at all levels of the organization must be aware of the many legal and ethical issues surrounding marketing communications. Much work is required to produce socially responsible marketing communicating in advertising, personal selling, and direct selling. Companies must work hard and proactively at communicating openly, honestly, and agreeably with their customers and resellers.市场营销策略一、市场细分和目标市场策略具有需求，具有购买能力并愿意花销的个体或组织构成了市场。
毕业论文市场营销外文文献翻译
Relationship marketing and service marketing: convergence point of Culture Department of value creationABSTRACTUsing the relationship paradigm as a theoretical framework，a management model for cultural services （relationship marketing of cultural organizations) is proposed, what is an unprecedented contribution in the marketing field. By combining two convergent perspectives–as relationship marketing and services marketing–，the model is structured on the basis of two large types of relationships in the management of a cultural organization：instrumental relationships and group relationships。
The paper is an in—depth study of relationships regarding performing arts audience。
A theoretical/empirical approach was applied, including face to face interviews to 1005 performing arts consumers and telephone interviews to a sample of 2005 individuals in Spain.Keywords：Cultural marketing erforming arts services relationship marketing1. INTRODUCTION：The most recent literature on marketing management is demonstrating a revolutionary change in both form and content, which，undoubtedly，will result in several research projects in the short term aimed at shedding some light on this dilemma。
市场营销策略外文文献及翻译
市场营销策略外文文献及翻译Marketing StrategyMarket Segmentation and Target StrategyA market consists of people or organizations with wants,money to spend,and the willingness to spend it.However,within most markets the buyer' needs are not identical.Therefore,a single marketing program starts with identifying the differences that exist within a market,a process called market segmentation, and deciding which segments will be pursued ads target markets.Marketing segmentation enables a company to make more efficient use of its marketing resources.Also,it allows a small company to compete effectively by concentrating on one or two segments.The apparent drawback of market segmentation is that it will result in higher production and marketing costs than a one-product,mass-marketstrategy.However, if the market is correctly segmented,the better fit with customers' needs will actually result in greater efficiency.The three alternative strategies for selecting a target market are market aggregation,single segment,and multiplesegment.Market-aggregation strategy involves using one marketing mix to reach a mass,undifferentiated market.With a single-segment strategy, acompany still uses only one marketing mix,but it is directed at only one segment of the total market.A multiple-segment strategy entailsselecting two or more segments and developing a separate marketing mix to reach segment.Positioning the ProductManagement's ability to bring attention to a product and to differentiate it in a favorable way from similar products goes a long way toward determining that product's revenues.Thus management needs to engage in positioning,which means developing the image that a product projects in relation to competitive products and to the firm's other products.Marketing executives can choose from a variety of positioning strategies.Sometimes they decide to use more than one for a particular product.Here are several major positioning strategies:1.Positioning in Relation to a competitorFor some products,the best position is directly against the competition.This strategy is especially suitable for a firm that already has a solid differential advantage or is trying to solidify such an advantage.To fend off rival markers of microprocessors,Intelunched a campaign to convince buyers that its product is superior to competitors.The company even paid computer makers to include the slogan,"Intel Inside" in their ads.As the market leader,Coca-Cola introduces new products and executes its marketing strategies.At the same time,it keeps an eye on Pepsi-Cola,being sure to match anyclever,effective marketing moves made by its primary competitor.2.Positioning in Relation to a Product Class or AttributeSometimes a company's positioning strategy entails associating its product with or distancing it from a product class or attributes.Some companies try to place their products in a desirable class,such as"Madein the USA."In the words of one consultant,"There is a strong emotional appeal when you say,'Made in the USA'".Thus a small sportswear manufacturer,Boston Preparatory Co.is using this positioning strategy to seek an edge over large competitors such as Calvin Klein and Tommy Hilfiger,which don't produce all of their products in the U.S..3.Positioning by Price and QualityCertain producer and retailers are known for their high-quality products and high prices.In the retailing field,Sake Fifth Avenue and Neiman Marcus are positioned at one end of the price-qualitycontinuum.Discount stores such as Target and Kmart are at theother.We're not saying,however,that discounters ignore quality;rather, they stress low prices.Penney's tired―and for the most part succeeded in―repositioning its stores on the price-quality continuum by upgrading apparel lines and stressing designer names.The word brands is comprehensive;it encompasses other narrowerterms.A brand is a name and/or mark intended to identify the product of one seller or group of sellers and differentiate the product from competing products.A brand name consists of words,letters,and/or numbers that can be vocalized.A brand mark is the part of the brand that appears in the form of a symbol, design,or distinctive color or lettering.A brand mark isrecognized buy sight bu cannot be expressed when a person pronounces the brand name.Crest,Coors,and rider for Ralph Lauren's Polo Brand.Green Giant canned and frozen vegetable products and Arm&Hammer baking soda are both brand names and brand marks.A trademark is a brand that has been adopted by a seller and given legal protection.A trademark includes not just the brand mark,as many people believe,but also the brand name.The Lanham Act of 1946 permits firms to register trademarks with the federal government to protect them from use or misuse by other companies.The Trademark Law RevisionAct,which took effect in 1989,is tended to strengthen the the registration system to the benefit of U.S. Firms.For sellers,brands can be promoted.They are easily recognized when displayed in a store or included in advertising.Branding reduces