词汇学

Interpretation of some terms in lexicology1.Lexicon & lexis: the total bank of words and phrases of a particular language, the artifact ofwhich is known as a lexicon.2.Lexeme: A lexeme is an abstract unit of morphological analysis in linguistics, that roughlycorresponds to a set of forms taken by a single word. For example, in the English language, run, runs, ran and running are forms of the same lexeme, conventionally written as RUN.[1]In order to reduce the ambiguity of the term ‗word‘, the term ‗lexeme‘is postulated as an abstract unit which refers to the smallest unit that can be distinguished from other smaller units. A lexeme can occur in many different forms in actual spoken and written texts. For example, ‗write‘ is the lexeme of the following words: write, writes, wrote, written, writing. 3.Lexical units: Lexical items composed of more than one word are also sometimes calledlexical chunks, gambits, lexical phrases, lexical units, lexicalized stems or speech formulae.4.Word is the smallest free form (an item that may be uttered in isolation with semantic orpragmatic content) in a language, in contrast to a morpheme, which is the smallest unit of meaning. A word may consist of only one morpheme (e.g. wolf), but a single morpheme may not be able to exist as a free form (e.g. the English plural morpheme -s).Typically, a word will consist of a root or stem, and zero or more affixes. Words can be combined to create other units of language, such as phrases, clauses, and/or sentences.5.lexicology:●Lexicology (from lexiko-, in the Late Greek lexikon) is that part of linguistics which studieswords, their nature and meaning, words' elements, relations between words (semantical relations), words groups and the whole lexicon.●Lexicology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a givenlanguage. It deals with words, their origin, development, history, structure, meaning and application. In short, it is the study of the signification and application of words.6.Lexicology has developed such branches asa)semantics——study of meaning of words (and sentences)b)etymology——study of origins of wordsc)historical lexicology——study of the development of vocabulary as a whole on the basisof etymology and other sciencesd)phraseology——study of individual words and set expressions, stock phrases, cast-ironidioms, i.e. the study of formation and usage, classification and characteristics of idiomse)lexicography——study of the form, meaning, usage, origin of vocabulary and themaking of dictionaries7.lexicographyA good example of lexicology at work, that everyone is familiar with, is that of dictionariesand thesaurus. Dictionaries are books or computer programs (or databases) that actually represent lexicographical work, they are opened and purposed for the use of public.A thesaurus is a work that lists words grouped together according to similarity ofmeaning (containing synonyms and sometimes antonyms), in contrast to adictionary, which contains definitions and pronunciations. The largest thesaurus in the world is the Historical Thesaurus of the Oxford English Dictionary, which contains more than 920,000 words and meanings.A dictionary is a collection of words in a specific language, often listed alphabetically, withusage information, definitions, etymologies, phonetics, pronunciations, and other information;or a book of words in one language with their equivalents in another, also known as a lexicon.Exercise 1Please work out the Chinese meanings of the words to consolidate your understanding.LexiconLexisWordWord formsLexical unitLexicologyLexicologyLexicographyExercise 2accept (accepted, accepted, accepting)__________ lexemes__________ word forms__________ lexical units__________ wordsHow can lexicology be classified?General lexicology & Special lexicologyDistinction is made between GENERAL LEXICOLOGY & SPECIAL LEXICOLOGY. General lexicology is a part of General linguistics. It is concerned with the study of vocabulary irrespective of the specific features of any particular language. Special lexicology is the lexicology of a particular language (Russian, German, French, etc.).Research methods of English lexicologyThere are two main approaches to the study of English lexicology, that is, synchronic and diachronic.The term ‗synchronic‘means describing a language as it exists at one point in time. The term diachronic means, concerned with historical development of a language.A synchronic approach is an approach to the study of a language at one period of time, whereas a diachronic approach is an approach to the study of the change in a language that took