新编语言学教程第一章
新编语言学教程第一章 chapter1
B.Linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.
c) Linguistics differs from traditional grammar in that it does not force languages into a Latinbased framework.
• To understand the applications of the linguistic theories, especially in the fields of language teaching & learning (SLA or TEFL), cross-cultural communication……;
2. There are no absolute standards of correctness in language uses.
•
秋浦歌
• 白发三千丈， 缘愁似个长。 • 不知明镜里， 何处得秋霜。 • 单看“白发三千丈”一句，真叫人无法理 解：白发怎么能有“三千丈”呢？愁生白 发，人所共晓，而长达三千丈，该有多少 深重的愁思。十个字的千钧重量落在一个 “愁”字上。以此写愁，匪夷所思。奇想 出奇句，不能不使人惊叹诗人的气魄和笔 力。
A Course on Linguistics for Students of English Linguistics: A New Coursebook
《新编语言学教程》
The Goals for this Course
• To get a scientific view on language; • To understand some basic theories on linguistics;
刘润清《新编语言学教程》章节题库-第一章至第三章【圣才出品】
第二部分章节题库第1章导论I.Fill in the blanks.1.In Saussure’s view,the relationship between signifier(sound image)andsignified(concept)is_____.（北二外2003研）【答案】arbitrary【解析】索绪尔认为符号的形式或声音与其意义之间没有逻辑联系，所以两者之间的关系是任意的。
2.Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present(in time and space)at the moment of communication.This quality is labeled as_____.（北二外2003研）【答案】displacement【解析】移位性是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、事件和观点。
3._____refers to the role language plays in communication(e.g.to express ideas, attitudes)or in particular social situations(e.g.Religious,legal).（北二外2016研）【答案】Function【解析】本题考查语言学中对“语言的功能”的定义。
功能指的是语言在沟通中（例如表达观点、态度）或在特定社交场合（如宗教、法律）中所起的作用。
4.The features that define our human languages can be called_____features.（北二外2006研）【答案】design【解析】人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点是语言的区别特征，是人类语言特有的特征。
刘润清《新编语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解(1-6章)【圣才出品】
第1章导言1.1复习笔记本章要点：1.The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究的范围2.The definition and the origins of language语言的定义与起源3.The design feature and the function of language语言的特征和功能4.Some major concepts in linguistics语言学中重要的概念本章考点：1.有关语言学的常考考点(1)语言学的定义，现代语言学与传统语法学研究的区别。
(2)语言学中几组重要概念，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义。
(3)普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴。
(4)宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。
2.有关语言的常考考点(1)语言的定义；语言的基本特征(任意性、二重性、多产性、移位性、互换性、专门性和文化传递性)；(2)语言的功能(寒暄、指示、信息、疑问、表达、劝说和施为)；(3)语言的起源(叮咚说、唱歌说、哒哒说、汪汪、噗噗、哟嘿吼理论等。
)本章内容索引：I.Definition of linguisticsII.Linguistics vs.traditional grammarIII.Scope of linguistics1.Microlinguistics2.MacrolinguisticsIV.Definition of languageV.Origins of language1.Ding-Dong Theory2.Sing-Song Theory3.Pooh-Pooh Theory4.Yo-He-Ho Theory5.Ta-Ta Theory6.Bow-Wow TheoryVI.Design features of language1.Arbitrariness2.Duality3.Productivity4.Interchangeability5.Displacement6.Specialization7.Cultural transmissionVII.Functions of language1.Phatic function/communion2.Directive functionrmative function4.Interrogative function5.Expressive function6.Evocative function7.Performative functionVIII.Some major concepts in linguistics1.Descriptive and prescriptive grammar2.Synchronic and diachronic linguisticsngue and parolepetence and performance5.Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations6.Functionalism and formalismI.Definition of linguistics(语言学的定义)【考点：名词解释】The scientific or systemic study of language,which is always guided by the-three canons ofscience:exhaustiveness,consistency and economy.语言学是对语言的科学或系统的研究。
(NEW)刘润清《新编语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解
语言来源于人本能表达情感的声音。 4. Yo-He-Ho Theory (呦嘿吼理论) Language came from the cries uttered, during strain of work. 语言来源于共同劳动时发出的呦嘿声。 5. Ta-Ta Theory (哒哒说) Language came from the combination of certain gestures and tongue movements. 语言来源于移动舌头发出的声音与某个手势的结合。 6. Bow-Wow Theory (汪汪理论) Language came from imitation of animal cries and other sounds heard in nature. 语言起源于人们模仿动物的叫声和其他自然界中的声音。
本章内容索引： I. Definition of linguistics II. Linguistics vs. traditional grammar III. Scope of linguistics 1. Microlinguistics 2. Macrolinguistics IV. Definition of language V. Origins of language
VI. Design features of language (语言的定义特征) 【重点、考点：论述语言的识别特征】 1. Arbitrariness (任意性) This refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. There is no reason, for example, why English should use the sounds /dɔg/ to refer to the animal dog,
新编语言学教程刘润清版1,2章复习大纲
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Definition : linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language. It is always guided by thethree cannons of science:exhaustiveness, consistency and economy.LinguisticsLinguistics versustraditional grammar:Scope Microlinguistics Phonetics Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics PragmaticsMacrolinguistics Sociolinguistics Psycholinguistics Neurolinguistics Stylistics Discourse analysis Computational linguistics Cognitive linguisticsDefinition:Ding-Dong Theory: human speech developed from primitive man giving vocal expression to the objects he encountered.Sing-Song Theory: language developed from primitive ritual songs of praise.Pooh-Pooh Theory: language came from interjections, which express he speaker ’s emotions.Origins Yo-He-Ho Theory: language came from the cries uttered, during strain of work.Ta-Ta Theory : language came from the combination of certain gestures and tongues movements. Bow-Wow Theory: language came from imitation of animal cries and other