price comparisons.Because brands are another factor that needs to be considered in comparing different products,branding reduces the likelihood of purchase decision based solely on price.The reputation of a brand alsoinfluences customer loyalty among buyers of services as well as customer goods.Finally,branding can differentiate commodities Sunkist oranges,Morton salt,and Domino sugar,for example .PricingPricing is a dynamic process,Companies design a pricing structure that covers all their products.They change this structure over time and adjust it to account for different customers and situations.Pricing strategies usually change as a product passes through itslife cycle.Marketers face important choice when they select new product pricing strategies.The company can decide on one of several price-quality strategies for introducing an imitative product.In pricing innovative products,it can practice market-skimming pricing by initially setting high prices to"skim"the imum amount of revenue from various segments of the market.Or it can use market penetration pricing by setting a low initial price to win a large market share.Companies apply a variety of price-adjustment strategies to account for differences in consumer segments and situations.One is discount and allowance pricing,whereby the company decides on quantity,functional,or seasonal discounts,or varying types of allowances. A second strategy is segmented pricing, where the company sellers a product at two or more prices to allow for differences in customers, products, or locations. Sometimes companies consider more than economics in their pricing decisions,and use psychological pricing to communicate about the product's quality or value.In promotional pricing,companies temporarily sell their product bellow list price as a special-event to draw more customers,sometimes even selling below cost.With value pricing, the company offers just the night combination of quality and good service at a fair price. Another approach is geographical pricing, whereby the company decides how to price distant customers, choosing fromalternative as FOB pricing,uniform delivered pricing, zone pricing, basing-point pricing, and freight-absorption pricing. Finally,international pricing means that the company adjusts its price to meet different world markets.Distribution ChannelsMost producers use intermediaries to bring their products to market.They try to forge a distribution channel―a set of interdependent organizations involved in the process of marking a product or service available for use or consumption by the consumers or business user.Why do producers give some of the selling job tointermediaries?After all,doing so means giving up some control over how and to whom the products are sold.The use of intermediaries results from their greater efficiency in marking goods available to targetmarkets.Through their contacts, experience, specialization, and scales of operation,intermediaries usually offer the firm move value than it can achieve on its own efforts.A distribution channel moves goods from producers to customers.Itovercomes the major time, place, and possession gaps that separate goods and services from those who would use them. Members of the marketing channel perform many functions. Some help to complete transactions:rmation.2.Promotion.3.Contact:finding and communicating with prospective buyers.4.Matching:fitting the offer to the buyer's needs, including such activities as manufacturing and packaging.5.Negotiation:reaching an agreement on price and other terms of the offer so that ownership or possession can be transferred.Other help to fulfill the completed transferred.1.Transporting and storing goods.2.Financing.3.Risk taking:assuming the risk of carrying out the channel work.The question is not whether these functions need to be performed, but rather who is to perform them. All the functions have three things in common:They use up scarce resource, they often can be performed better through specialization, and they can be shifted among channel members.To the extent that the manufacturer performs these functions, its costs go up and its prices have to be higher. At the same time, when some of these functions are shifted to intermediaries, the producer's costs and prices may be lower, but the intermediaries must charge more to cover the costsof their work. In dividing the work of the channel, the various functions should be assigned to the channel members who can perform them most efficiently and effectively to provide satisfactory assortments of goods to target consumers.Distribution channels can be described by the number of channellevels involved. Each layer of marketing intermediaries that performs some work in brining the product and its ownership closer to the final buyer is a channel level. Because the producer and the final consumer both perform some work, they are part of every channel.When selecting intermediaries, the company should determine what characteristics distinguish the better ones. It will want to evaluate the the channel member's years in business, other lines carried, growth and profit record, co-operativeness, and reputation. If the intermediaries are sales agents, the company will want to evaluate the number and character of the other lines carried, and the size andquality of the sales force. If the intermediary is a retail store that wants exclusive or selective distribution, the company will want to evaluate the store's customers, location, and future growth potential.Understanding the nature of distribution channels is important, as choosing among distribution channels is one of the most challenging decisions facing the firm. Marketing intermediaries are used because they provide greater efficiency in marking goods available to target markets.The key distribution channel function is moving goods from producers to consumers by helping to complete transactions and fulfill the completed transaction. Distribution channels can be described by the number of channel levels, which can include no intermediaries in adirect channel, or one to several intermediaries in indirect channels.PromotionPromotion is one of the four major elements of the company's marketing mix. The main promotion tools――advertising, sales promotion, public relations, and personal selling――work together to achieve the company'scommunications objectives.People at all levels of the organization must be aware of the many legal and ethical issues surrounding marketing communications. Much work is required to produce socially responsible marketing communicating in advertising, personal selling, and direct selling. Companies must work hard and proactively at communicating openly, honestly, and agreeably with their customers and resellers.市场营销策略一、市场细分和目标市场策略具有需求，具有购买能力并愿意花销的个体或组织构成了市场。