place over a period of time.Character of the English languageThe English language is of a mixed character. On the one hand, it shares with West Germanic languages many common words and similar grammatical structures. On the other hand, more than half of the English vocabulary is derived from Latin and French. Besides, English has accepted words from other languages of the world in the course of historical development.Characteristics of English vocabulary or words1.Native words are the foundation and the core of the English vocabulary. In structure they aremostly monosyllabic words. In meaning they express the fundamental concepts dealing with everyday objects and things. In grammar they include most parts of speech. Native words have the following three characteristics: 1) the polysemous character; 2) the collocability; and3) word-formation ability.2.There is large amount of English vocabulary. There are3.There are various Englishes all over the world.4.and it is increasing at a surprising speed.How is lexicology connected with other branches of linguistics?1)with phoneticsPhonetics is closely related wit lexicology. Without sound there is word because every word is a unity of sound and meaning.2)with grammarV ocabulary and grammar are originally related to one another. In learning language, attention to grammar is as important as attention to vocabulary. The vocabulary of a language assumes tremendous importance when it comes under the control of grammar, which is concerned with the modification in form of words and the combination of words into sentences.3)with stylisticsLexicology studies stylistic variants on the basis of meanings of words and their changes, synonyms, antonyms, figures of speech etc.Exercise 41.The words such as ‗export‘, ‗increase‘, ‗process‘ and ‗progress‘ with different pronunciationserve different parts of speech, which indicates that lexicology is connected with __________.2.In the sentence ‗O ther school managers are also eyeing the program‘, we study the word ‗eye‘,which shows that lexicology is connected with _______.3.Bill Gates and his friend Paul Allen laid the first brick in the foundation of Microsoft.4.The word advisable in ‗It is advisable that we take immediate measures to enhance teaching‘can‘t be replaced by advise or advice, which demonstrates that lexicology is related to _______.Exercise 5Fill in the blanks to consolidate your understanding of the terms in the unit.1.The artifact of the total bank of words and phrases of a particular language is called_________.2.A_________is an abstract unit of morphological analysis in linguistics, that roughlycorresponds to a set of forms taken by a single word.3._________is the smallest free form (an item that may be uttered in isolation withsemantic or pragmatic content) in a language.4._________is a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of agiven language. It deals with words, their origin, development, history, structure, meaning and application.5._________ is a study of origins of words6._________ is a study of the form, meaning, usage, origin of vocabulary and the makingof dictionaries.7.A_________ is a work that lists words grouped together according to similarity ofmeaning (containing synonyms and sometimes antonyms), in contrast to a dictionary, which contains definitions and pronunciations.8._________lexicology is a part of General linguistics. It is concerned with the study ofvocabulary irrespective of the specific features of any particular language.9._________lexicology is the lexicology of a particular language (Russian, German,French, etc.).10.There are two main approaches to the study of English lexicology, that is, _________and diachronic.11.The term ‗_________‘ means describing a language as it exists at one point in time. Theterm _________ means, concerned with historical development of a language.12.A _________ approach is an approach to the study of a language at one period of time,whereas a diachronic approach is an approach to the study of the change in a language that took place over a period of time.13.L exicology studies stylistic variants on the basis of meanings of words and their changes,synonyms, antonyms, figures of speech etc. in this case, we say that lexicology is connected with _________.? What is a morpheme?? What are allomorphs?? What is word formation?? What are the major types of word formation?? What are affixes?? What are derivational affixes?? What are inflectional affixes?? What are bound and free morphemes?? What are roots and stems?? How to identify the formation of English words?Important conceptsMorpheme