Lecture 2 Varieties of language
英语文体学-Chapter-3-Varieties-of-LanguagePPT课件
the personal relationships between speaker/writer and hearer/reader
What the user is trying to do with language for/to his/her addressee(s)
Personal tenor—degrees of formality Functional tenor—intention of the user in
using the language
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3.3 Registers
3.3.4 The notion of register
Interrelation among field, mode and tenors of discourse
regional, social and standard aspects
Diatypic varieties — registers
Associated with different language use Depending on different types of occasions Three dimensions: field, mode, and tenor of
discourse
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3.2 Dialects
3.2.1 Individual dialect — Idiolect
One’s own features of speech/writing habits Voice quality Pitch & stress patterns Lexical items Grammatical structures ---- xx’s language/style
LSAT.Lecture-02
Second kind of goodness an argument can have is the truth of its premises If a deductive argument (i) is valid, and (ii) has all true premises, then it is sound. If an inductive argument (i) is strong, and (ii) has all true premises, then it is cogent.
Difference between deductive and inductive arguments is not a matter of how good the arguments are. There are good and bad inductive arguments, and good and bad deductive arguments.
Will always be exactly 1 conclusion Can be any number of premises
Varieties of arguments
Two kinds of argument 1. Deductive - Premises are taken to provide complete, watertight support for the conclusion (may or may not be successful) 2. Inductive - Premises are taken to provide probable support for the conclusion, but not watertight support (may or may not be successful)
lecture2
2. Language2.1 Definition of language (Page 8)What is language? You may not have thought about this question before, but it is really very important for those who are learning and teaching a language, because your answer to this question will inform your belief about language teaching and learning.It is really just as difficult to define language as it is to define man.人：是一切社会关系的总和；是唯一能把动物养成宠物和煮成食物的动物；--Language is a set of sound and sentence patterns that express meaning.--Language is what people use to talk about the things that occur in their everyday lives.--Language is a set of rules through which humans can create and understand utterances that they have never articulated or encountered.--Language is a means of cultural transmission.--Language is a means of interaction between and among people.--Language is the means of doing something.--Language is a vehicle for communicating meaning and messages.--Language is a medium through which one can learn other things."Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication"Wardhaugh in his "Introduction to Linguistics" (1972).IblkLanguage is abstractSpeech writingPrimary secondary1) 100,000Some communities1) labour/work2) god2.2 Design Features of Language1) Arbitrariness---There is no logical (intrinsic or direct) connection between sounds and meanings, or the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.Example see textbook P10冬瓜(white gourd) （夏天吃的）However, language is not entirely arbitrary; there are cases where there seems to be some association between sounds and meaning, e.g.Onomatopoetic words: P10Some compound words:tractor driver shoe-maker motivationThe other side of the coin of arbitrariness is conventionality. The link between linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.A pair of trousers----一条裤子A pair of shirts---两件衬衣Go shopping *go buying go hunting诗歌米饭食堂餐厅*餐堂*食厅英国的语言---- 英文英语中国的语言----中文（*中语）汉语昨晚昨天*昨月*昨年去年*去天*去晚*去月明天明年*明月今天今年*今月二百五----傻里傻气的人2) Duality---- the property of language with two levels of structure, one of sounds (lower level) and the other of meaning (higher level).At the lower level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless and which can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words.At the higher level, the units of meaning can be grouped and regrouped into an infinite number of sentences.Phoneme—morpheme—words—phrase—clause—sentenceP I t pit bit er ing bat3) Productivity/creativity--The users of a language can utilize a limited linguistic rules to produce or understand infinite meaningful linguistic forms, including those they have never heard before.The man that the girl that my wife taught married published many poems.(和我妻子教的那个女孩结婚的那个男人发表了许多诗)他一边脱衣服，一边穿裤子。
英语听力入门第二册第二单元
英语听力入门第二册第二单元Unit 2Part 1AKey wordsLanguageDialoguesDialects：A regional variety of a language distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary, especially a variety of speech differing from the standard literary language or speech pattern of the culture in which it exists:地方话, 语音、语法或词汇均有区别的地区性语言变体，特别是存在于标准文学语言或文化口语模式的口语变体：Cockney is a dialect of English.伦敦方言是英语中的地区性语言A variety of language that with other varieties constitutes a single language of which no single variety is standard: 方言所有这些变体会在一起组成一种单一的语言，而其中任一变体均不是标准的：the dialects of Ancient Greek.古希腊方言The language peculiar to an occupational group or a particular social class; jargon:某一职业（或集团）人员的用语一个专业集团或特定的社会阶级特有的语言；行话：the dialect of science.科学术语The manner or style of expressing oneself in language or thearts.语调用语言或艺术表达自己的方式或风格A language considered as part of a larger family of languages or a linguistic branch:语支作为较大语系一部分的语言或者是一种语言分支：Spanish and French are Romance dialects.西班牙语和法语是拉丁语中的一支Official languageV ocabularydisc: diskSomalia索马里A country of extreme eastern Africa on the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean. Arab and Persiantraders first established outposts in the region between the seventh and tenth centuries. The present state was formed in 1960from colonies previously held by Italy and Great Britain. Mogadishu is the capital and the largest city. Population, 3,645,000.索马里非洲最东部的一个国家，临亚丁湾和印度洋。
新编英语教程2第三版第6单元课件
Learners will gain practical tips for integrating into the local community and making the most of their study experience in the UK.