市场营销毕业论文外文翻译中英文
附录附录A：Pricing StrategyRussell .S. WinnerPrice is the most flexible element in marketing mix. Unlike product and place, price may change extremely fast in current business environment. Pricing is a core part of corporate strategy, which determines the profitability, and market share the company takes. To optimize products price in this competitive environment, cost structure is not the only attribute need to be considered. We should also take product life circle, price sensitivity of target customers and competitive environment into account.Pricing for Stability ，Sometimes customers for industrial products are as concerned about price stability as they are about actual price levels. This is because it is difficult to develop profit forecasts and long-range plans when prices for products and services that constitute a substantial portion of the buyer’s costs fluctuate dramatically. Telephone rates for large users such as telemarketing firms and banks fall into this category. Such customers expect rates to rise over time. However, significant price hikes at random intervals play havoc with their planning processes. As a result, these firms would rather pay a somewhat higher average rate than be subjected to constant fluctuations. Forward contracts on raw materials play this role in many manufacturing industries.Competitive pricing describes a situation in which you try to price at the market average or match a particular brand’s price. This is appropriate when customers have not been persuaded that significant differences exist among the competitors and that they view the product in a commodity. It may also be necessary in a category with high fixed costs because any loss of sales volume drives down sales and generates less revenue to cover those costs.Competition and pricing， So far, the discussion about setting price has described two key elements of the marketing manager’ thinking: the marketing strategy and the value customers place on the product. The first is obviously an internal factor because the external elements affecting all decisions: customers.A third critical element in pricing decisions is the competition. Competitors’ prices act as a reference point, either explicitly (as shown in the value computations earlier in this chapter) or implicitly as a way to assess the price of the product in question. Competitors’ prices do not necessarily represent willingness to pay because the set of possible prices or marketing strategies may have been limited; that is, the competitors may not have an accurate idea of customers’ willingness to pay.Competitors’ CostsMarketing managers cannot make intelligent pricing decisions without having some estimate of the relative cost positions held by competitors. Even better are estimates of the actual costs. An understanding of the cost structure of the market provides at least two types of help. First, assuming that no brand would be priced below variable cost, cost estimates provide you with an idea of how low some competitors can price. This can be very useful in a price battle in which prices are going down. Second, cost estimates give you some idea of the margins in the category or industry. Using data on sales volume, which are usually easy to obtain, and information on marketing program costs, you can then estimate total profits. This can be important information in forecasting the likelihood that a product will stay in the market or estimating the amount of money a competitor has to put behind the brand strategy.Costs can be estimated in several ways. A common approach for manufactured products is to us reverse engineering to analyze the cost structure. You should purchase competitors’ products and take them apart, studying the costs of the components and packaging. For many products, managers can readily identify components and their costs in the market. If a component is proprietary, such as a custom microprocessor in a computer, the cost can be estimated by engineers or other personnel.Another way to estimate costs, or at least margins, is to use publicly available data on the competitors. Based on annual reports, 10Kstastments, and the like ,you can ascertain average margins. These can be assumed to apply directly to the cost estimation, especially if the product is a big component of total sales or if, as is often the case, the company tends to use accost plus percent markup pricing strategy.Particularly for manufactured products, it is possible to understand current costs andforecast future costs through the use of the experience curve. The conventional functional relationship assumed in experience curve economics is that costs are a decreasing function of accumulated experience, or production volume.The costs of delivering services are more difficult to estimate. Because the costs associated with service products such as labor and office space are largely fixed, you can estimate relative cost positions by examining the number of employees, looking at efficiency rations such as sales per employee, and assessing other similar measures, Again, it is particularly useful to understand the cost structure by becoming a customer of a competitor’s service.The role of costs ，We suggested earlier in this chapter that costs should have little to do with the pricing decision other than to act as a floor or lower limit for price. In a non-market-driven firm, full cost (variable costs plus some allocation for overhead) plus some target margin is used to set price. This approach totally ignores the customer: The resulting price may be either above or below what the customer is willing to pay for the product，Other problems exist with using costs to set price. First, there are at least four different kinds of costs to consider. Development costs are expenses involved in bringing new products to market. Often these costs are spread out over many years and sometimes different products. Should price be set to recover these costs and, if so, in what time period ? In some industries such as pharmaceuticals, patent protection allows companies to set the prices of prescription drugs high initially to recover development costs and then reduce them when the drugs come off patent and the generics enter the category. However, if there is no legal way to keep competitors out of the market, these costs must be viewed as sunk costs that do not affect decision making after the product is introduced into the market. Otherwise, the resulting price may be above customers’ perceived value. A second kind