RootFree root Free formBound rootBound form AffixDerivational affixPrefixSuffixInflectional affixMorphemes词素(形位)Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units of a language.A morpheme is the smallest linguistic unit that has semantic meaning. In spoken language, morphemes are composed of phonemes (the smallest linguistically distinctive units of sound), and in written language morphemes are composed of graphemes(the smallest units of written language).Allomorphs词素(形位)变体Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph. Such alternative morphs of a morpheme are called allomorphs.AllomorphAn allomorph is a linguistics term for a variant form of a morpheme. The concept occurs when a unit of meaning can vary in sound ...Types of MorphemesFree Morphemes自由词素Bound Morphemes粘合词素Root and StemA root is the basic form of a word which can not be further analyzed without total loss of identity. It carries the main component of the meaning of a word. It can also be defined as that part of a word which remains after all the inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed.A stem can be defined as any form to which an affix can be added.Free form & Bound formIn morphology, a bound morpheme is a morpheme that cannot stand alone as an independent word while carrying the lexical meaning related to the one in the word it is taken from. A free or unbound morpheme is the one which can.ExerciseMorpheme RootFree root Free formBound rootBound form AffixDerivational affixPrefixSuffixInflectional affix1.book ishmunic ate3.He go es to school every weekday4.I like water melon s best.W ord formationscompounding derivation affixationAffixation is a process in which a free morph is combined with a bound morph, a prefix, or suffix.1.Clipping a) Back clippingBack clipping or apocopation is the most common type, in which the beginning is retained. Examples are: ad (advertisement), cable (cablegram), doc (doctor), exam (examination), fax(facsimile), gas (gasoline), gym (gymnastics, gymnasium), memo (memorandum), mutt (muttonhead), pub (public house), pop (popular music).b) Fore-clippingFore-clipping or aphaeresis retains the final part. Examples: chute (parachute), coon (raccoon), gator (alligator), phone (telephone), pike (turnpike), varsity (university).c) Middle clippingIn middle clipping or syncope, the middle of the word is retained. Examples are: flu (influenza), jams or jammies (pajamas/pyjamas), polly (apollinaris), shrink (head-shrinker), tec (detective).d) Complex clippingClipped forms are also used in compounds. One part of the original compound most often remains intact. Examples are: cablegram (cable tele gram), op art (op tical art), org-man (org anization man), linocut (lino leum cut). Sometimes both halves of a compound are clipped as in navicert (navi gation cert ificate).2.blendingIn linguistics, a blend is a word formed from parts of two other words. These parts are sometimes, but not always, morphemes.There are many types of blends, based on how they are formed.Most blends are formed by one of the following methods:1.The beginning of one word is added to the end of the other (see portmanteau). Forexample, brunch is a blend of br eakfast and l unch.o mot or (2) + h otel(2) → motel (2)o simul taneous (5) + broad cast(2) → simulcast (3, exception)o sm oke (1) + f og(1) → smog (1)o sp oon (1) + f ork(1) → spork (1)o stag nation (3) + in flation(3) → stagflation (3)2.The beginnings of two words are combined. For example, cyborg is a blend of cyb erneticand org anism.3.Two words are blended around a common sequence of sounds. For example, the wordCalifornication, from a song by the Red Hot Chili Peppers, is a blend of Californi a andfornication.4.Multiple sounds from two component words are blended, while mostly preserving thesounds' order. Poet Lewis Carroll was well known for these kinds of blends. An exampleof this is the word slithy, a blend of lithe and sli m y. This method is difficult to achieveand is considered a sign of Carroll's verbal wit.[citation needed]When two words are combined in their entirety, the result is considered a compound word rather than a blend. For example, bagpipe is a compound, not a blend, of bag and pipe.3.abbreviationAn abbreviation (from Latin brevis, meaning "short") is a shortened form of a word or phrase.Usually, but not always, it consists of a letter or group of letters taken from the word or phrase.For example, the word abbreviation can itself be represented by the abbreviation abbr.or abbrev.In strict analysis, abbreviations should not be confused with contractions or acronyms (including initialisms), with which they share some semantic and phonetic functions, though all three are connoted by the term "abbreviation" in loose parlance.