sounds heard in nature.Design featuresLinguistics describes languages and does not lay down rules of correctness while traditional grammar emphasizes correctness. Linguists regard the spoken language as primary, not the written while traditional grammar emphasizes the priority of written language. Traditional grammar is based on Latin and it tries to impose the Latin categories and structures on other languages. Linguistics describes each language on its language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is a system---elements in it are not arranged and combined randomly, but according to some rules and principles. Language is arbitrary --- there is no intrinsic connection between the word .pen) and the thing. what we write with).Language is vocal---the primary medium for all languages is sound. Language is used for human communication ---it is human-specific, very different form Arbitrarines s: this refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. For example, English should use the sounds/d?g/ to refer to the animal dog, but Chinese should use “gou ” to refer to te same animal. A dog may be called a pig if the first man happens to name it as a “pig ”. So, the relationship between the sounds and their meaning is quite accidental. Of course, onomatopoetic words such as “quack-quack ” and “bang ” are exceptions, but words these are relatively few compared withe the total number of words in language. Duality: language operates on two levels of structure. At one level are elements which have no meaningin themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning. Productivity : productivity or creativity refers to man ’s linguistic ability which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including the sentences which were never heard before. Interchangeability : interchangeability or reciprocity refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive messages, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease. Displacement: displacement is a property of language enabling people to talk about things remote either in space or in time. Specialization : specialization refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication. Cultural transmission : language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity. A human being brought up in isolations simply doesn ’t acquire language, as is demonstrated by the studies of children brought up by animals without human contact. Animals transmit their cries simply from parent to child, while human baby doesn ’t speak any language at birth. What language a baby is going to speakFunctionsSome major concepts in linguisticsDescriptive and prescriptive grammarDescriptive grammars attempt to tell what is in the language; while prescriptive grammars tell people what should be in the traditional grammars tried to lay down rules, they are often called prescriptive. Most modern linguistics is descriptive.Synchronic and diachronic linguisticsWhen we study language at one particular time, it is called synchronic linguistics. When we study language developments through time, it is called diachronic or historical linguistics. Synchronic linguistics focuses on the state of language at any point in history while diachronic linguistics focuses on he difference in two or more than two tates of language over decades or centuries.Langue and paroleSaussure made an important distinction between langue and parole. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Parole refers to particular realizations of langue. Langue is the social, conventional side of language, while parole is individualized speech.Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as a system of abstract formal relations, while performance refers to their actual linguistic behavior, that is , the actual use of this knowledge.Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationsSaussure has put forward another pair of concepts: syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations. The former refers to the horizontal relationship between linguistic elements, which form linear sequences. The later means the vertical relationship between forms, which might occupy the same particular place in a structure.Functionalism and formalismFunctionalism or functional linguistics refers to the study of the forms of language in reference to their social function in communication. Formalism or formal linguistics is the study of the abstract forms of language and their internal relations.课后练习If language is partially defined as communication, can we call the noises that dogs make language Why or why notNo,we can ’t call the noises that dogs make as language even though language is partially defined as communication. There are two reasons for that: first, language is human-specific,it is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used only for human communication. Second, language has design features which are totally lack in animal communication systems. For example, language has two levels of structures: at one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning. Noises made by dogs represent certain meaning but can not be further analyzed into smaller units.What is the difference between a prescriptive and a descriptive approach to languageDescriptive approach to language attempt to tell what is