of cost is overhead costs such as the corporate jet and the president’s salary. These costs must ultimately be covered by revenues from individual products, but they are not associated with individual products but do not vary with sales volume. Finally, there are variable costs, the per-unit costs of making the product or delivering the service. Of course, these must be recovered by the price.Therefore, one problem with using costs to set price is that several kinds of costs arerelated in different ways to an individual product. When costs are used as the basis for setting price, you should ask “Which costs?” Are they costs related to marketing the product or product line or are they costs over which you have no control? Using price as a cost-recovery mechanism can lead to a mismatch between price and customers’ perceptions of value for your product or service.A second problem with using costs to set price, particularly variable or unit costs, is that they may be a function of volume and, as a result, may be difficult to know in advance when developing marketing plans. Even if this is not the case, unit costs may be related to the use of capacity, which is also uncertain.In most instances, customers do not really care what the firm’s costs are; as Drucker puts it, “Customers do not see it as their job to ensure manufacturers a profit.” Using cost increases to justify raising price generates little sympathy from customers, particularly industrial customers, because the price increase has just raised their costs, which they may not be able to pass along to their customers.Costs do play an important role in pricing: In the new product development process, the projected costs (however defined) and price determine whether a product is forecasted to be sufficiently profitable to be introduced.Pricing ObjectiveYour pricing policy can accomplish many different objectives for your product. Penetration PricingPenetration pricing or market share pricing entails giving most of the value to the customer and keeping a small margin. The objective is to gain as much market share as possible. It is often used as part of an entry strategy for a new product and is particularly useful for preventing competitive entry. First, there is less of the market for the competition to get if you have been successful in penetrating the market. Second, the economics of entry look less attractive if the price levels are low. Penetration pricing is also appropriate when experience or scale effects lead to a favorable volume-cost relationship and when a large segment of the potential customer base is price sensitive.There are some drawbacks to penetration pricing. It should not be used in a productcategory when there is a price-perceived quality relationship unless the marketing strategy is at the low end of perceived quality. In addition, if the product has a strong competitive advantage, this advantage is dissipated by pricing at an unusually low level. Another limitation of penetration pricing is that it is always more acceptable to customers to reduce price than to raise it. This limits the flexibility of this pricing approach in some situations.The opposite of penetration pricing is skimming or prestige pricing. Skimming gives more the cost-value gap to you than to the customer. This strategy is appropriate in a variety of situations. If there is a strong price-perceived quality relationship and the value proposition includes a positioning of the product at the high end of the market, this objective makes sense. It is also a reasonable objective when there is little chance of competition in the near future; however, the higher the price, the higher the margins(holding costs constant, of course)and thus the greater the chance that competition will enter because their economic calculations will look better. Skimming is also a good objective when costs are not related to volume and managers are therefore less concerned about building significant market share. Finally, skimming makes sense early in the product life cycle because the early adopters of a new technology are normally price insensitive.Return on Sales or Investment Pricing. Return on sales or investment pricing implies that you can set a price that delivers the rate of return demanded by senior management. As a result, investment pricing ignores both customer value and the competition. It is useful only when the product has a monopoly or near monopoly position so that the market will produce the needed sales volume at the price you set. This is typical of the pricing of regulated utilities such as gas and electricity.附录B：定价策略Russell .S. Winner价格是在营销组合是最灵活的要素，有别于产品等策略，价格可能发生变化非常快，在目前的经营环境。
关于营销策略的外文文献
关于营销策略的外文文献Marketing StrategyA marketing strategy is a plan of action designed to promote and sell a product or service. It involves identifying the target market, understanding customer needs and wants, and developing a unique value proposition that sets the product or service apart from competitors.One key aspect of a marketing strategy is market segmentation. This involves dividing the target market into distinct groups based on demographic, geographic, psychographic, and behavioral characteristics. By understanding the different needs and preferences of these segments, a company can tailor its marketing efforts to effectively reach and appeal to each group.Another important element of a marketing strategy is positioning. This refers to how a company wants its product or service to be perceived in the minds of consumers relative to competitors. By differentiating the product or service through unique features, benefits, or pricing, a company can create a favorable position in the market and attract target customers.The marketing mix is another component of a marketing strategy. This refers to the combination of product, price, place, and promotion that a company uses to market its product or service. The product refers to the actual offering, including its features, design, quality, and branding. The price relates to the pricing strategy and how much customers are willing to pay for the product. The place refers to the distribution channels used todeliver the product to customers, while promotion encompasses the various marketing communications tools used to create awareness and generate sales.A successful marketing strategy also involves setting clear objectives and metrics to measure the effectiveness of marketing efforts. This may include goals such as increasing market share, expanding into new markets, or improving customer satisfaction. By regularly evaluating and adjusting the marketing strategy based on these metrics, a company can ensure that its marketing efforts are aligned with its overall business objectives.In today's digital age, technology plays a crucial role in shaping marketing strategies. Companies can leverage social media, search engine optimization, and data analytics to better understand customer behavior and preferences. Additionally, personalized marketing strategies can be developed based on the data collected from customer interactions, allowing companies to deliver targeted messages and offers to individual customers.In conclusion, a marketing strategy is a comprehensive plan that encompasses market segmentation, positioning, the marketing mix, and the measurement of outcomes. By carefully crafting and executing a marketing strategy, companies can effectively reach and engage their target market, differentiate themselves from competitors, and ultimately achieve their business objectives.。