[1]:p167. However, normally acronyms are regarded as a subgroup of abbreviations (e.g. by the Council of Science Editors).4.acronym and initialism text shorthand5.back formationIn etymology, back-formation is the process of creating a new lexeme (less precisely, a new "word") by removing actual or supposed affixes. The resulting neologism is called a back-formation, a term coined by James Murray[1] in 1897.6.Onomatopoeia conversionIt refers to the creation of a word from an existing word without any change in form.Task 1Work in groups and analyze the formation of the following words.sitcom successful blackbird baby-sitad flu out v. roo BRIC VOAC U in 4 days. B4N clash◆Go over word formation. Study how the words were back-formed and indicate their original word.proof-read housekeep brainwash air-condition baby-sit sightsee window-shop Caretake ghostwrite sleep-walk◆ Identify the back formation of the following words.ASEAN beg meld AIDS VIP ABC CPPCCdept specialty math mike phone AFP mew◆ Fill in the blanks, using the proper words.lashed trashed mashed hashed crashgnash dashed bashed clashFaces are bashed .Hopes are dashed .Teeth gnashed _Cars crashBeef is hashed .Potatoes are mashed .Rooms are trashed Prisoners are lashed Enemies clash ◆ Find out how the phonaesthemes are related in meaning. 1. flash flare flame flicker suggestion of moving light 2. whisper whist whistle suggestion of a low sound 3. crick crinkle crabbed criss-cross cramp suggestion of crookedness 4. violentvitriolic vituperation vicious venomous suggestion of ill temper◆ Describe how the animals and insects make noises. 1. Asses2. Birds ___________.3. Camels ___________.4. Cats and kittens ___________.5. Cocks ___________.6. Cows and oxen ___________.7. Crows ___________.8. Dogs ___________.9. Doves and pigeons ___________. 10. Flies ___________. 11. Frogs ___________.12. Geese ___________.13. Goats and sheep ___________. 14. Hens ___________. 15. Mice ___________. 16. Seagulls ___________. 17. tigers ___________. 18. snakes ___________.◆ Get to know the bound roots and their meaning. Then give examples to each of them. Root Meaning TranslationExamplesacou hear 听，闻 acoumeter 测听计acoustics 音响学 aer air 空气，大气 Aerialalt heightAltitude, altimeter ampl broadAmple, amplify ann yearaqu wateratm Air, steam atmometer aud listen Auditor, inaudible biblio book bio life brevshort1.bray2. sing, twitter3. grunt4. mew5. crow6. low7. caw8. bark9. coo 10. buzz 11. croak 12. cackle 13. bleat 14. cackle 15. squeak 16. scream 17. growlchrom colour Chromosome, monochromechron time Chronicle, chronologycirc ring Circulate, encirclecosmo universe Cosmology, Cosmopoliscycl Bicycle, cycloiddem people Democracy, demographydentDuct,duce leadfer move Ferry, transferfrater brother Fraternal, fratricidegen origingeo earth geophysicsgraph writing Telegraph, photographmetermort deathmorph amorphousnym Anonymous, synonym, antonympathy feelingped Pedestrian, centipedephotopoly polychromepseudo Pseudoscience, pseudographpsychoruptterm end Terminal, terminatethermo heat Thermonuclear, thermometerVisu, vid seevoc voicevolv rollDirections: In this part, you will read 60 sentences. Please find out the word or expression in each group of the words which is close in meaning to the underlined word in the sentence.11.The allusions to mythological characters in Milton‘s poems bewilder the reader who has notstudied Latin.A) ambiguous inferences B) indirect references C) critical remarks D) false interpretations12.We were appalled by the horrifying con ditions in the city‘s jails.A) flustered B) dismayed C) disengaged D) exasperated13.It took Rembrandt weeks of assiduous labor before he was satisfied with his portrait of hisson.A) diligent B) impressive C) offensive D) massive14.Y outh‘s aspirations should be as lofty as the stars.A) obligations B) ambitions C) passions D) experiences15.The company hasn‘t had a proper audit for over a year.A) income B) profit C) audience D) inspection16.The island is a colony; however, in most matters, it is autonomous and receives no ordersfrom the mother country.A) long-established B) anarchic C) independent D) self-centered17.The group held biennial meetings instead of annual ones.A) every two days B) every two weeks C) every two years D) every two decades18.The criminal‘s fatal blunder led to his capture.A) weakness B) error C) taboo D) instinct19.Brevity is essential when you send a telegram; you are charged for every word.A) wordiness B) diction