语法点解析
在这一部分，我们将深入探讨文本中的语法点。我们将学习如何识别不同的句子类型、时态、语态和语气，以及如何理解这些语法点在文本中的作用。此外，我们还将学习如何纠正常见的语法错误，提高我们的语言准确性。
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Language skills training
Reading for main ideas: Teaching students to quickly understand the main idea of a passage, by skimming through the text and identifying key sentences or paragraphs.
Following a conversation: Instructing students to follow a conversation and understand the relationships between speakers and their contributions to the discussion.
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Teach students to set learning goals, manage their learning time and resources, and evaluate their own learning progress.
Lecture 2 EnglishVarieties(2)
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2.2.2 Regional Dialect
• Language varies from region to region. Owing to the physical boundaries of oceans and mountains, people who live in different places tend to develop different speech patterns. As far as the English language is concerned, there are British English, American English, Australian English, South African English, etc.
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2.1. Classification of Language Varieties
• 1. DIALECTICAL VARIETIES, or DIALECTs, are language varieties that are associated with different users of the language. A dialect is a variety habitually adopted by people in a certain region (regional dialect) or by people of a certain social group(social dialect) or of a certain historical period (temporal dialect) .
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• Due to the differences in users, this group can be further classified as: • --- temporal varieties • --- regional varieties • --- social varieties • --- standard varieties
英语语言学lecture two
Take language as a tool for access to some other fields rather than study it as a subject Language distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.What is language?It is very difficult to give a satisfactory definition. We may say “Language is a tool for human communication”. But that does not say anything about its defining properties, only about its function. There are many other systems (secret codes, traffic signals) performing the same function.We may say “Language is a set of rules.”; again that says nothing about its function, and there are other systems containing sets of rules.A tentative definition is given like the following: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language must be a system, since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules. And they can not be combined at will.Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the word pen and the thing we use to write with. That fact that different languages have different words for it speaks for the arbitrary nature of language.We say language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all language, no matter how well developed are their writing systems. All evidence shows that writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that children acquire spoken language first before they can read or write also indicates that language is primarily vocal.The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess (such as bird songs and animal cries.)Step1. Design features of languageWhat makes our language advantageous over animal “languages”/ distinctive from languages used by other species/ complicated and flexible?1.Arbitrarinessbear no natural relationship to their meaning and objects. We can not explain why a book is called a /buk/ in English but a 书in Chinese.@What is the link between a linguistic sign and its meaning? It is a matter of convention.@There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. However, language is not entirely arbitrary How about onomatopoeia, words that sound like the sounds they describe.; there are cases where there seems to be some association between sounds and meaning.The onomatopoeic words are certain words in every language which imitate natural sounds, such as bang, crash in English or putong, dingdang in Chinese. But in different languages, totally different words are used to describe the sound. For example, the dog barks wow wow in English but wangwang in Chinese.Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary; there is a certain connection between their sounds and meaning. For example, the machine we type our papers on is called “typewriter”.@There are different levels of arbitrariness. That is to say, syntax is less arbitrary than words. As we know, the order of elements in a sentence follows certain rules, and there is a certain degree of correspondence between the sequence of clauses and the real happenings.(a)He came in and sat down.(b)He sat down and came in.(c)He sat down after he came in.Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning“It is only when you know the meaning that you infer that the form is appropriate.” (Widdowson, 1996).@The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and this makes it possible for language to have unlimited sources of expression.2.Duality@“By duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the tow levels has its own principles of organization.”(Lyons, 1982)The property of duality then only exists in such a system, namely, with both elements and units. Many animals communicate with special calls, which have corresponding meanings. That is, the primary units have meanings but cannot be further divided into elements.@Language is hierarchical. The lowest level consists of dozens of bits of meaningless sounds. The sounds occur in chumps to form syllable which is the smallest unit. (etc. monosyllabic like cat, dog and polysyllabic like transplant,) Scores of syllables becomes the carriers of hundreds of meaningful segments of words that are called morphemes, such as the prefix trans-. Morphemes compose thousands of word. Out of the huge number of words, there can be endless number of sentences, which in turn can form unlimited number of texts and discourses.Stratification----this organization of levels on levels----is the physical manifestation of the “infinite use of finite means”, the trait that most distinguishes human communication from animal.3.Creativity@Language is a far more complicated entity than traffic lights is that we can use it to create new meanings. Words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be understood by people who have never come across that word before.