语言学教程6.3
《简明英语语言学教程》导学手册
《英语语言学》导学手册程可拉主编英语语言学教学大纲一、教学目的和要求英语语言学是英语本科专业的自考课程。
本课程的目的是帮助学生系统地学习语言学基本理论知识和研究方法，为从事英语语言教学与研究打下良好的基础。
本课程教学的具体要求是：１．系统掌握语言学的基本理论和基本知识。
２．能应用语言学知识分析各种语言现象。
３．能应用语言学的基本理论来指导中学英语教学。
二、教学内容I. Introduction1. Linguistics1.1 What is linguistics?1.2 Linguistics vs. traditional grammar1.3 The scope of linguistics2. Language2.1 What is language?2.2 The defining properties of human languageII. Phonology1. The phonic medium of language2. Phonetics2.1 What is phonetics?2.2 The speech organs2.3 Narrow and broad transcriptions2.4 Some major articulatory variables2.5 Classification of English speech sounds3. Phonology3.1 Phonetics and phonology3.2 Phone, phoneme and allophone3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair3.4 Some rules of phonology3.5 Suprasegmental features---Stress, tone, intonationIII. Morphology1. Morphology1.1 Open classes and closed classes1.2 Internal structure of words and rules for word formation2. Morphemes---the minimal units of meaning3. Derivational and inflectional morphemes4. Morphological rules of word formation5. CompoundsIV. Syntax1. Syntax1.1 What is syntax?1.2 Sentence2. Structuralist approach2.1 Form classes2.2 Constituent structure2.3 Immediate constituent analysis2.4 Endocentric and exocentric constructions2.5 Advantage of IC analysis2.6 Labelled tree diagram2.7 Discontinuous constituents3. Transformational-generative grammar3.1 Competence and performance3.2 Criteria for judging grammars3.3 Generative aspect3.4 Transformational aspect3.5 Deep and surface structures4. The Standard Theory4.1 Components of a TG4.2 The base4.3 Transformations4.4 The form of T-rules4.5 The phonological component4.6 The semantic componentV. Semantics1. Semantics1.1 What is semantics?2. Some views on semantics2.1 Naming things2.2 Concepts2.3 Context and behaviourism2.4 Mentalism3. Lexical meaning3.1 Sense and reference3.2 Synonymy3.3 Polysemy and homonymy3.4 Hyponymy3.5 Antonymy3.6 Relational opposites4. Componential analysis4.1 Componets of meaning4.2 Meaning relations in terms of componential analysis5. Sentence meaning5.1 How to define the meaning of a sentence?5.2 Selectional restrictions5.3 Basic statements about meaning6. The semantic structure of sentences6.1 Extended use of componential analysis6.2 Prediction analysis6.3 Subordinate and downgraded predictions6.4 Advantages of predication analysisVI. Pragmatics1. What does pragmatics study?2. Speech act theory3. Principles of conversation3.1 The co-operative principle3.2 The politeness principleVII. Language change1. Introduction2. Sound change3. Morphological and syntactic change3.1 Change in “agreement” rule3.2 Change in negation rule3.3 Process of simplification3.4 Loss of inflections4. V ocabulary change4.1 Addition of new words4.2 Loss of words4.3 Changes in the meaning of words5. Some recent trends5.1 Moving towards greater informality5.2 The influence of American English5.3 The influence of science and technology6. Causes of language changeVIII. Language and society1. The scope of sociolinguistics1.1 Indications of relatedness between language and society1.2 Sociolinguistics vs. traditional linguistic study1.3 Two approaches in sociolinguistics2. Varieties of language2.1 Varieties of language related to the user2.2 Standard dialect2.3 Varieties of language related to the use3. Communicative competence4. Pidgin and creole5. Bilingualism and diglossiaIX. Language and culture1. Introduction2. What is culture?3. Language and meaning4. Interdependence of language and culture5. The significance of cultural teaching and learning6. Linguistics evidence of cultural differences6.1 Greetings6.2 Thanks and compliments6.3 Terms of address6.4 Colour words6.5 Privacy and taboos6.6 Rounding off numbers7. Cultural overlap and diffusion8. ConclusionX. Language acquisition1. Introduction1.1 Language acquisition1.2 The beginning of language1.3 Stages in first language acquisition1.4 Age and native language acquisition1.5 Common order in the development of language1.6 Different rate of language development2. Phonological development2.1 Regular sound development2.2 Mother and father words2.3 Grammatical development2.4 Vocabulary development2.5 Sociolinguistic development3. Theories of child language acquisition3.1 A behaviorist view of language acquisition3.2 A nativist view of language acquisitionXI. Errors analysis and second language acquisition1. Differences and similarities between first and second language acquisition2. The inadequacy of imitation theory3. Interference3.1 Phonological evidence3.2 Lexical evidence3.3 Grammatical evidence4. Cross-association5. Overgeneralization6. Strategies of communication7. Performance errors三、教学原则和方法１．启发式教学原则：教师积极引导学生理解分析问题，发挥学生的主观能动性，培养他们综合分析问题解决问题的能力。
语言学教程Chapter 6. Language and Cognition课件
语言学教程Chapter 6. Language and Cognition
(1) Access to words
• Steps involved in the planning of words: • 1. processing step, called conceptualization,…… • 2.to select a word that corresponds to the chosen concept. • 3.morpho-phonological encoding • Generally, morphemes are accessed in sequence, according to
• 1). Serial models…… • 2). Parallel models…… • Structural factors in comprehension of sentences • 1). minimal attachment which defines “structural simpler” • 2).“Garden path” • Lexical factors in comprehension • Information about specific words is stored in the lexicon.