in the language, while prescriptive approach to language tells people what should be in the language. Most contemporary linguists believe that whatever occurs naturally in the language should be described. Certain forms are sued more regularly than others and by different people. Though some forms occur less frequently they should not be ignored. They can all be recorded and explained as aspects of the languages since hey are actually used.A wolf is able to express subtle gradations of emotion by different positions of the ears, the lips, and the tail. There are eleven postures of the tail that express such emotions as self-confidence, Phatic function/communion Directive function Informative functionInterrogative function Expressive function Evocative function Performativeconfident threat, lack of tension, uncertain threat, depression, defensiveness, active submission, and complete submission. This system seems to be complex. Suppose there were a thousand different emotions that the wolf could express in this way. Would you then say a wolf had a language similar to man ’s If not, why notNo, we can not say a wolf has a language similar to that of men even though there were a thousand different emotions that the wolf could express with his positions of body parts. There are two reasons for that:First, language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is human-specific. Second, language has design features which are lack in animals ’ communication systems. For example, language has two levels of structures: at one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning. But in wolf ’s communication system, one position stands for one certain meaning, and can not be further analyzed into smaller units. And no the other hand, human linguistic units can be grouped and regrouped, arranged and rearranged according to certain rules but those positions owned by wolf have no such features. Therefore, wolf ’s this system is not so productive as human languages.Chapter 2 THE SOUNDS OF LANGUAGEINTRODUCTIONPhonology : is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.Phoneme :Minimal pairsandminimal sets\Free variationDistinctive featuressyllablesConsonant clusterWith some phonetic knowledge we can give a much more precise description to speech sounds. And with some phonological knowledge we can become more aware of the functions of sounds in different languages. More importantly, phonetics and phonology have made the greatest contribution toPhoneme is the phonological units of language, and it is an abstract collection of phonetic features which and distinguish meaning. For example, sip and zip is signaled by the fact that the initial sound of the first word is s/s/ and the initial sound of the second word is z/z/./s/and /z/can therefore distinguish or contrast words. Minimal pairs are pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound. For example, chunk and junk ,ban and bin, be and bat, fan and van, fine and vine, sink and zinc, site and side are minimal pairs in English. When a group of words can be differentiated each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then we have a minimal set. For example, a minimal set based on the vowel when two or more sounds occur in the same positon without any apparent change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation. For example, there are two pronunciation of the word either,we can say /i:δ?r/ and /’a ?δ?r/. When a feature distinguishes one phoneme from another it is a distinctive feature (or a phonemic feature). For example, seal and zeal distinguishes by /s/ ad /z/,/s/ is voiceless and /z/ is voiced,so The English word beautiful consists of three speech units: beau-ti-ful. These units, which are often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word, are called syllables. Syllable structure syllable onset Rime(rhyme)Nucleus(peak coda Consonant(s) vowel In English some words may contain a sequence of two or more consonants in one syllable, for example, /spl/ in /’splendid/. Sequences of consonants like this are called consonant clusters. Initial cluster: /spl/ in /’spl??/ splash Final cluster: /st/ in /test/ test Medialcluster: /str/ in /’pe?str?/ pastryA word which begins with three-consonant clusters always observes three strict rules:Suprasegmentals Definition: The study of the speech sounds that occur in all human languages is called phonetics.Articulatory phonetics, which is the study of how speech sounds are produced, or “articulated ”.Three research fields Acoustic phonetics, which deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air.Auditory phonetics, which deals with how speech sounds are perceived by the listener.Articulators andfunctionsVoicedand voiceless soundsNasaland oral soundsVariations ofsoundsVowels Pharynx is a tube which begins just above the larynx.Velum or soft palate i s seen in the position that allows air to pass through the nose and the mouth. Hard palate is often called the “roof of the mouth ”, you can feel its smooth curved surface with your tongue. Alveolar ridge or alveolum is between the top front teeth and hard palate. Tongue can be moved into many different places and different shapes. Larynx is also an articulator. Notices Jaws are sometimes called articulators,but the jaws are not articulators in the same way as others. Teeth Lips When the vocal cords are spread apart, the airstream from the lungs is not obstructed at the space between vocal cords and passes freely. The sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless sounds. The sounds represented by /p/,/t/,/k/,and /s/ in the English wordsseep/si:p/,seat/si:t/,and seek/si:k/ are voiceless sounds. When the vocal cords are drawn together, the airstream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced sounds. The sounds represented When the velum is lowered, air escapes through the nose as well as the mouth; sounds produced this way are called nasal sounds. There are three nasal consonants /m/, /n/,and /?