市场营销外文翻译10
附录外文文献原文1.IntroductionMarketing continues to be a mystery to those who create it and to those who sponsor it. Often, the ad that generates record-breaking volume for a retail store one month is repeated the following month and bombs. A campaign designed by the best Madison Avenue ad agency may elicit mediocre response. The same item sells like hotcakes after a 30-word classified ad, with abominable grammar, appears on page 35 of anall-advertising shopper tossed on the front stoops of homes during a rainstorm! The mystery eludes solution but demands attention. The success of an enterprise and development of enterprises depends to a large extent on whether or not they have advanced, meet the needs of the enterprise marketing strategy. For Marketing is the definition, The well-known American scholar Philips marketing of the core marketing concept of the following description : "Marketing is individuals or groups to create, provide and exchange with other valuable products, to satisfy their own needs and desires of a social activities and management process. " In the core concept contains a number of elements: needs, desires and needs; Products or provide; V alue and satisfaction; exchange and transactions; and networking; market; Marketing and sales were a series of concept.This article is devoted to the idea that your marketing results can be improved through a better Understanding of your customers. This approach usually is referred to as the marketing concept.Putting the customer first is probably the most popular phrase used by firms ranging from giant conglomerates to the corner barber shop, but the slogan zing is often just lip service. The business continues to operate under the classic approach -- "Come buy this great product if you dedicate your activities exclusively to solving your customer's problems. The quality of services, and enterprises to cultivate customers satisfaction and loyalty, and can create enterprise value.Any marketing program has a better chance of being productive if it is timed, designed and written to solve a problem for potential customers and is carried out in a way that the customer understands and trusts. The pages that follow will present the marketing concept of putting the customer first. Marketing is a very complex subject; it deals with all the steps between determining customer needs and supplying them at a profit. In addition to some introductory material on marketing, this publication includes practical material on the marketing approaches to budgeting, layout design, and headline writing, copywriting and media analysis. So that a clear understanding of enterprise marketing strategy to improve the operations of enterprises.2.The marketing conceptMarket positioning is identifying the target market, enterprises will adopt what marketing methods, which provide products and services the target market and competitors to show distinction, thereby establishing corporate image and obtain favorable competitive position. Market positioning is a process of enterprise differentiation process, how to find the differences, identify differences and show differences. Today too many similar products, consumers how to choose Consumers buy what is the justification.On the effective positioning for a solution.Positioning is the first to propose in the advertising industry, advertising emphasized in the eyes of the public who left the location, And people often prefer preconceptions; If enterprises can target your customers mind to establish a definite position, to the consumer a reason to buy, enterprises can often compete in an advantageous position.Marketing is an economy built on science, behavioral science and modern management theory on the basis of applied sciences. It enterprise marketing activities and to study law,with full, comprehensive, practical features. As a modern enterprise "businesses" Marketing system introduced in the market economy under the conditions of the enterprises should have a sense of the market, business sense, Marketing strategies and methods. With China's economy growing prosperity, the market competition is becoming increasingly fierce; enterprises need Modern Marketing Theory as the guide. In the initial stage, a number of enterprises have marketing only as a help to product sales growth strategy and means If so far, many Chinese enterprises remain with the Department of Marketing with sales of two and one; When people realize that to meet the needs of the customer-oriented marketing concept should become an enterprise operating philosophy, and the enterprise's overall business activities have an impact, there will be a marketing position inappropriately increase the tendency For many people believe that marketing should be the decision-making levels of guiding ideology, rather than the level of implementation work. Marketing of the enterprise understanding of the position is not correct, will be marketing in the enterprise application will be affected. Marketing work is to open up markets, capture the market and expand the market work, enterprise development, and production activities should open up the market for services, a market that is the basis of the final services in the market. Marketing work is based on enterprise customers as the starting point for the reproduction process, and ensures the customer as the focus of the process of reproduction.That customer demand-oriented, according to the actual needs of customers developing marketable products, and targeted marketing of the market, and its sales to meet the needs of customers. With enterprises to become the main players in themarket, corporate marketing work more salient position, business leaders must attach great importance to it.Unfortunately, there is still a misunderstanding about the word marketing. Many people, including top executives, use it as a sophisticated term for selling. Marketing representative is commonly used in ads to recruit salespeople. Actually, marketing is a way of managing a business so that each critical business decision is made with full knowledge of the impact it will have on the customer.Here are some specific ways in which the marketing approach differs from the classic, or sales, approach to managing a business.