@Birds can only convey a limited range of messages. As Bertrand Russell once observed: “No matter how eloquently a dog may mark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest.”@Because of duality the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences. (dictionary)4.Displacement (the movement from initial position to subsequent position)移位@Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.Language can be used to refer to things which are not present: real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future or in faraway places. In other words, language can refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.@Some animals are under “immediate stimulus control”. Calls or cries are produced in contact of food, in presence of danger or in pain. Once the danger or pain is over, calls are stopped. Human language is stimulus free.@The intellectual benefits of displacement to us is that it makes it possible for us to talk and think in abstract terms.Step2. Origin of languageSo far there are only fruitless search for the origin of languages. The action reflects people‟s concern with the origin of humanity and may come up with enlightening findings in future. And one thing we can say for certain is that language evolves within specific historical, social and cultural contexts.Step3. Functions of languageA brief explanation to Jakobson’s classification of functions of languge P 91 Informative function (ideational function/ referential function)Language serves an informative function when it is used to tell what the speaker believes, to give information about facts, or to reason things out. Language serves for the expression of content. This function is characterized by the use of declarative sentencesFor most people the informative function is predominantly the major role of language. Language is the instrument of thought and people often feel need to speak their thoughts. The use of language to record the facts is a prerequisite of social development.2. Interpersonal function 人际功能By far the most important sociological use of language is the interpersonal function, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society. For example, the ways in which people address others and refer to themselves ( e.g. Dear Sir, Dear Professor, yours, your obedient servant) indicate the various grades of interpersonal relations.Language marks people‟s identity. For example, the chanting of a crowd at a football match, the shouting of names or slogans at public meetings, the stage-managed audience reactions to TV games shows all signal who we are and where we belong.Performative function 言语行为功能The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized. Language is also used to “do things”., to perform actions. This is called the performative function. On certain occasions, the uttering of the appropriate words is the central component in the performance of the act. At a meeting, for example, as soon as the chairman says “I declare the meeting open”, the meeting has started”. If the president says “I declare war…”, war exists between the two countries. In all these cases, the act cannot be performed without the sentences being uttered. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.Emotive function (expressive function)@According to some investigations, though the conveying of information occurs in most uses of language, it probably represents not more than 20 percent of what takes place in verbal communication. The emotive function of language is one of the most powerful uses of langue.It is a means of getting rid of our nervous energy when we are under stress.@A man may say ouch! After striking a fingernail with a hammer, or he may mutter damn when realizing that he has forgotten an appointment. Exclamations such as Man! Oh, boy! And hurrah! are usually uttered without any purpose of communicating to others, but as essentially a verbalresponse to a person‟s own feelings.@ The emotive function is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings and attitudes of the speaker. While in the informative function language is used to pass judgement on the truth or falsehood of statement, in emotive function, language is used to evaluate, appraise and assert the speaker‟s attitudes.Phatic communionWe all use such small, seemingly meaningless expressions to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without involving any factual content. Ritual exchanges about health or weather such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day often state the obvious.And different cultures have different topics of phatic communion.Broadly speaking, it is function refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations, such as slangs, jokes, jargons etc. 我靠Recreational function (close to Jakobson’s poetic function)The use of language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby‟s babblingThe sheer joy of playing on languageFill in the ancient given rhythm and rhyme scheme in poetry with the current content对联couplet上：指数函数，对数函数，三角函数，数数含辛茹苦；下：平行直线，交叉直线，异面直线，线线意切情深。
高中英语备课参考 Language Lesson 2 Varieties of English
Lesson 2 Varieties of English1.encounter v.& n. 遇到，遭遇，偶遇It grows more abundant with each new encounter.每一次新的相遇它都会变得更丰富。
We encounter plenty of these kinds of affairs.类似这种事情我们遭遇过相当多。
This is the sort of question you might encounter on an IQ test.这是你在智商测验中很可能会遇到的一类问题。
If you work at a office with her,you can not avoid encounter her.如果你们两个人在同一个办公室做事,你几乎免不了要遇见她.Every business encounter starts with the exchange of business cards.每个企业所遇到的启动与交换名片。
If you are unarmed when you encounter a bear, toss your mittens on the snow in the hope of distracting it.如果您遇到北极熊的时候手无寸铁，那就把手套扔在雪地里，希望这能分散北极熊的注意力。
2.pronounce vt. 发音How do you pronounce this word?这个单词怎么发音?How do you pronounce your last name?你的最后名字怎么发音呢？I dont know how to pronounce this word.我不知道这个单词怎么发音。
I now pronounce judgement on the issue.我现在公布对这一问题的意见。
Only an expert should pronounce on the case.只有专家才能对这件事发表意见。
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him.