/ in English. When the velum is raised all the way to touch the back of the throat, the passage through the nose is cut off. When the nasal passage is blocked in this way, the air can escape only throughthe mouth. Sounds produced this way are called oral sounds. /p/ and /b/ are oral sounds. Definition: vowels are sounds produced without obstruction, so o turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived. Front vowels: /i:/ /?/ /e/ /?/ /?/ /ɑ/The height of the tongue Central vowels: /з:/ /?/ /?/Back vowels: /u:/ /u/ /?:/ /?/ /ɑ:/The shape of the lip Rounded vowels: /u:/ /u/ /?:/ /?/Liaison: The phenomenon of the linking of two words in speech, in particular when the second word begins with a vowel, is called liaison. The phrase “an egg ” is often pronounced /?’neg/. Elision : the loss of a sound or sounds in speech is called elision. The word “suppose ” is often pronounced as /sp??z/, “factory ” as /’f?ktr?/. Assimilation : the way that sounds belonging to one word or one syllable can cause changes in sounds belonging to neighboring words or syllables is called assimilation. In English the negative prefix occurs as “im-” before words such as “possible ”---”impossible ”.Sound contrasts that extend over several segments (phonemes),and such contrasts are called suprasegmentals. Suprasegmental featuresStress Intonation When a word has more than one syllable, one of them will be pronounced with more prominence than others. This brings us to another speech sound phenomenon, that of When sounds which are identical as to their place or manner features may differ in length, pitch or loudness. When speaking, people generally raise and lower the pitch of their voice. This phenomenon is called intonation.ClassificationofEnglishSpeechSoundsConsonantsCAPTER 2 课后练习 2. What is the test most often used for determining phonemes in a language Minimal pair test or substitution test is the first rule of thumb to determine the phonemes of any language, that is ,to see whether substituting one sound for another result in a different word. If it does , the two sound represent different phonemes. For example, we see from the contrast between fine and vine and between chunk and junk that /f /, /v /,/? /and /?/ must be phonemes in English because substituting /v/ for /f /,or /?/ for /? / produce a different word.3. What ’s the difference between an open and a closed syllableThe units, which are often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word, are called syllables. Syllables can be divided into two sorts: the open syllables and the closed syllables. Syllables like me, by or no that have an onset and a nucleus, but no coda are called open syllables; while the coda is present in the syllables like up, cup or hat, which is called closed syllables.4. For each group of sounds listed below, state the phonetic feature or features which they share /p/ /b/ /m/ feature: bilabial,stop,consonant/g/ /p/ /t/ /d/ /k/ /b/ feature: stop, consonant/?/ /u:/ /?/ feature: back, rounded, vowel5. Name the single feature that distinguishes the following pairs of sounds./ δ / : /?,/ voicing ( voiceless vs. v oiced )/p /: /f / place of articulation ( bilabial vs.labio-dental )/? /: /e / the height of the tone rising. ( high vs. mid ) /b /: /m / manner of articulation. (stop vs. nasal) /s /: /? / place of articulation (alveolar vs. palatal) /s /: /δ / place of articulation (alveolar vs. dental)6. The following sets of minimal pairs show that English /p/ and /b/ contrast in initial, medial and final positions.Initial Medial finalpit/bit rapid/rabid cap/cabFind similar seets of minimal pairs for each pair of consonants given:Initial Medial final/k/-/g/ Kook/gook raking/raging lak/leg/m/-/n/ Moon/noon dime/dine beam/bean/b/-/v/ Berry/very dribble/drivel dub/dove /b/-/m/ Be/me ribbed/rimmed rib/rim/p/-/f/ Pat/fat depend/defend rap/raff7. The english data below provide examples of stress placement on certain verbs.Consonants are sounds produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. Bilabials / p, b, m, w/ Labiodentals / f, v/Dentals /?, δ / in terns of place of articulation Alveolars / t, d, n, s, z, r, l / Palatals / ?, ? / Velars /k, g, ? /glottal /h /Stops / p, b, t, d, k, g / Fricatives /f, v, ?, δ, s, z, ?, ?, h / Affricates / ?, ? /In terms of manners of articulation Liquids /l, r /Nasals /m, n, ? /Aap’pear col’lide e’rase ca’rouse cor’rode Ba’daptcol’lapsee’lectob’servetor’mentCas’tonishcon’sideri’maginede’termine‘promise1)Describe in words the stress placement on these verbs. Make sure you refer to syllable structure in your statement.2)Provide syllable representations of the words col’lide, e’lect, and