①In the classic approach, engineers who develop the product and finally to engineers who produce it. Thus, the sales approach only ends with the customer, while the marketing approach begins and ends with the customer.②The second major difference between the sales and marketing approaches is the focus of management. The sales approach almost always focuses on volume while the marketing approach focuses on profit. In short, under the classic (sales) approach the customer exists for the business, while under the marketing approach the business exists for the customer.The marketing concept is a management plan that views all marketing components as part of a total system that requires effective planning, organization, leadership and control. It is based on the importance of customers to a firm, and states。
市场营销价格策略外文翻译文献
市场营销价格策略外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)DESIGNING PRICING STRATEGIESAll for-profit organizations and many nonprofit organizations set prices on their goods or services. Whether the price is called rent (for an apartment), tuition (for education), fare (for travel), or interest (for borrowed money), the concept is the same. Throughout most of history, prices were set by negotiation between buyers and sellers.Setting one price for all buyers arose with the development of large-scale retailing at the en d of the nineteenth century, when Woolworth’s and other stores followed a “strictly one-price policy” because they carried so many items and had so many employees.Now, 100 years later, technology is taking us back to an era of negotiated pricing. The Internet, corporate networks, and wireless setups are linking people, machines, andcompanies around the globe, connecting sellers and buyers as never before. Web sites like and allow buyers to compare products and prices quickly and easily. On-line auction sites like and make it easy forbuyers and sellers to negotiate prices on thousands of items. At the same time, new tech-nologies are allowing sellers to collect detailed data about customers’ buying habits, preferences—even spending limits—so they can tailor their products and prices.1In the entire marketing mix, price is the one element that produces revenue; the others produce costs. Price is also one of the most flexible elements: It can be changed quickly, unlike product features and channel commitments. Although price competi- tion is a major problem facing companies, many do not handle pricing well. The most common mistakes are these: Pricing is too cost-oriented; price is not revised oftenenough to capitalize on market changes; price is set independent of the rest of the marketing mix rather than as an intrinsic element of market-positioning strategy; and price is not varied enough for different product items, market segments, and purchase occasions.215Designing PricingStrategies andProgramsWe will address the following questions:■ How should a company price a new good or service?■ How should the price be adapted to meet varying circumstances and opportunities?■ When should the company initiate a p rice change, and how should it respond to competitive price changes?224 CHAPTER 12 DESIGNING PRICING STRATEGIES AND PROGRAMS Value PricingValue pricing is a method in which the company charges a fairly low price for a high- quality offering. Value pricing says that the price should represent a high-value offer toconsumers. This is a major trend in the computer industry, which has shifted from charging top dollar for cutting-edge computers to offering basic computers at lower prices. For instance, Monorail Computer started selling PCs in 1996 for as little as $999to woo price-sensitive buyers. Compaq and others quickly followed suit. More recently,eMachines began selling its PCs for less than $500 without a monitor, targeting the 55 percent of computerless households with annual incomes of $25,000 to $30,000.13Value pricing is not a matter of simply setting lower prices on one’s products compared to those of competitors. It is a matter of reengineering the company’s oper- ations to become a low-cost pro ducer without sacrificing quality, and lowering pricessignificantly to attract a large number of value-conscious customers. An important typeof value pricing is everyday low pricing (EDLP), which takes place at the retail level. Retailers such as Wal-Mart and use EDLP pricing, posting a constant, everyday low price with few or no temporary price discounts. These constant prices eliminate week-to-week price uncertainty and can be contrasted to the “high-low” pric-ing of promotion-oriented competitors. In high-low pricing, the retailer charges higher prices on an everyday basis but then runs frequent promotions in which prices are temporarily lowered below the EDLP level.14Retailers adopt EDLP for a number of reasons, the most important of which isthat constant sales and promotions are costly and erode consumer confidence in the credibility of everyday prices. Consumers also have less time and patience for such time-honored traditions as watching for specials and clipping coupons. Yet promo- tions are an excellent way to create excitement and draw shoppers. For this reason, EDLP is not a guarantee of success. As supermarkets face heightened competition from store rivals and alternative channels, many are drawing shoppers using a combi- nation of high-low and EDLP strategies, with increased advertising and promotions.15Going-Rate PricingIn going-rate pricing, the firm bases its price largely on competitors’ prices. The firm might charge the same, more, or less than its major competitor(s) charges. In oligop- olistic industries that sell a commodity such as steel, paper, or fertilizer, firms normallycharge the same price. The smaller firms “follow the leader,” changing their prices when the market leader’s prices change rather than when their own dema nd or costs change. Some firms may charge a slight premium or slight discount, but they typically preserve the amount of difference. When costs are difficult to measure or competitive response is uncertain, firms feel that the going price represents a good so lution, sinceit seems to reflect the industry’s collective wisdom as to the