语言学教程Chapter 6. Language and Cognition
6.2.3 language production
• Language production involves…… • 1. generation of single words • 2. generation of simple utterances • Different mappings in language comprehension and in language production • Discussions: • A. production of words orally, • B. production of longer utterances, • C. the different representations and processes involved in spoken production
新编简明英语语言学教程中文版
第一章：绪论1．什么是语言学？1．1定义语言学常被定义为是对语言进行系统科学研究的学科。
语言学研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有的语言。
为了揭示语言的本质，语言学家首先要对语言实际使用进行观察，并在此基础上形成有关语言使用的概括性假设，这些初步形成的假设要在语言使用中进行进一步的检验，最终形成一条语言理论。
1．2语言学的研究范畴:语言学研究有不同的侧重。
对语言体系作全面研究的语言学研究称为普通语言学。
语音学主要是对语言声音媒介的研究，它不只是研究某一特定的语言的声音媒介，而是所有语言的声音媒介。
音系学与语音学不同，它主要研究特定语言的语音体系，即音是如何结合在一起产生有意义的单位。
形态学主要研究单词的内部语义结构，及这些叫做词素的语义最小单位是如何结合构成单词。
句法学主要研究构成潜在句子的句法规则。
语义学以研究语义为目的，传统语义学主要研究抽象的意义，独立于语境之外的意义，语用学也是研究语义，但是它把语义研究置于语言使用语境中加以研究。
语言不是一个孤立的现象，而是一种社会现象，各种社会因素都会对语言的使用产生影响。
从社会的角度来研究语言的科学被称之为社会语言学。
语言和社会之间的关系是社会语言学研究的主要内容。
心理语言学主要从心理学的角度来研究语言。
它要研究人们在使用语言时大脑的工作机理，如人是如何习得母语的，人的大脑是如何加工和记忆语言信息等问题。
把语言学的研究成果应用到实践中的科学形成了应用语言学。
狭义上，应用语言学指把语言理论和原则运用于语言教学的科学，在广义上，它指把语言理论与原则应用于解决实际问题的科学。
除此之外还有人类语言学、神经语言学、数学语言学、计算语言学等。
1．3语言学研究中的几对基本概念1．3．1规定性和描述性语言学研究是描述性的，不是规定性的。
这是语言学和传统语法的一个重要区别。
语言学研究的目的是对人们使用的语言进行客观描述与分析，而不是对语言的使用作出规定。
传统语法是规定性的，它主要建立在笔头语言基础之上，旨在规定一系列的语法规则，并且把这些语法规则强加给语言使用者。
语言学教程胡壮麟
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An Introduction to Linguistics语言学导论胡壮麟主编《语言学教程》（修订版）北京：北京大学出版社2001年Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1Why study language?●Languages are the best mirror of the human mind. --Leibniz(莱布尼兹1646-1716)psychology mind/brain pedagogy cognitive science●The three basic questions that concern Chomsky are:(i) What constitutes knowledge of language?(ii) How is knowledge of language acquired?(iii) How is knowledge of language put to use?Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm(1646-1716) German rationalist philosopher, mathematician, and logician. He spent his life in the diplomatic and political service and in 1700 was appointed first president of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin. Leibniz is chiefly known as an exponent of optimism; he believed that the world is fundamentally harmonious and good, being composed of single units (monads), each of which is self-contained but acts in harmony with every other; these form an ascending hierarchy culminating in God. Their harmony is ordained by God, who never acts except for a reason that requires it, and so this world is the best of all possible worlds (a view satirized in Voltaire's Candide). Leibniz made the important distinction between necessary (logical) truths and contingent (factual) truths, and proposed a universal logical language that would eliminate ambiguity. He also devised a method of calculus independently of Newton.Chomsky, (Avram) Noam(1928-–) US theoretical linguist and political activist. His theory of transformational grammar is set out in Syntactic Structures (1957). A distinction is made between a speaker's linguistic competence, which is idealized, and actual performance; the theory sets out to account only for the former. Chomsky has revised the theory since 1957.1.2What is language?●Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas,emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. – Sapir（萨丕尔1884-1939)●Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.