C)conciseness D) grammar20.The Social Democrats have to cede the leadership of the current coalition to the Republics.A) deny B) transfer C) withhold D) lease21.The content of philosophical works is cerebral in nature and requires much thought.A) intellectual B) sophisticated C) specious D) diverse22.Mathematics problems sometimes require much cerebration.A) revision B) thought C) precaution D) tactic23.Though Jack was emotionally immature, his cognitive development was admirable; he wasvery advanced intellectually.A) physical B) psychological C) mental D) spiritual24.Some people find the coincident events in Hardy‘s novels annoyingly improbable.A) accidental B) tragic C) previous D) simultaneous25.Two writers collaborated in preparing this book.A) complained B) confronted C) teamed up D) divorced26.The new commemorative stamp honors the late Martin Luther King.A) memorizing B) common C) remembering D) popular27.Britain cannot rely on concerted EEC action on that issue.A) massive B) disputable C) concurrent D) coordinated28.In Revolt of the Black Athlete, sociologist Harry Edwards contends that young black athleteshave been exploited by some college recruiters.A) suspects B) asserts C) doubts D) assures29.Mr. Barret didn‘t expect his frail daughter Elizabeth to contravene his will by eloping withRobert Browning.A) ignore B) resist C) condemn D) distort30.During the transit strike, commuters used various kinds of conveyances.A) transferences B) conveniences C) vehicles D) transitions31.Mr. Pajet‘s tone didn‘t sound particularly cordial.A) heartfelt B) courteous C) sympathetic D) offensive32.The US Congress is the counterpart of the British Parliament.A) opponent B) equivalent C) competitor D) spokesman33.His inauguration as President of the United States marked the culmination of his politicalcareer.A) zenith B) maturity C) terminal D) destination34.Despite the body‘s advanced state of decomposition, the police were able to identify themurdered man.A) bruise B) wound C) decay D) complexion35.Vigorous dancing quickly dehydrates the body; between dances, be sure to drink more waterthan normal.A) wears out B) dries out C) turns on D) drains out36.He is a powerful storyteller, but he is weakest when he attempts to delineate character.A) appraise B) criticize C) stimulate D) portray37.The magician was so dexterous that we could not follow his movements as he performed histricks.A) ridiculous B) exaggerating C) discreet D) masterly38.The campaign was highly negative in tone; each candidate tried to discredit the other.A) diminish B) humiliate C) threaten D) defame39.The diversity of colleges in this country indicates that many levels of ability are being served.A) complexity B) majority C) variety D) monotony40.The efficacy of this drug depends on the regularity of the dosage.A) desired effect B) side effect C) essence D) prescription41.On the death of Princess Diana, Elton John composed the elegy ―Candles in the Wind‖ toexpress his sorrow.A) anthem B) lamenting songs C) eulogy D) sonata42.To receive praise for real accomplishments engenders self-confidence in a child.A) generates B) spoils C) misleads D) endows43.When do children start being aware of themselves as separate entities?A) individuals B) personalities C) adults D) roles44.Sociology is one aspect of the science of ethnology.A) anthropology B) etymology C) ideology D) physiology45.All the eulogies of his friends could not remove the sting of the calumny heaped upon him byhis enemies.A) encouragement B) sentiment C) compassion D) compliments46.Although she was knowledgeable in a number of fields, she was hired for her patienceexpertise in computer programming.A) profession B) specialty C) scholarship D) experience47.This kiss was full of the fervor of first love.A) passion B) innocence C) conviction D) prudence48.The fineness and adroitness of the surgeon impressed the observers in the operating room.A) intricacy B) prudence C) delicate skill D) intuition49.After several fitful attempts, he decided to postpone the start of the project until he felt moreenergetic.A) fruitless B) preliminary C) resolute D) spasmodic50.Because she was a botanist, she spent most of her time studying the flora of the desert.A) specimen B) plants C) flowers D) habitats51.He was proud of his genealogy and constantly referred to the achievements of his ancestors.A) genesis B) originality C) lineage D) prestige52.When her supervisor ignored her complaint, she took her grievance to the union.A) reverence B) earnestness C) constraint D) complaint53.I prefer to shop in a store that has a one-price policy because, whenever