con’sider in order to illustrate your conclusion about stress placement in these forms.1)Stress in languages may be predictable by rules: lexical category, morphological structure and number of syllablesall seem to be relevant factors for the placement of stress in English words.For two-syllable verbs, the final(ultimate) syllable will receive main stress if tie has a long vowel or ends in at least two consonants. In this case, the first(penultimate) syllable may have secondary stress, contain an unstressed full vowel, or contain a reduced vowel. For example, a’dapt, e’lect.If the ultimate syllable does not have a long vowel or end in two or more consonants, the penultimate syllable is stressed, as in’promise. Otherwise, the main stress will be put on the second syllable. For example, ca’rouse, ob’serve, astonish, de’termine.If there is a double-letter in the word, the main stress should be put between them, or in other words, on the second one of the two. Such as ap’pear, cor’rode, col’lide, col’lase2)They are two-syllable words; therefore the final (ultimate ) syllable will receive main stress,, as col’lide,e’lect and con’side.。
语言学教程课后习题与答案第一章
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1. Define the following terms:design feature: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals.function: the role language plays in communication . to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations . religious, legal).synchronic: said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical ‘point’ in time.diachronic: said of the study of development of language and languages over time. prescriptive: to make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.descriptive: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.arbitrariness: the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.duality: the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units . words) and meaningless segments . sounds, letters).displacement: the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from thespeaker’s immediate situation.phatic communion: said of talk used to establish atmosphere or maintain social contact.metalanguage: a language used for talking about language.macrolinguistics: a broad conception of linguistic enquiry, including psychological, cultural, etc.competence: unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language.performance: the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.langue: the langu age system shared by a “speech community”.parole: the concrete utterances of a speaker.2. Consult at least four introductory linguistics textbooks (not dictionaries), and copy the definitions of “language” that each gives. After carefully comparing the definitions, write a paper discussing which points recur and explaining the significance of the similarities and differences among the definitions.ANSWER:All the definitions should not exclude the description of design features that have been mentioned in this course book. Also it will be better if other design features, say, interchangeability or cultural transmission is included. But it seems impossible to give an unimpeachable definition on language, because the facetspeople want to emphasize are seldom unanimous. To compare several definitions can make you realize where the argument is.3. Can you think of some words in English which are onomatopoeic？ANSWERS:creak: the sound made by a badly oiled door when it opens.cuckoo: the call of cuckoo.bang: a sudden loud noise.roar: a deep loud continuing sound.buzz: a noise of buzzing.hiss: a hissing sound.neigh: the long and loud cry that a horse makes.mew: the noise that a gull makes.bleat: the sound made by a sheep, goat or calf.4. Do you think that onomatopoeia indicates a non-arbitrary relationship between form and meaning？ANSWER:4. No matter you say "Yes" or "No", you cannot deny that onomatopoeia needs arbitrariness. Before we feel a word is onomatopoeic we should first know which sound the word imitates. Just as what is said in Chapter One, in order to imitate the noise of flying mosquitoes, there are many choices like "murmurous" and "murderous". They both bear more or less resemblance to the genuine natural sound, but "murmurous" is fortunately chosen to mean the noise while "murderous" is chosen to mean something quite different. They are arbitrary as signifiers.5. A story by Robert Louis Stevenson contains the sentence “As the night fell, the wind rose.” Could this be expressed as “As the wind rose, the night fell” If not, why Does this indicate a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order (Bolinger, 1981: 15)5. Yes. It is a case in point to illustrate non-arbitrariness about word order. When the two parts interchange, the focus and the meaning of the sentence is forced to change, because clauses occurring in linear sequence without time indicators will be taken as matching the actual sequence of happening. The writer’s original intention is distorted, and we can feel it effortlessly by reading. That is why systemic-functionalists and American functionalists think language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.6. Does the traffic light system have duality Can you explain by drawing a simple graph？6. Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously, it is not a double-level system. There is only one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals’ calls.ANSWER:Red→stopGreen→goYellow→get ready to go or stop7. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the creativity of language. Can you write a recursive sentence following the example in section1.3.3.ANSWER:Today I encountered an old friend who was my classmate when I was in elementary school where there was an apple orchard in which we slid to select ripe apples that…8. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language？ANSWER:On a whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means "OK/YES" for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying "NO". Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.9. Do you agree with the view that no language is especially simple？ANSWER:Yes. All human languages are complicated systems of communication. It is decided by their shared design features.10. W hat do you think of Bertrand Russell’s observation of the dog language: “No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest” Are you familiar with any type of ways animals communicate among themselves and with human beings？ANSWER:When gazelles sense potential danger, for example, they flee and thereby signal toother gazelles in the vicinity that danger is lurking. A dog signals its wish to be let inside the house by barking and signals the possibility that it might bite momentarily by displaying its fangs.you mention some typical expressions of phatic communion in Chinese There is the dialog between Ms. P and Ms. Q. in section When someone sneezes violently, do you say anything of the nature of phatic communion Have you noticed your parents or grandparents say something special on such an occasion？Some of the typical phatic expressions in Chinese are: 吃了吗家里都好吧这是去哪里啊最近都挺好的？ANSWER:If someone is sneezing violently, maybe you parents and grandparents may say: “Are you ok”, “Do you need to see a doctor”, “Do you need some water”, “Do you need a handkerchief”, “Do you have a cold” or something like these to show their concerns.12．There are many expressions in language which are metalingual or self-reflexives, namely, talking about talk and think about thinking, for instance, to be honest, to make a long story short, come to think of it, on second thought, can you collect a few more to make a list of these expressions When do we use them most often？ANSWER:To tell the truth, frankly speaking, as a matter of fact, to be precise, in other words, that is to saySuch expressions are used most frequently when we want to expatiate the meaning of former clauses in anther way in argumentation.13. Comment on the following prescriptive rules. Do you think they are acceptable？(A) It is I.(B) It is me.You should say A instead of B because “be” should be followed by the nominative case, not the accusative according to the rules in Latin.(A) Who did you speak to(B) Whom did you speak toYou should say B instead of A.(A) I haven't done anything.(B) I haven't done nothing.B is wrong because two negatives make a positive.ANSWER:(1) the Latin rule is not universal. In English, me is informal and I is felt to be very formal.(2) Whom is used in formal speech and in writing; who is more acceptable in informal speech.(3) Language does not have to follow logic reasoning. Here two negative only makea more emphatic negative. This sentence is not acceptable in Standard English not because it is illogical, but because language changes and rejects this usage now.14. The prescriptivism in grammar rules has now shifted to prescriptions in choice of words. In the “guidelines on anti-sexist language” issu ed by the British sociological association, some guidelines are listed below. Do you think they are descriptive and prescriptive What’s your comment on them？(1) Do not use man to mean humanity in general. Use person, people, human beings, men and women, humanity and humankind.(2) colored: This term is regarded as outdated in the UK and should be avoided asit is generally viewed as offensive to many black people.(3) civilized: This term can still carry racist overtones which derive from a colonialist perception of the world. It is often associated with social Darwinist thought and is full of implicit value judgments and ignorance of the history of the non-industrialized world.ANSWER:They are undoubtedly descriptive. Guidelines are not rules that can determine whether a sentence is right or not. The guidelines advise you to avoid the use of particular words that are grammatically correct but offensive to some certain groups. Actually, they describe the way anti-sexist advocators speak and write.15. Why is the distinction between competence and performance an important one in linguistics Do you think the line can be neatly drawn between them How do you like the concept “communicative competence”？ANSWER:This is proposed by Chomsky in his formalist linguistic theories. It is sometimes hard to draw a strict line. Some researchers in applied linguistics think communicative competence may be a more revealing concept in language teaching than the purely theoretical pair—competence and performance.16. Which branch of linguistics do you think will develop rapidly in China and why？