-- Wardhaugh（沃道）● A language is a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length andconstructed out of a finite set of elements. – Chomsky（乔姆斯基1928 -）● A language is a system for meanings. – Halliday（韩礼德1925 -）We shall define language as “meaning potential”: that is, as sets of options, or alternatives, in meaning, that are available to the speaker-hearer. – Halliday Sapir, Edward(1884-1939) German-born US linguistics scholar and anthropologist. One of the founders of American structural linguistics, he carried out important work on American Indian languages and linguistic theory. His book Language (1921) presents his thesis that language should be studied within its social and cultural context. According to theSapir-Whorf hypothesis, in which Sapir collaborated with his pupil Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897-1941), a culture's language embodies the way in which it understands the world and dictates how those who use that language think about the world. This may be due to structural factors, such as the way time is expressed in verb tenses, as well as to more superficially obvious features such as vocabulary.1.3Design features of language●Design features Concept introduced by C. F. Hockett in the 1960s of a set of key properties of language not shared or not known to be shared, as a set, with systems of communication in any other species. Their number and names vary from one account to another; but all include, as among the most important, the properties of duality, arbitrariness, and productivity.1.3.1Arbitrariness任意性: The property of language by which there is in general nonatural (i.e. logical) relation between the form of a single lexical unit and itsmeaning. 书book livre rose motivated 理据sheep cow moo moo quackoink bedroomWhat’s in a name? that which we call a roseBy any other name would smell as sweet. – Shakespeare(莎士比亚1564-1616)名无固宜，约之以命，约定俗成谓之宜，异于约则谓之不宜。
语言学第六章chapter6ppt课件
This sentence presupposes that Susan exists and that she has a sister.
In English, words like here, there, this, that, now, and then, as well as most pronouns, such as I, we, you, he, her, them.
(2) You’ll have to bring that back tomorrow, because they aren’t here now.
பைடு நூலகம்
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6.2.3 Anaphora
Anaphora (照应) is coreference of one expression with its antecedent. The antecedent provides the information necessary for the expression’s interpretation. This is often understood as an expression “referring” back to the antecedent.
I was waiting for the bus, but he just drove by without stopping.
To study the meaning of such pieces of language in smaller contexts is called micropragmatics.
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戴炜栋主编英语语言学教程第6章课件_pragmatics
I promise to finish it in time. I apologize. I declare the meeting open. I warn you that the bull will charge.
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Features of performatives 行为(xíngwéi)句的特 征
Its perlocutionary act can be the hearer’s shutting the window or his refusal to
comply with the request.
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John Searle (1932- ) American philosopher, linguist约翰·罗杰 斯·塞尔
Speech Act --- a term derived from the work of Austin and now
used to refer to a theory which analyzes the role of utterances in interpersonal communication.
background, situation(time, place,
manner, etc.), the relationship between the speaker and the hearer, etc.….
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6.1.4 Sentence Meaning vs. Utterance Meaning句子意义 (yìyì)和言语意义(yìyì)
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The illocutionary act 言外行为(xíngwéi)--- an act performed in saying something: in saying X, I was doing Y (the intention of the speaker while speaking).