price that will yield a fair return and not jeopardize industrial harmony.Sealed-Bid PricingCompetitive-oriented pricing is common when firms submit sealed bids for jobs. In biddi ng, each firm bases its price on expectations of how competitors will price rather than on a rigid relationship to the firm’s own costs or demand. Sealed-bid pricing involves two opposite pulls. The firm wants to win the contract—which means submit-ting the lowest price—yet it cannot set its price below cost.To solve this dilemma, the company would estimate the profit and the probabil-ity of winning with each price bid. By multiplying the profit by the probability of win- ning the bid on the basis of that pr ice, the company can calculate the expected profit for each bid. For a firm that makes many bids, this method is a way of playing the oddsSetting the Price 225to achieve maximum profits in the long run. However, firms that bid only occasionally or that badly want to win certain contracts will not find it advantageous to use the expected-profit criterion.Step 6: Selecting the Final PriceThe previous pricing methods narrow the range from which the company selects its final price. In selecting that price, the company must consider additional factors: psy- chological pricing, the influence of other marketing-mix elements on price, company pricing policies, and the impact of price on other parties.Psychological PricingMany consumers use price as an indicator of quality. Image pricing is especially effec-tive with ego-sensitive products such as perfumes and expensive cars. A $100 bottle ofperfume might contain $10 worth of scent, but gift givers pay $100 to communicate their high regard for the receiver. Similarly, price and quality perceptions of cars inter- act:16 Higher-priced cars are perceived to possess high quality; higher-quality cars are likewise perceived to be higher priced than they actually are. In general, when infor- mation about true quality is unavailable, price acts as a signal of quality.When looking at a particular product, buyers carry in their minds a reference price formed by noticing current prices, past prices, or the buying context. Sellers often manipulate these reference prices. For example, a seller can situate its product among expensive products to imply that it belongs in the same class. Reference-price thinkingis also created by stating a high manufacturer’s suggested price, by indicating that the product was priced much higher ori ginally, or by pointing to a rival’s high price.17Often sellers set prices that end in an odd number, believing that customers whosee a television priced at $299 instead of $300 will perceive the price as being in the $200 range rather than the $300 range. Another explanation is that odd endings con- vey the notion of a discount or bargain, which is why both and set prices ending in 99. But if a company wants a high-price image instead of a low- price image, it should avoid the odd-ending tactic.The Influence of Other Marketing-Mix ElementsThe final price must take into account the brand’s quality and advertising relative to competition. When Farris and Reibstein examined the relationships among relative price, relative quality, and relative advertising for 227 consumer businesses, they foundthat brands with average relative quality but high relative advertising budgets were able to charge premium prices. Consumers apparently were willing to pay higher prices for known products than for unknown products. They also found that brands with high relative quality and high relative advertising obtained the highest prices, while brands with low quality and advertising charged the lowest prices. Finally, the positive relationship between high prices and high advertising held most strongly in the later stages of the product life cycle for market leaders.18 Smart marketers there-fore ensure that their prices fit with other marketing-mix elements.定价战略以营利为目的的组织和非营利组织的都对他们的商品或服务制定价格。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
市场营销价格策略外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)DESIGNING PRICING STRATEGIESAll for-profit organizations and many nonprofit organizations set prices on their goods or services. Whether the price is called rent (for an apartment), tuition (for education), fare (for travel), or interest (for borrowed money), the concept is the same. Throughout most of history, prices were set by negotiation between buyers and sellers.Setting one price for all buyers arose with the development of large-scale retailing at the en d of the nineteenth century, when Woolworth’s and other stores followed a “strictly one-price policy” because they carried so many items and had so many employees.Now, 100 years later, technology is taking us back to an era of negotiated pricing. The Internet, corporate networks, and wireless setups are linking people, machines, andcompanies around the globe, connecting sellers and buyers as never before. Web sites like and allow buyers to compare products and prices quickly and easily. On-line auction sites like and make it easy forbuyers and sellers to negotiate prices on thousands of items. At the same time, new tech-nologies are allowing sellers to collect detailed data about customers’ buying habits, preferences—even spending limits—so they can tailor their products and prices.1In the entire marketing mix, price is the one element that produces revenue; the others produce costs. Price is also one of the most flexible elements: It can be changed quickly, unlike product features and channel commitments. Although price competi- tion is a major problem facing companies, many do not handle pricing well. The most common mistakes are these: Pricing is too cost-oriented; price is not revised oftenenough to capitalize on market changes; price is set independent of the rest of the marketing mix rather than as an intrinsic element of market-positioning strategy; and price is not varied enough for different product items, market segments, and purchase occasions.215Designing PricingStrategies andProgramsWe will address the following questions:■ How should a company price a new good or service?■ How should the price be adapted to meet varying circumstances and opportunities?