I haggle with ashopkeeper, I am never certain that I paid a fair price for the articles I purchased.A) parley B) dispute C) diverge D) bargain54.It was difficult to step out one‘s place in this hierarchy.A) convention B) ranking system C) regime D) controversy55.A dog that bites a human being must be observed for symptoms of hydrophobia.A) rabies B) fear of dog C) anemia D) insomnia56.The defense attorney claimed that he police had entrapped his client; that is, they had the elicitaction of which they now accused him.A) illusory B) aggressive C) illegal D) hypercritical57.The comedian turned down the invitation to join the Player‘s Club, saying any club that wouldlet him in was too inclusive for him.A) decisive B) comprehensive C) exclusive D) imposing58.The discovery of the planet Pluto is an excellent example of the results that can be obtainedfrom inductive reasoning.A) irrelevant B) cognitive C) exclusive D) inferential59.We must be particularly cautious when we infer that a person is guilty on the basis ofcircumstantial evidence.A) argue B) suspect C) deduce D) propose60.We admire Auden for his inimitable use of language; he is one of a kind.A) adept B) flawless C) profound D) matchless61.Lincoln, whose personal integrity has inspired millions, fought a civil war to maintain theintegrity of the republic, that these United States might remain undivided for all time.A) prestige B) perseverance C) uprightness D) boldness62.She had no respect for him because he seemed weak-willed and irresolute.A) insensitive B) determined C) cowardly D) hesitant63.Let us be serious; this is not a ludicrous issue.A) ceremonious B) tedious C) consequential D) laughable64.Mr. Barret never expected his meek daughter would dare to defy him by eloping with hersuitor.A) introvert B) indolent C) considerate D) submissive65.In the microcosm of our rural village, we find illustrations of all the evils that beset theuniverse.A) miniature B) metropolis C) cosmos D) small world66.To avoid misapprehension, I am going to ask all of you to repeat the instructions I have given.A) conflict B) chaos C) annoyance D) misunderstanding67.A career woman and mother, she was constantly busy with the multifarious activities of herdaily life.A) irrelevant B) complex C) diversified D) stressful68.The first settlers found so much work to do that they had little time for nostalgia.A) homesickness B) sentiment C) mourning D) retrospect69.I was impressed by the range of optional accessories for my microcomputer that wereavailable.A) practice B) compulsory C) selective D) convenient70.By disguising himself as an old woman, Holmes was able to outwit his pursuers and escapecapture. A) expelB) excludeC) outsmartD) perplexim + mort + al + ity not + death + adj. + n.immortalityim-, negative prefix meaning not;mort means death;-al adjective suffix meaning related to or having the characteristic of; -ity, a suffix of an abstract noun meaning having the nature of.Immortality means that having the nature of not being dead or that won‘t go to death.Maternity:matern means mother;-ity is a suffix of a noun meaning having the nature of Maternity means having the nature of motheranthropologyanthrop means man,ology, a suffix of a noun with the meaning of study Anthropology means a study of mankind.synchronicallysyn means same chron means timeical adjective suffix meaning related to, having the nature and characteristic of ly adverbial suffix with the meaning of in terms of or from the angle of Synchronically means (from the angle of) happening at the same time.malnutritionmal means badmutri means nourishtion is a suffix of an abstract nounMalnutrition means that is badly nourished.Tell the meaning of the prefixes below: 1. ante cedent: before 2. by product: near 3. apo cope: off 4. en close: in 5. end obiltic: inside 6. epi taph: outside 7. ex pire: outexpatriate:ex-, a prefix with the meaning out patri means fatherate is a suffix of a verb meaning makeExpatriate means to make someone out of one‘s fatherland. philanthropy phil means to love, anthropy means humanityPhilanthropy means showing love to humanity.Exercisephilosopher somnambulism pneumonia perception deficiency interchangeable sympathy tripod activity conventionality retrospect1. in clude: in2. infra red: under3. inter cede: between4. intra mural: within5. intro spect: into6. fore tell: before7. hypo crite: beneath8. out bid: exceeding over work: beyond9. post graduate: after pre cede: before 10. pro ceed: forward retro spect: back 11. sub scribe: below super man: above12. supra mundane: beyond trans mit: across 13. ultra conservatism: exreme。