新编简明英语语言学教程中文版
新编简明英语语言学教程中文版导读：语言学家借此来描述和解释世界上各种语言的共同属性，这是英语中两个主要的句法移位，英语中WH词移至句首是将陈述句转变为特殊疑问句的必要条件，乔姆斯基和其他一些语言学家提出了普遍语法理论，普遍语法是人类所特有的语言知识体系，这一原则也解释了在英语中为什么动词和其直接宾语之间不能有其它的短语类插入，标准的英语句子必须要遵照毗邻条件，毗邻条件原则并不是在任何一种语言中都起重要作用，使得语言呈现出多样性x’ x Comp1这种高度抽象综合的X标杆理论可减少各个具体短语结构规则的繁杂，揭示所有短语结构规则的本质属性，语言学家借此来描述和解释世界上各种语言的共同属性。
6．句法移位和移位规则短语结构规则是难以用来描述句法移位现象。
当一个句子中的一个成分从其原位移向一个新的位置，就产生了句法移位。
句法移位是遵循一定的转换规则的。
6．1.名词词组移位和WH移位。
这是英语中两个主要的句法移位。
名词词组从原先所处的位置移至另一位置的句法现象叫作名词词组移位。
请看下面一组例子: A. The teacher taught the student. B. The student was taught by the teacher.一般认为B句是A句执行名词短语移位的结果。
在主动语态句中充当主语的名词词组和充当宾语的名词词组可以逆向移位，使句子转换成被动语态。
另一种常见的移位现象叫作WH-移位，即带WH词的成分从在句子中所处的原位移至另一位置。
英语中WH词移至句首是将陈述句转变为特殊疑问句的必要条件。
例如：A. He bought the book from the bookstore yesterday.a:. What did he buy from the bookstore yesterday? b. Where did he buy the book yesterday?c. When did he buy the book from the bookstore ?以上每个疑问句的产生，都是WH词向左移出了它们的常规位置，移到句首致使句子语气发生改变。
(完整word版)胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点
《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
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80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 5 10 20 30
Voice onset time delay (msec)
Speech perception/comprehension
Word recognition
Ambiguity is the problem
Whole word ambiguity: bark, plant, bug Onset ambiguity (spoken words only): "su…" (we know words are recognized before they end)
Different acoustic patterns can be heard as the same phoneme The same acoustic pattern can be heard as different phonemes depending on the context
Perception tends to be categorical
-Victor Hugo
But using language only seems easy!
Language processing is a hugely complex computational task…
Other intelligent critters (e.g., chimps, gorillas) fail to learn language except at the most rudimentary levels Computers fail miserably
But using language only seems easy!
How complex?
Phoneme boundaries are also very fuzzy!
But using language only seems easy!
How complex? …comprehending
(Scientists still don't understand fully how we do it)
But using language only seems easy!
Language processing is hugely complex computational task,
yet…
But using language only seems easy!
How complex? …comprehending
A six word sentence
But using language only seems easy!
How complex?
Word boundaries are not evident in the acoustic waveform
But using language only seems easy! Production…
?
"Why did Ken set the soggy net on top of his deck?"
But using language only seems easy!
How complex? …speaking 1. Select words that will express the concept
soggy vs. wet; deck vs. patio; set vs. put
2. Arrange them into the appropriate phrases
…set the net on his deck NOT …set the deck on his net
3. Look up and arrange their sound structure
Psycholinguistics
Language as an interface Human intelligence discovered a way of perpetuating itself, one not only more durable and more resistant than architecture, but also simpler and easier.
soggy net NOT noggy set
4. Add appropriate prosody
WHY did ken…vs. why DID ken…vs. why did KEN…
5. Code the final product in motor commands
"Why did Ken set the soggy net on top of his deck?"
Select words
Construct phrases
Insert sound Add inflection structure Insert prosodic structure
Speech articulation
Speech production
Slips of the tongue as clues to the process of speech production Lots of different varieties: Anticipations: cuff of coffee (cup of coffee) Perseverations: gave the goy (gave the boy) Exchanges: teep a cape (keep a tape) with this wing I do red cassy put (pussy cat) piss and stretch (stress and pitch) … *note: don't plan just one word at a time!
Access multiple meanings/words? Or only one? Do we use context to guide our lexical access? or only to help decide which to discard?
The man found several spiders, roaches, and other bugs in the corner of the room.
Every normal human child in every culture acquires sophisticated linguistic competence before the age of 5 This learning occurs simply by exposure to language, and does not require explicit instruction (unlike reading or math) And, it can emerge spontaneously in children with minimal linguistic exposure
Categorical perception
VOT continuum da-ta
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 5 10 20 30
Voice onset time delay (msec)
VOT continuum da-ta
100 90
If is were non-categorical it would look like this:
The WHITE house is under attack. (physically) The WHITE house is under attack. (metaphorically) The white HOUSE is under attack. (phys or metaph) The white house is under a tack.
I was instructed to look for either a man with a telescope, or a man with binoculars. I saw the man with binoculars
Speech production
Message source Are these separate levels of processing? Or handled in one big translation process?
But using language only seems easy!
How complex? …comprehending Ambiguity in newspaper headlines: Child's Stool Great for Use in Garden Drunk Gets Nine Months in Violin Case Iraqi Head Seeks Arms Queen Mary Having Bottom Scraped Complaints About NBA Referees Growing Ugly Huge breast study
Speech erception of phonemes ("speech perception")
There is not a distinct acoustic pattern associated with each phoneme ("lack of invariance problem")
Speech perception/comprehension
Sentence processing
Ambiguity is again the problem