(3) 在作出某种解释时，用于缓和 语气，避免粗鲁，例如： I was absent, because I was ill la.
(4) 在连续的话语中，有表达不重要的信息被省略 的功能，例如： You can take an umbrella, some clothes or whatever la! (5) 委婉拒绝对方的赞扬，例如： I was lucky la. (6)表示缺乏热情，例如： Chinese New Year ah? Okay, la!
The decreasing of geographical variation in language(gradual): There is a marked increase in communication brought about by mass media and by the development of modern transport. Young people are less likely to speak their local dialect all the time and are more likely to be influenced by the language spoken on radio and TV.
我国旧社会上层分子的雅言： 弄璋（生儿子）、弄瓦（生女儿）、东床 （女婿）、贱内（妻子），斯的克（手 枪）、密斯（小姐）、OK（好）等。
1.3 Genderlect Women’s speech closely approaches the standard variety than the speech of men.
North: You need your hair cutting. South: You need your hair cut. It needs washing. (British) It needs washed. (Scottish)
He's a man who likes his beer. He's a man that likes his beer. He's a man at likes his beer. He's a man as likes his beer. He's a man what likes his beer. He's a man he likes his beer. He's a man likes his beer.
新加坡英语的典型特征之一表现在对 “ la ” 的使用上。“ la ”在使用上至少具有六种 功能： (1) 表达一种“显而易见”的事实，例如： E.g. No need to count la. There are 30 stones la.
(2) 表达一种委婉的建议，例如： You tell him la! I’m so scared of
Investigations have been carried out by linguists to obtain evidence for the correlation between certain phonetic features and social variables. Percentage of speakers (ng): [n] for [] by Trudgill (1974) Middle middle class 3% Lower middle class 42% Upper working class 87% ]Middle working class 95% Lower working class 100% (Social class, formality, gender)
Chapter 2 Varieties of language
Zhang Mingfang pattyzhang6@
Varieties of language
Speakers of the same language do not speak the language in the same manner. On the other hand, the language used by the same individual varies as the circumstances of communication varies. Varieties related to the user are normally known as dialects and varieties related to use as registers.
the States， pastry， portion， ice-cream， toilet，mirror， dessert， relations， wealthy， Royals， perfume， dandruff， ill，settee， glasses, notepaper
Accent is an important marker of sociolect. "Received Pronunciation" (RP) in British English, which had become characteristic of upper class speech throughout the country by the 19th century.
“Received Pronunciation” is an indicator of a public school education and thus a high social status on the part of the speaker. In the past the possession of an RP accent was extremely important because it served as a highstatus marker, and also as a qualification for high-prestige employment no matter what other abilities the work might require.
常常使用宾语前置结构，例如： a) This film I don’t like b) Ten per cent off we give our customers 系动词 “be”经常省略，构成主题加评论句式， 例如： a) That book very boring. b) New York a very modern city.
I. Dialectal varieties
1.1 Regional dialect A regional dialect is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region. It has been found that regional dialect boundaries often coincide with geographical barriers such as mountains, rivers, or swamps.
1.2 Sociolect Social-class dialect, or sociolect, refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class.
Consciously or unconsciously, their social backgrounds influence their choice of linguistic forms, and the linguistic features of the language they use reveal their identities.
When we look at the language used by two speakers A and B, we can estimate roughly their relative social status: Speaker A speaker B I did it yesterday. I done it yesterday. He hasn’t got it. He ain’t got it. It was she that said it It was her what said it.
1.3.1 Intonations The female speakers tend to have a wider range in their intonation; this makes their speech sound somewhat affected. And female speakers are heard to use the low-rise intonation with statements much more frequently than male speakers.
1.3.2 Vocabulary Some adjectives of evaluation are used more frequently by females than by males, such as nice, lovely, cute, fantastic and also some intensifiers, such as awfully, terribly. Women register.