It is up to you to decide after you have gone through the whole book. At this stage, we suggest all branches of linguistics have the potential to flourish.17. The following are some well-known ambiguous sentences in syntactic studies of language. Can you disambiguate them？The chicken is too hot to eat.Flying planes can be dangerous.ANSWER:The chicken is too hot to eat.The chicken meat is too hot, so it cannot be eaten at the moment.The chicken feels so hot (maybe after some intense aerobic exercises) that it cannot start eating and needs to calm down first.Flying planes can be dangerous.The ambiguity comes from "flying planes". It can be deciphered as "the planes that is flying" or "to fly planes".18. There are many reasons for the discrepancy between competence and performance in normal language users. Can you think of some of them？ANSWEREthnic background, socioeconomic status, region of the country, and physical state (such as intoxication, fatigue, distraction, illness) vary from individual to individual.19. What do these two quotes reveal about the different emphasis or perspectives of language studies？(1) A human language is a system of remarkable complexity. To come to know a human language would be an extraordinary intellectual achievement for a creature not specifically designed to accomplish this task. A normal child acquires this knowledge on relatively slight exposure and without specific training. He can then quite effortlessly make use of an intricate structure of specific rules and guiding principles to convey his thoughts and feelings to others, ... Thus language is a mirror of mind in a deep and significant sense. It is a product of human intelligence, created anew in each individual by operations that lie far beyond the reach of willor consciousness.(Noam Chomsky: Reflections on Language. 1975: 4)(2) It is fairly obvious that language is used to serve a variety of different needs, but until we examine its grammar there is no clear reason for classifying its uses in any particular way. However, when we examine the meaning potential of language itself, we find that the vast numbers of options embodied in it combine into a very few relatively independent “networks”; and these networks of options correspond to certain basic functions of language. This enables us to give an account of the different functions of language that is relevant to the general understanding of linguistic structure rather than to any particular psychological or sociological investigation.(M. A. K. Halliday, 1970: 142)ANSWER:The first quote shows children’s inborn ability of acquiring the knowledge of intricate structure of specific rules. It implies that the language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is the valuable object of study for linguists. The second attaches great importance to the functions of language. It regards the use of language as the choice of needed function. The meaning of language can be completely included by a few “networks” which is directly related to basic functions of language. It indicates the necessity to study the functions of language.20. You may be familiar with the following proverbs. How do you perceive them according to the arbitrariness and conventionality of language？The proof of the pudding is in the eating.Let sleeping dogs lie.You can’t make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear.Rome was not built in a day.When in Rome, do as the Romans do.All roads lead to Rome.ANSWER:20. Arbitrariness and conventionality derive from the choice of the subject matter. For example, in the “The proof of the pudding is in the eating.” The word “pudding” is selected arbitrarily, for we can use another word such as c heese instead of pudding without changing the associative meaning of the proverb. On the other hand, once such links between particular words and associative meaning are fixed, it becomes a matter of conventionality.21. Give examples of situations in which a usage generally considered non-standard . ain’t) would be acceptable, even appropriate.ANSWER21. In the talks between intimate friends, one may say “gimme that!” instead of “give me that!” and “wachya doin’” instead of “what are you doing” and thi s list may go on.22. The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge the diachronic and diachronic orientation just from the titles？English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage.Pejorative Sense Development in English.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.ANSWER22. Synchronic:Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage. The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation. Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular. Diachronic:English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue. Pejorative Sense Development in English。