■ When should the company initiate a p rice change, and how should it respond to competitive price changes?224 CHAPTER 12 DESIGNING PRICING STRATEGIES AND PROGRAMS Value PricingValue pricing is a method in which the company charges a fairly low price for a high- quality offering. Value pricing says that the price should represent a high-value offer toconsumers. This is a major trend in the computer industry, which has shifted from charging top dollar for cutting-edge computers to offering basic computers at lower prices. For instance, Monorail Computer started selling PCs in 1996 for as little as $999to woo price-sensitive buyers. Compaq and others quickly followed suit. More recently,eMachines began selling its PCs for less than $500 without a monitor, targeting the 55 percent of computerless households with annual incomes of $25,000 to $30,000.13Value pricing is not a matter of simply setting lower prices on one’s products compared to those of competitors. It is a matter of reengineering the company’s oper- ations to become a low-cost pro ducer without sacrificing quality, and lowering pricessignificantly to attract a large number of value-conscious customers. An important typeof value pricing is everyday low pricing (EDLP), which takes place at the retail level. Retailers such as Wal-Mart and use EDLP pricing, posting a constant, everyday low price with few or no temporary price discounts. These constant prices eliminate week-to-week price uncertainty and can be contrasted to the “high-low” pric-ing of promotion-oriented competitors. In high-low pricing, the retailer charges higher prices on an everyday basis but then runs frequent promotions in which prices are temporarily lowered below the EDLP level.14Retailers adopt EDLP for a number of reasons, the most important of which isthat constant sales and promotions are costly and erode consumer confidence in the credibility of everyday prices. Consumers also have less time and patience for such time-honored traditions as watching for specials and clipping coupons. Yet promo- tions are an excellent way to create excitement and draw shoppers. For this reason, EDLP is not a guarantee of success. As supermarkets face heightened competition from store rivals and alternative channels, many are drawing shoppers using a combi- nation of high-low and EDLP strategies, with increased advertising and promotions.15Going-Rate PricingIn going-rate pricing, the firm bases its price largely on competitors’ prices. The firm might charge the same, more, or less than its major competitor(s) charges. In oligop- olistic industries that sell a commodity such as steel, paper, or fertilizer, firms normallycharge the same price. The smaller firms “follow the leader,” changing their prices when the market leader’s prices change rather than when their own dema nd or costs change. Some firms may charge a slight premium or slight discount, but they typically preserve the amount of difference. When costs are difficult to measure or competitive response is uncertain, firms feel that the going price represents a good so lution, sinceit seems to reflect the industry’s collective wisdom as to the price that will yield a fair return and not jeopardize industrial harmony.Sealed-Bid PricingCompetitive-oriented pricing is common when firms submit sealed bids for jobs. In biddi ng, each firm bases its price on expectations of how competitors will price rather than on a rigid relationship to the firm’s own costs or demand. Sealed-bid pricing involves two opposite pulls. The firm wants to win the contract—which means submit-ting the lowest price—yet it cannot set its price below cost.To solve this dilemma, the company would estimate the profit and the probabil-ity of winning with each price bid. By multiplying the profit by the probability of win- ning the bid on the basis of that pr ice, the company can calculate the expected profit for each bid. For a firm that makes many bids, this method is a way of playing the oddsSetting the Price 225to achieve maximum profits in the long run. However, firms that bid only occasionally or that badly want to win certain contracts will not find it advantageous to use the expected-profit criterion.Step 6: Selecting the Final PriceThe previous pricing methods narrow the range from which the company selects its final price. In selecting that price, the company must consider additional factors: psy- chological pricing, the influence of other marketing-mix elements on price, company pricing policies, and the impact of price on other parties.Psychological PricingMany consumers use price as an indicator of quality. Image pricing is especially effec-tive with ego-sensitive products such as perfumes and expensive cars. A $100 bottle ofperfume might contain $10 worth of scent, but gift givers pay $100 to communicate their high regard for the receiver. Similarly, price and quality perceptions of cars inter- act:16 Higher-priced cars are perceived to possess high quality; higher-quality cars are likewise perceived to be higher priced than they actually are. In general, when infor- mation about true quality is unavailable, price acts as a signal of quality.When looking at a particular product, buyers carry in their minds a reference price formed by noticing current prices, past prices, or the buying context. Sellers often manipulate these reference prices. For example, a seller can situate its product among expensive products to imply that it belongs in the same class. Reference-price thinkingis also created by stating a high manufacturer’s suggested price, by indicating that the product was priced much higher ori ginally, or by pointing to a rival’s high price.17Often sellers set prices that end in an odd number, believing that customers whosee a television priced at $299 instead of $300 will perceive the price as being in the $200 range rather than the $300 range. Another explanation is that odd endings con- vey the notion of a discount or bargain, which is why both and set prices ending in 99. But if a company wants a high-price image instead of a low- price image, it should avoid the odd-ending tactic.The Influence of Other Marketing-Mix ElementsThe final price must take into account the brand’s quality and advertising relative to competition. When Farris and Reibstein examined the relationships among relative price, relative quality, and relative advertising for 227 consumer businesses, they foundthat brands with average relative quality but high relative advertising budgets were able to charge premium prices. Consumers apparently were willing to pay higher prices for known products than for unknown products. They also found that brands with high relative quality and high relative advertising obtained the highest prices, while brands with low quality and advertising charged the lowest prices. Finally, the positive relationship between high prices and high advertising held most strongly in the later stages of the product life cycle for market leaders.18 Smart marketers there-fore ensure that their prices fit with other marketing-mix elements.定价战略以营利为目的的组织和非营利组织的都对他们的商品或服务制定价格。