《语言学教程》Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.Teaching difficulties: design features of language; some important distinctions in linguisticsTeaching procedures1. Language1.1 Why study language?A tool for communicationAn integral part of our life and humanity人类生活和人性中不可或缺的一部分.If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.如果不能完全理解语言的本质和结构,我们就会对人类的本质一无所知.1.2 What is language? 什么是语言1.2.1 different senses of language 语言的不同意义1. What a person says (concrete act of speech)a person’s consistent way of speaking or writinga particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial languagean abstract system2. A Webster’s New Dictionary offers a frequently used sense of the word “language”:a. human speech 人类的言语b. the ability to communicate by this means 通过言语来交流的能力c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; 用来表达或交流思想和感觉的一套声音及这些声音互相结合的系统d. the written representation of such a system 系统的文字表达3. the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication.最简洁的定义:语言是言语交流的一种方式.Language is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language distinguishes us from animals.因为说和写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为,所以语言是实用性的;因为语言是社会符号,语言的交流只能在所有参与者广泛理解了人类的那些非言语的暗示,动机,社会文化角色等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进行,因此语言又是社会的,约定俗成的.语言使人类区别于动物.1.2.2 definitions1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design features of language 语言的结构特征Design features------ refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, and displacement.1.3.1 What is arbitrariness? 任意性a. arbitrariness---- arbitrariness(任意性): one design feature of human language, which refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. (人类语言的本质特征之一,指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系.)It was discussed by Saussure first. The link between them is a matter of convention.E.g. “house” uchi (Japanese)Mansion (French)房子(Chinese)(1) arbitrary between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning语言的音和义之间的任意性a. By “arbitrary”, we mean there is n o logical connection between meanings and sounds. 语言的意义和语音之间没有逻辑关系。
《语言学教程》第 1 章 进入语言学
1.3.1 任意性（Arbitrariness）
In Course in General Linguistics, Saussure holds that language is a system of signs that express ideas. Linguistic signs unite not a thing and a name, but a concept and a sound-image. The sound-image is not the material sound, or a purely physical thing, but the psychological imprint of the sound, the impression that it makes on our senses. Both the terms involved in the linguistic signs are psychological and united in the brain by an associative bond. This point must be emphasized.
The linguistic sign is a two-sided psychological entity that can be represented by the drawing:
[接上页] The two elements are intimately united and each recalls the other. Saussure calls the combination of a concept and a sound-image a linguistic sign, but in current usage the term “linguistic sign” usually designates a soundimage. In this case, Saussure proposes to retain the word sign to designate the whole and replace soundimage and concept respectively by the signifier and the signified. 用the signifier 和 the signified这两个术语的好处 在于：既可以表示它们彼此之间的对立，还可以 表明它们和它们所从属的整体之间的对立。
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1)Four principles of linguistic studies(P1)
• Exhaustiveness/adequacy （穷尽性）：use adequate samples in the study.
• b. Linguistics examines all the forms of language in general and seeks a scientific understanding of the ways in which it is organized to fulfill the needs it serves and the functions it performs in human life.
语言学学习应注意的方面：
1) 术语问题 2）语言学理论问题 3学习习惯问题
Chapter 1 Introduction
• I Linguistics
• 1. Definition of linguistics • 2. Linguistics and traditional grammar • 3. Use of studying linguistics • 4. Scope of linguistics
• The linguists should gather all the materials relevant to his investigation and give them an adequate explanation.
• If he leaves many facts undiscussed or unexplained, his study will not be regarded as exhaustive and his conclusions will not be accepted as scientific.
• Consistency （一致性）：keep the rules consistent in the study of a language. There should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement.
• Economy （简洁性、经济性）：rule out the redundancy, make key part stand out in language description or language analysis. Other things being equal, a short statement or analysis is preferred to a longer or more complex one.
• Ⅲ Some major concepts in linguistics
•
1. Definition of Linguistics
• Linguistics is the scientific or systematic study of language (p.1).
• 语言学常被定义为一门关于语言的科学或对语言的科学研究。
• Objectivity（客观性）：describe a language as it is.
• A linguist should be as objective as possible in his description and analysis of data and cannot allow prejudice to influence his generalizations.
• II Language
• 1. Why Study Language? • 2. Definitions of language • 3. Origin of language • 4. Design Features of Language • 5. Functions of language
• 2. The difference between linguistics and traditional grammar (P2-3)
• Traditional grammar, as a pre-20th century language description and pre-linguistic product of research, was based upon earlier grammars of Latin or Greek (e.g. English had six cases because Latin had six cases) , and laid emphasis on correctness, literary excellence, the use of Latin models, and the priority of written language.
• 2) Two purposes (p.2)
• a. Linguistics studies the nature of language in order to establish a theory of language and describes languages in the light of the theory established.
A Course on Linguistics for Students of English Linguistics: A New Coursebook
《新编语言学教程》
The Goals for this Course
• To get a scientific view on language; • To understand some basic theories on linguistics; • To understand the applications of the linguistic theories, especially in the fields of language teaching & learning (SLA or TEFL), cross-cultural communication……; • To prepare for the future research work.